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CT2 Final Exam Notes
CT2 Final Exam Notes
L02 LANDSCAPING
SOFTSCAPE HARDSCAPE
• Soft landscaping refers to living elements of a Hardscape refers to the solid, hard elements in
landscape that changes as they mature and landscape design that stay the same for years
doesn’t have permanent/long term quality.
• The purpose of softscapes is to lend character
to the landscaping that create ambience &
reflect the sensibilities of the inhabitants.
Examples: trees, plants, shrubs, vegetables, flower bed Examples: walkways, retaining walls, driveway, deck,
planter box, paver patios, water features (pond,
cascade, fountain)
Function of plant: Normally this hardscape made up of hard-wearing
• form walls, canopies/floor materials such as stone, concrete, brick, wood,
• climate control bamboo, wrought iron and etc.
• reduces light glare
• help soften surrounding architecture
1. Excavate the area to the required depth, then backfill using compacted hardcore to provide a strong
foundation for concrete slab to be laid on.
2. A layer of mortar is laid to serve as bedding for the pavement slab & it must be ensured to be level
3. The slab is laid on the mortar bedding carefully
4. Use a spirit-level to ensure that the slab is level & the slab is tap down further
5. Use spacers of an even thickness to ensure regular spacing between each slabs.
6. After the slab & mortar harden, the joints between slabs are filled in by mortar using pointing trowel.
1. Advantages of choosing metal frame - Steel frame constructions offer the following advantages compared to
brick, concrete and wooden constructions.
a. Strength & durability
i. Structural steel components are lighter and stronger than weight-bearing wood or concrete
products. A typical weight-bearing steel fabrication is 30% to 50% lighter than a wooden
equivalent. This makes steel frame construction far stronger and more durable than
traditional wood framed alternatives.
b. Speed of erection
i. Steel may be made and delivered in a cost-effective and timely manner. This spares time and
increases the effectiveness of the general development process.
c. Reduce cost
i. Steel is relatively cheap when compared with other structural materials.
d. Easy fabrication in different sizes
i. Steel studs are available in a variety of sizes and can be fabricated order. This means they
can be customised to bear specific loads in buildings of all different types and sizes.
e. Fire resistance
i. Steel frame constructions are highly resistant to fire, reducing the fire risk to a building and
retarding the spread of a fire should one occur. Special flame retardant coatings act to
increase this property of structural steel.
f. Pest & insect resistance
i. Structural steel components are immune to the degrading effects of burrowing insects and
mammals – which can cause a problem for wooden framework unless adequately treated.
g. Moisture & weather resistance
i. Structural steel can have good moisture resistant properties, depending on its carbon
content. Hot zinc coating treatments for enhanced rust resistance will make a structural
steel component even more immune to the effects of water – an important consideration
for components exposed to the weather.
CHAPTER: IBS
1. Definition of IBS
2. IBS is a system where components are conceived, planned, manufactured, fabricated, assembled in a
controlled environment such as factories to form the structure, and they are transported and erected on site
with minimum in-situ construction.
3. Construction industry in Malaysia, compared to other sectors, suffers from low productivity, safety and
quality control due to traditional labour-intensive practices and 3D Syndrome: Dirty, Difficult and Dangerous
4. Advantage/Benefits of IBS
- Less labour related problems: High degree of machine utilization in producing IBS components at factory
reduced the construction process and the number of labour required at site. Especially in skilled trades such
as formwork, masonry, plastering, painting, carpentry, tiling and pipe laying (electrical and water supply).
- Increase site safety: Less construction process especially wet work at site ensures the increase of site safety.
Thus, IBS provides safer construction sites due to the reduction of site workers, materials and construction
waste.
- Cost saving: From the work of IBS components allow for repetitive use which leads to considerable cost
savings and also labour cost saving as IBS more depending on machines in producing components. Also, the
repetitive use of system formwork made up of steel, aluminium, and scaffolding provides considerable cost
savings. The construction cost is also reduced due to lesser waste on-site. This is because everything is under
controlled in factory and this can minimize the chances of producing components that are faulty.
- Flexibility: IBS provides flexibility in the design of precast element as well as construction. In other words, an
Industrialised Building System allows the flexibility in architectural design in order to minimize the monotony
of repetitive facades, so that different systems may produce their own unique prefabrication construction
methods.
- Less construction time: This leads in earlier occupation of the building which reduces interest payment.
shortens the construction period as the components are erected on site instead of constructing them as they
have already been fabricated at the factories, thus allowing the construction time to be shorter compared to
the traditional approach
IBS is a system where building components are conceived, planned, controlled, manufactured and assembled in a
controlled environment such as factory to form a structure, then transported & erected on site with minimum on-
site construction. Benefits of IBS: cost saving, time saving, safety, flexibility, limited on-site labour problems.
Cost saving: through high utilization of machineries, components are manufactured in factories with high accuracy,
thus minimizing the wastage cost in producing components that are faulty. If the traditional construction method is
used, there maybe higher wastage cost as there are many uncertainties, and a lot of things are unpredictable on site.
It also reduces the cost of labor to construct components on site are eliminated, only the cost for labor to erect the
components on-site are required.
Time saving: with most of the building components built and assembled in factories, the construction period can be
shorten compared to the traditional method
Safety: less construction process especially wet work could significantly increase the site safety. IBS provides safe site
construction due to reduced labours, materials and construction waste on site
Flexibility: IBS provides the flexibility in the design of precast elements, which is the architectural design in order to
minimize repetitive facades, so different systems may produce their own unique prefabrication methods
Less labour related problems: high utilisation of machineries reduce labour at site, especially in skilled trades such as
steel fixing, tiling, carpentry, masonry
Construction industry in Malaysia is suffering from 3D: dirty, difficult, dangerous due to labour intensive construction
method, low productivity, safety, and quality control
Characteristics of IBS.
six different characteristics of IBS; which are industrialized in transportation, production and assembly technique,
mass-production, onsite fabrication, standardization and structured planning and process integration.
1. Modular Coordination :Modular co-ordination is a co-ordinated unified system for dimensioning spaces,
components, fitting, etc. so that all elements fit together without cutting or extending even when the
components and fittings are manufactured by different suppliers. The objectives of modular co-ordination
are to create a basis upon which the variety of types and sizes of building components can be minimized.
Through a rationalised method of construction, each component is designed to be interchangeable with
other similar ones and hence, provide a maximum degree of freedom and choice offered to the designer.
Modular Coordination allows for easy adoption of prefabricated components to any layout and for their
interchangeability within the building
2. Standardisation and Tolerances : For accomplishing the requirement of modular co-ordination, all
components need to be standardised for production. Such standardisation of space and elements need
prescribing tolerances at different construction stages such as manufactured tolerances, setting out
tolerances, and erection tolerances, so that the combined tolerance obtained on statistical considerations is
within the permitted limits
3. Mass Production : The investment in equipment, human recourses, and facilities associated with an
industrialisation can be justified economically only when large production volume is observed.
4. Integration : In order to obtain an optimal result, a high degree of coordination must exist between various
relevant parties such as designer, manufacturer, owner, and contractor. This is achieved through an
integrated system in which all these functions are performed under a unified authority.
5. Production Facility The initial capital investment for setting up a permanent factor is relatively experience.
Plant, equipment, skilled worker, management resources need to be acquired before production can be
commenced. Such huge investment can only be breakeven if there is sufficiently demand for the products.
On the other hand, a temporary casting yard or factory can be established at the project site in order to
minimise the transportation costs (Peng, 1986).
6. Transportation It is found that casting of large-panel system can reduce labour cost up to 30 percent.
However, these cost savings are partially offset by the transportation costs. The transportation of large
panels is also subject to the country’s road department requirement. These limitations must be taken into
consideration when adopting a prefabrication system (Peng, 1986).
7. Equipment at Site For the purpose of erecting and assembling precast panels into their position, heavy crane
is required especially for multi-storey building. It is therefore important to incorporate this additional cost
when adopting a prefabrication system (warszawski, 1999)
There are five (5) common types of Industrialised Building System (IBS) which are generally used in construction.
There are Pre-cast Concrete Framing, Panel and Box Systems, Steel Formwork System, Steel Framing System,
Prefabricated Timber Framing System, and Block Work System
Include precast beams, columns, walls, and 3D components such as staircase, toilets, refuse chambers etc. this
system is widely used due to the benefits it brings such as quality control, time saving, cost saving etc.
This system includes using steel columns and beams to form a frame to be connected to floors, foundation, walls,
roof of the building. This system consists of lightweight steel trusses to replace the traditional hot rolled section
which is heavier,
This is the low level prefabricated IBS as it still involves the wet construction method, which is it still require wet
concrete to be poured into the steel formwork. However, it offers benefits such as speed construction and high
quality structure. Besides, it also decrease the use of site labour & materials.
4. blockwork system
Include interlocking concrete masonry units. It can efficiently shorten the construction period as there is no need for
workers to lay the masonry row by row, and mortar is not needed to be laid on every single brick
Most usage is the prefabricated timber roof framing & building frames. It uses wooden products such as timber
beams and columns to build structural and load bearing elements.
Challenges:
- Impact on the supply chain. For instance, from purchasing 10 bags of cement daily, IBS can reduce the
number to about five per day. Of course the supply chain will not be happy.
- Human nature: Another challenge is human nature and change; being comfortable with what we already
know and understand, and rejecting new ideas
- High capital costs : Initial capital costs are usually high. At this stage this includes all costs from the
construction of factories, the casting of beds and the acquisition of support machineries which are usually
very expensive. Besides that, in some IBS there is a tremendous demand for export labour. Therefore, extra
costs are required to train the unskilled or semi-skilled labour.
- Large site area – IBS components require large machineries to assemble them onsite, especially for large
project and high rise buildings. Thus, a large area is needed to locate the machineries. Extensive use of IBS at
cities are not possible. The crowded city cnt provide places for tower cranes, heavy construction
equipments, and storage for IBS components
- Transportation limitations – insufficient transportation channels to transport all the IBS components to the
construction site for them to be assembled
Challenges
High capital cost – IBS requires high initial capital cost which are used to build factories, acquire heavy machineries
which are usually very expensive. It also includes costs to train semi-skilled workers or unskilled workers to use the
machineries.
Impact on supply chain – IBS uses lesser materials to build components compared to traditional method. for
example, from purchasing 10 bags of cement daily, the use of IBS is able to reduce the amount to only 5 bags, thus
decreasing the sales of supply chain
Insufficient site area – IBS components require large machineries to assemble them onsite, especially for large
project and high rise buildings. Thus, a large area is needed to locate the machineries. Extensive use of IBS at cities
are not possible. The crowded city cnt provide places for tower cranes, heavy construction equipments, and storage
for IBS components
Human nature – humans are used to the traditional method and being comfortable with what they already know,
and rejecting new ideas
Transportation limitations – insufficient transportation channels to transport all the IBS components to the
construction site for them to be assembled
Ashlar masonry
Mortar
1. Mortar – to transfer the tensile, compressive & shear force uniformly between adjacent bricks
2. Typical mixes of mortar: (lime = to make the mix more workable as the lime content increases the mortar’s
resistance to damage by frost action)
• Cement mortar (cement: sand)
• Lime mortar (lime: sand)
• Gauged mortar (cement: lime: sand)
3. Characteristics of mortar:
i. The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar should provide good adhesion to
bricks/stones.
ii. Mortar should be water resistant. It should have the capability of resisting the penetration of water.
iii. Deformability of mortar should be low.
iv. Mortar should be cheap.
v. Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition.
vi. The mobility of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved thinly and evenly.
vii. It should possess high durability.
viii. To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
ix. Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by mortar. It is desirable to last for long period of
time without losing the appearance.
Second paper
Federal road
Road pavement
Flexible pavement
Flexible pavement
Types:
Rigid pavement
- Wheel loads transferred thru slab action. Road behaves like an elastic plate resting on viscous medium
- Designed using plate theory – assume road is a medium thick plate that remains plane after load is added
- Road experiences bending due to wheel loads
- Constructed using plain cement concrete
- Types:
o Jointed plain concrete pavement
o Jointed reinforced concrete pavement
o Continuous reinforced concrete pavement
o Prestressed concrete pavemnt
A flexible pavement is constructed in multiple layers in order to ensure its ability to sustain the compressive stress
imposed by wheel load. Thus, materials used for constructing the top layer must have of the top quality, and it has to
be strong enough to resist wear and tear. For lower layers, lower quality materials can be used as they experience
lesser magnitude of stress compared to the upper layers. It is constructed of several layers of bituminous concrete or
asphalt layers that have several thicknesses, laying over a granular material base on a subgrade. The layering system
of flexible pavement normally laid according to the following sequence: 1. Compacted subgrade (150-300mm), 2.
Sub-base course (100-300mm), 3. Base course (100-300mm), 4. Prime coat, 5. Binder coat (50-100mm), 6. Tack coat,
7. Surface course (25-50mm), 8. Seal coat.
• To provide structural support, improve drainage, reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the
pavement structure
4. prime coat
• Applied by spreading bituminous prime coat on absorbent surfaces like granular bases
• To provide a bond between 2 layers & form watertight surfaces
6. tack coat
8. seal coat
2. subbase
3. base course
4. prime coat
- A layer of bituminous prime coat is applied evenly to absorbent surface such as granular surface
- Used to provide bonding to 2 surfaces & provide watertight surfaces
4. binder course
6. tack coat
7. surface course
8. seal coat
- To provide shelter
- To protect occupants, contents and property
- To meet primary physical needs
- Is an enclosed space that is suitable to carry out activities & the intended function of the building
- To provide a safe & comfortable environment for occupants to stay
- Must be well-designed & constructed
- Must be designed in terms of size & shape, and consider environmental factors
- Should be stable & structurally strong so it does not collapse easily
- Provide a structurally sound, environmentally controlled spaces to house
2. Elements of a building:
i. Foundation
- Lowest part of a building
- To support & anchor superstructure & transmits its load to earth
- The base on which a building rest
- To safely transfer building loads to a suitable subsoil
ii. Walls and columns
- To support superstructure & transfer load vertically to foundation
- Encloses and separate building area into compartments
- protects interior spaces & provide privacy
- Provide safety from burglary and insects.
- Keeps the building warm/cool during winter/summer.
iii. Door and Window
- Door – Gives access to different rooms in the building and deny access whenever needed.
Number of doors should be minimum possible. Size of door should be able to move the biggest
object considerable through the door.
- Windows – to get light and ventilation in a building. Located 0.75-0.9m from floor level. Should
be 15-20% of wall area.
- provide access to building & different rooms
- plays significant role in ventilation purposes & comfort in building
- Provide security by controlling access to the doorway to prevent unauthorized entry
- Provide thermal insulation, sound insulation, weather insulation
-
iv. Floor
- To transfer loads horizontally across space to either beams/columns/load bearing walls
- Base surface of a room to allow occupants to stand/walk/carry out activities
- Give working area for occupants.
v. Roof
- Primary sheltering elements protecting the interior spaces of the buildings
- Top most portion of building providing top leak proof cover to building. Tiled and (asbestos
cement) A.C sheet give leak proof cover easily. Tiled roof give good thermal protection.
- Flat roofs are able to make way for additional floors if needed unlike sloping roof. Water tanks
can be easily placed on flat roofs.
Elements of building:
Foundation
Roof
Floor
Formwork
- Formwork r erected & assembled to form a temporary mould for the concrete to be poured & set. Can be in
steel formwork/wooden formwork. Must be able to support wet concrete load of 2400kg/m3.
Reinforcement
- After one side of formwork has been assembled, the reinforcement can be fixed. Reinforcement details such
as diameter, length, number of reinforcement bars, spacing of stirrups can be found in the structural
drawings. Reinforcement must have sufficient concrete cover so that the steel will not corrode due to
moisture and provide fire resistance
-
- Used to resist shear & diagonal tension stresses. Shall be in a diameter of min 8mm to resist lateral load
resistance
-
Concrete pouring
- Concrete shld be placed as soon as possible after it’s mixed. A typical concrete mix would be (1:2:4),
(cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate). Poured concrete shall be adequately compacted to expulse air
bubble within the cement mix. Concrete working strength typically take 28 days to achieve.
Curing
- Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from the concrete. Curing by
continuously wetting the exposed surface to control the moisture loss. Spraying water to the surface are the
typical method used.
Removal of formwork
- Formwork cannot be removed immediately and it needs to be removed slowly to prevent it from breaking as
removing the formwork is like a shock the partly hardened concrete. The side shutter can be removed 24 hrs
after the concrete has been poured, the bottom shutter cnt be removed until the concrete strength has
been achieved. Appropriate time to remove bottom shutter can be tested using test such as cube test or
slump test.
Construction of handrail
Handrails are commonly used for ascending/descending stairways is to prevent injurious falls