Industrial Intomology and Mushrooms Cultivation

2020
BEE KEEPING/APICULTURE
Bee keeping/ Apiculture
"Beekeeping", the term is used loosely to describe all the techniques involving bees and the
harvesting and processing of their products. Honeybees belong to the family Apideae and genus Apis.
They are social insects living in colonies. A colony consists of a queen, several thousand workers and
a few hundred drones. There is division of labour and specialization in the performance of various
functions. They build nests (combs) with wax, which is secreted from the wax glands of worker bees.
The bees use their cells to rear thin brood and store food. Honey is stored in the upper part of the
comb; beneath it are rows of pollen storage cells, worker brood cells and drone brood cells in that
order. Some Apis species build single comb in open, while others build multiple combs on dark
cavities. There are many ways to utilize honeybees for their pollination services or to obtain products
from them.
Scope of Bee keeping in Nepal
Bee keeping in Nepal has greater scope and clear importance via direct effects and indirect effects.
The climate of Nepal is also favourable for apiculture. About 20-25 Apis mellifera hives can be put in
the mustard grow field per acre for honey production. This is the opinion of the beekeepers. So, if the
farmer understood about this benefit then the farmers will be more eager to retain hive and they will
increase the cultivation of mustard because it will give more income than any other cross (value of
honey +value of mustard).As a result production of mustard will be increased in our country. It will
save the foreign currency by reducing import of soybean oil. So, beekeeping has a great role in
developing the national economy of Nepal.
The scope and importance can be listed below……
i. Nepal has variation in climate so that bee rearing in all suitable areas of country.
ii. Sufficient area for grazing.
iii. No need of land beekeeping.
iv. Most youth of Nepal were unemployed, so easily available of labour.
v. This is not high technological matter.
vi. An illiterate person can start this enterprise by taking training only for one week
vii. Honey is not perishable good; it remains fresh one year in normal condition, so farmers can
easily store it.
viii. Honey helps to prevent malnutrition. It has medicinal value.
ix. Beekeeping maybe complementary or substitute of reduction of poverty in our country.
x. Variable cost is very low.
xi. It is a profitable enterprise.
xii. It is an environment friendly enterprise
xiii. Source of extra income, which helps to improve the standard of living.
xiv. Employment creation by extending the beekeeping in rural areas.
Problem of bee keeping in Nepal
 Poor deserve healthcare.

 Increase population and high rate of deforestation is causing the loss of flowering plants.
 In Nepal there is lack of legislation regarding bee, bee equipment and honey and it is difficult
to enforce existing legislation.
 Highly use of chemical pesticide.
Class note for Industrial Entomology and Mushroom Production for I.Sc.Ag.2 nd Year
Lecturer: Mr. Anil Rawal Page 2
 High infestation of disease and pest of honey bee.
 Lack of government policy
 Lack of technical manpower.
 Lack of improved technology.
 Lack of sufficient apiary areas.
Bee and pollination
Bee visits plants for its food, nectar and pollen. This floral fidelity of bees is due to their preference
for nectars having sugar contents and pollens with higher nutritive values. Besides getting food for the
bees as a result of their visit pollinate a number of crops.
Effect of bee pollination on crop
 It increases yield in terms of seed yield and fruit yield in many crops
 It improves quality of fruits and seeds
 Bee pollination increases oil content of seeds in sunflower
 Bee pollination is a must in some self incompatible crops for seed set
 Crops benefited by bee pollination
Fruits and nuts: Almond, apple, apricot, peach, strawberry, citrus and litchi
Vegetable and Vegetable seed crops: Cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, coriander, cucumber,
melon, onion, pumpkin, radish and turnip.
Oil seed crops: Sunflower, niger, rape seed, mustard, safflower.
Forage seed crops: Lucerne, clover.
Classification of honey bee
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthopoda
Order: Hymenoptera
Class: Hexapoda/Insecta
Family: Apidae
Genus: Apis
Species: mellifera
Honey bee species found in Nepal
Apis cerana (The Asian hive bee)
 The Asiatic hive bee was originally considered to be one species, Apis cerana, which is
distributed in China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, and other Asian countries. In the last 10
years, this was recognized to have several new species such as Apis nigrocincta, Apis
koschevnikovi and Apis nuluensis.
 The new species are more restricted in their distribution around Malaysia and the Philippians.
 It has been used for beekeeping in many countries such as Nepal, India, China, and Japan.
Some colonies are still in traditional log hives or in improved bee hives with fixed frames.
 This is the domesticated bee in various places in India, Burma and Nepal.
 It is well adapted to the ecological conditions of south and south-east Asia.
 The bee makes parallel comb on tree, hollows of rocks and all kinds of cavities in tree trunks,
rocks or walls.
 The honey yield is usually smaller (2-20 kg per colony per year) due to its smaller colony
size.
 It is less susceptible than Mellifera to nosema disease, less affected by mite and less prone to
the attack of predatory wasps.
 For pollination purpose, Apis cerana is superior to Apis mellifera because of its shorter flight
range and longer foraging hours.
Apis mellifera:( The European bee)
 This is the most widespread and the most widely studied species of honey bee in the world.
This species of honey bee is native to Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Human
introduction of Apis mellifera to other continents started in the 17th century, and now they are
found all around the world, including East Asia, Australia and North and South America.
 mellifera is domesticated species best suited to temperate countries such as Europe and
America and was introduced in Nepal in 1994.
 Apis mellifera usually builds its nest inside an enclosed space as A. cerana.
 The nest consists of a series of parallel combs, and this nesting pattern is followed in the
design of frame hives.
 There are many different races of Apis mellifera; some are tropical while others temperate.
Generally Apis mellifera are regarded as the medium-sized honey bees, against which other
species are judged as "large" or "small".
 Generally, Apis mellifera are red/brown with black bands and orange yellow rings on
abdomen. They have more hairs on thorax and less on abdomen.
 Some subspecies have the ability to tolerate warmer or colder climates.
 mellifera ligustica is the so called "Italian" bees and is perhaps the most common bees kept
for commercial purpose.
 The Italian bees are golden yellow and winters in large population, with a high consumption
of honey during the winter.
 A single colony can produce about 45 to as high as 100 kg of honey per colony per year. They
are gentle and thus are easy to handle.
Apis dorsata:( The giant honey bee)
 Apis dorsata, the Giant honey bee, is a honey bee of southern and southeastern Asia mainly in
forested areas like the Terai of Nepal. These bees are tropical and found in China, India,
Malaysia, and Thailand.
 Apis dorsata bees are large. Their nests consist of single combs suspended from a branch,
cliff face or building.
 These combs can be very big, up to two meters wide and one meter from top to bottom.
 The bees build the largest vertical combs on tall and safe buildings, trees and rarely on rocks.
The size of the nest varies from 2 to 30 cm in height, 2 to 5 cm in thickness and 5 to 150 cm
in length with a shape variation of round to elliptical.
 Honey and pollen is stored at one of the upper most corner of the nest providing below more
area for brood production.
 They are considered very good honey gatherers and crop pollinators.
 They are very furious, vicious and migrate from place to place in search of food and better
shelter in different seasons.
 Apis dorsata workers are around 17–20 mm long (nearly one inch).
The subspecies:
Apis dorsata dorsata; primarily from India and Nepal
Apis dorsata binghami Cockerell; (Indonesian honey bee) from Malaysia and Indonesia
Apis dorsata breviligula Maa; from the Philippines
Apis laboriosa:( The rock bee)
 Apis laboriosa, the Himalayan honey bee, is the world’s largest honey bee; single adults can
measure up to 3.0 cm (1.2 inch) in length.
 Before 1980, Apis laboriosa was considered to be a subspecies of the widespread Apis
dorsata, the giant honey bee, but in 1980 it has been ranked as a separate species.
 It is highly adapted to its highland habitat in behavior.
 They are found in the Himalayas at higher altitudes than other species of honey bee in the
world.
 Apis laboriosa nests are similar to those of Apis dorsata which is distributed only in the upper
mountain areas and geographically isolated from Apis dorsata.
 Apis laboriosa thrives in the Himalayas and provides a vital and efficient link between
people’s livelihoods through honey hunting, essential gene flow services through pollination,
and active participation in the complex of biodiversity.
 It mostly nests at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,000 m (8,200 and 9,800 ft), building very
large nests under overhangs on the south-western faces of vertical cliffs.
 One nest can contain as much as 60 kg (130 lb) of honey.
 The bees forage at altitudes of up to 4,100 m (13,000 ft). Due to its peculiar nesting behavior,
the Himalayan honey bee is also referred to as the Himalayan cliff honey bee
Apis florae:( The little bee)
 This species is widely distributed and are more common in oriental regions including India,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Java, Malaya, Thailand and Indonesia.
 This is native to Oman spreading to south-east through Asia as far to as some of the islands of
Indonesia.
 In recent years this has been introduced by man to Sudan and lately reported in Iraq also.
They build isolated small palm size vertical combs (maximum 50 cm height and 35 cm
length) with up to 30,000 bees in one colony usually low down in bushes, or in the open,
suspended from a branch or rock surface.
 They produce very small amount of honey about 0.5-1 kg and are not economically important
for honey and wax production.
 But they play an important role as pollinators of many cultivated crops, especially with small
sized flowers like umbelliferous, liliaceous and cruciferous crops.
 florea workers are of the yellow type body color, which means, that yellow bands are present
on the abdomen. The thorax and the scutellum are black.
 A colony might contain 20,000 florea workers on the top flat surface of the comb.
 This is also called the "dance floor" because florea workers dance on a flat surface.
 They do not use gravity as a reference as A. mellifera and A. cerana do which live in dark
cavities.
Fig: The same nest, showing the top. The honey storing area wraps around the twig, giving it a lot of
strength.
Morphology and anatomy of Honey Bee
Fig: Morphology of honey bee
Fig: Anatomy of honey bee
Description of life cycle and caste differentiation of honey bee:
1. Casts of Honey bee:

Every honey bee colony comprises of a single queen, a few hundred drones and several thousand
worker castes of honey bees. Queen is a fertile, functional female, worker is a sterile female and the
drone is a male insect.
The Queen
There is only one queen in a colony. It is considerably larger than the members of other castes. Her
wings are much shorter in proportion to her body. Because of her long tapering abdomen, it appears
more wasp-like than other inmates of the colony. The queen is the only individual which lay eggs in a
colony and is the mother of all bees. It lays upto 2000 eggs per day in Apis mellifera. Five to ten days
after emergence, she mates with drones in one or more nuptial flights. When her spermatheca is filled
with sperms, she will start laying eggs and will not mate any more. She lives for 3 years.
The Drone
The drones are the male bees. They are much larger and stouter than either the queen or the workers
although their body is not quite as long as that of the queen. They have no sting; a suitable proboscis
for gathering nectar is also absent. They are, therefore, physically incapable for the ordinary work of
the hive. Their only function is to impregnate the young queen a task which they are unable to
perform until they are about 10 days of age. They also help in maintenance of hive temperature. They
go out of the hive only at the mid-day when the weather is warm. The number of drones in a colony
often is very large amounting to hundreds and sometimes to thousands. The drones are reared and
tolerated during the breeding season. They are driven out of the hive to die of starvation before the
monsoon and the winter. The drones are produced by unfertilized eggs of the queen, or by those
workers which take up the reproductive function due to the absence of a queen in a colony. The
normal life-span of a drone is 57 days. Mating takes place in the open when the queen is in flight. The
drone dies in the act or immediately afterwards. Its abdomen has to burst open to allow the genital
organ to function.
The workers
The workers are the smallest inhabitants of the beehive. They form the bulk of the population. The
number of workers in a colony varies from 1,500 to 50,000. They are imperfect females incapable of
laying eggs. On certain occasions when the colony is in need of a queen, some of the workers start
laying eggs from which only drones are produced. These workers, called laying workers, are killed as
soon as a new queen is introduced or produced in the colony.The life-span of a worker is about 4
weeks during active season and 8 to 10 weeks during less active season.
Thus the lifespan of workers can be divided into two phases as first three weeks for house hold duty
and rest of the life for outdoor duty.
Household duties of worker
Indoor duties
 Build comb with wax secretion from wax glands.

 Feed the young larvae with royal jelly secreted from hypopharyngeal gland.
 Feed older larvae with bee-bread, a mixture of pollen and honey
 Feeding and attending queen.
 Feeding drones.
 Cleaning, ventilating and cooling the hive.
 Guarding the hive.
 Evaporating nectar and storing honey
Outdoor duties
 Collecting nectar, pollen, propolis and water.

 Ripening honey in honey stomach.
2. Life Cycle of Honey Bee
Management of honey bees during different season
Spring management
 Provide more space for honey storage by giving comb foundation sheet or built combs
 Confine queen to brood chamber using queen excluder
 Prevent swarming as explained in swarm management
 Prior to honey flow, provide sugar syrup and build sufficient population
 Divide strong colonies into 2-3 new colonies, if colony muitiplication is needed
 Queen rearing technique may be followed to produce new queens for new colonies
Summer management
o Provide sufficient shade, under trees or artificial structure

o Increase RH and reduce heat by Sprinkling water twice a day on gunny bag or rice straw put
on hive
o Increase ventilation by introducing a splinter between brood and super chamber
o Provide sugar syrup, pollen supplement, substitute and water
Winter management
 Maintain strong and disease free colonies

 Provide new queen to the hives
 Provide winter packing in cooler areas hilly regions
Management during dearth period
 Remove empty combs and store in air tight container.

 Use dummy division board to confine bees to small area
 Unite weak colonies
 Provide sugar syrup, pollen supplement and substitute
Rainy season and monsoon management
 Avoid dampness in apiary site. Provide proper drainage

 In rain when bees are confined to the hive, provide sugar syrup feeding
What is Apiary?
 An apiary (also known as a bee yard) is a location where beehives of honey bees are kept.

 Apiaries come in many sizes and can be rural or urban depending on the honey production
operation.
 Furthermore, an apiary may refer to a hobbyist's hives or those used for commercial or
educational usage.
Site selection for apiary management
 The site should be dry without dampness. High RH will affect bee flight and ripening of
nectar.
 Water: Natural or artificial source of water should be provided.
 Wind breaks: Trees serve as wind belts in cool areas.
 Shade: Hives can be kept under shade of trees. Artificial structures can also be constructed to
provide shade.
 Bee pasturage and forage: Plants that yield pollen and nectar to bees are called bee
pasturage and forage. Such plants should be plenty around the apiary site.
Bee Swarming
Swarming is the process by which a new honey bee colony is formed when the queen bee leaves the
colony with a large group of worker bees. In the prime swarm, about 60% of the worker bees leave
the original hive location with the old queen. Swarming is a honey bee colony's natural means of
reproduction.
Contributing factors to swarming
 Crowding - too many bees, food stores and no cell space for the queen to lay eggs in.
 Poor air circulation
 April-May is swarming season and healthy colonies develop strong swarm impulse.
 Inclement weather - crowded bees confined by cold, wet weather will build queen cells and
swarm out on the first sunny, warm day. All colonies in similar condition will swarm as soon
as weather becomes favourable.
 Large amount of drone brood in early spring is a precursor to strong swarm impulse.
Swarm Prevention
 Colonies with young queens with sufficient brood space and honey supers rarely develop
swarms. Established colonies that have wintered successfully develop a natural impulse to
swarm during the months of April and May. Several steps can be taken to reduce the risk of
swarming:
 Divisions of colony (splits) made for swarm control only, can be reunited just before the main
nectar flow by creating one strong colony.
 When examining the colony, rearrange or cull poor brood combs.
 Combs in the brood chambers must not contain large areas of drone cells. Place these frames
in honey supers and cull them as soon as possible.
 Clipping Queens - Some beekeepers clip one of the wings of old queens to prevent
swarming. This will provide only temporary swarm control because the bees will wait for a
new queen to emerge and then swarm. (CAUTION: Never clip the wings of a virgin queen as
she must still be mated).
 Cutting Queen Cells - Tip the second brood chamber and examine the bottoms of the frames.
Swarm cells are easily detected. A few puffs of smoke along the frame bottom bars will drive
the bees up into the super and will help to reveal queen cells for cutting.
 Provide sufficient foraging area and foraging materials or artificial feed.
 Examine all the frames from the brood nest of the bottom colony for queen cells. Destroy all
except one.
Bee Absconding
Absconding is the process of permanently leave up hive or shelter by honey bee due to some regions.
Or, Absconding is the process a colony of honey bees leaves its home in search of another place due
to some reasons.
Cause of Absconding
 Lack of food: Make sure that your hive has an ample supply of honey. Feed your bees sugar
syrup when their honey stores are dangerously low (less than two frames of capped honey)
and during serious dearth of nectar.
 Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD): This relatively new phenomenon has devastated honey
bee colonies around the world. One day the bees are gone with no evidence as to why. The
causes are not yet known for certain, but the problem is being vigorously studied.
 Loss of queen: This situation eventually results in a hive with no brood. Always look for
evidence of a queen when you inspect your bees. Look for eggs!
 Mites and disease: Colonies that are infested with mites or have succumbed to disease may
give up and leave town. Take steps to prevent such problems, and medicate your bees when
the situation demands.
 Uncomfortable living conditions: Make sure that the hive is situated where it doesn’t get too
hot or too wet. Overheated or overly wet hives make life unbearable for the colony. Provide
ample ventilation and tip the hive forward for good drainage.
 Hive is poorly ventilated.
Prevention of absconding
 Make the Hive Homey.

 Control Interior Temperatures and relative humidity.
 Control bee pest, predators and diseases.
 Block Strong Winds and rainfall.
 Provide Proper Ventilation.
 Control Humidity and Improve Beehive Drainage. ...
 Minimize Disturbance nearby the bee farming areas.
 Secure Bee Flight Paths.
 Provide Enough Food and Water.
Bee Foraging
The worker bee begins to go out of the hive to collect nectar, a sweet liquid from flowering plants
such as fruit trees, for the colony is known as foraging. They cover a radius of about 4 km from the
hive and visit 4410000 flowers to make 1 kg of honey. A single worker bee makes just 0.8 gm of
honey over a lifetime.
Bee Dance
Since honeybees can’t talk, they perform special dances as a means of communication. They use
dance to relay different messages, from the need to swarm, to the direction of and distance to a source
of food.
Field bees use the “waggle dance” in particular. When they find a great source of nectar, they perform
the dance back at the hive to tell other bee where to find the flowers.
Bee Hive
A beehive is an enclosed, man-made structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis
live and raise their young. Though the word beehive is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee
colony.
Types of hive
a. Traditional hive
a. Wooden log hive: When the plant dies, the beekeeper waits for termites to consume
the soft inner pith. The tree is then felled and cut into pieces and the ends are sealed
with woven grass, a few small holes being left at the ends to provide entry and exit
for the bees.
b. Wall box hive: wall box hive is permanently made in the side of house wall by using
locally available materials.
b. Modern hive: Modern hive is made up of with the addition of new technology and have
separated different chamber accordance with their work.
Royal Jelly
Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae, as well as adult queens. It is
secreted from the glands in the hypopharynx of nurse bees, and fed to all larvae in the colony,
regardless of sex or caste. Some of the vitamins typically present in royal jelly
 Thiamine (B1)
 Riboflavin (B2)
 Pantothenic acid (B5)
 Pyridoxine (B6)
 Niacin (B3)
 Folic acid (B9)
 Inositol (B8)
 Biotin (B7)
Honey
Honey is a sweet, sticky yellowish-brown fluid made by worker bee from nectar collected from
flowers.
Composition of honey
Nuptial Flight
Nuptial flight is an important phase in the reproduction bee species. It is also observed in
some fly species. During the flight, virgin queens mate with males and then land to start a new
colony, or, in the case of honey bees, continue the succession of an existing hived colony.
Or,
A flight of sexually mature social insects (bees) in which mating takes place and which is usually a
prelude to the forming of a new colony especially, the mass flight and mating of winged sexual forms
of bee after leaving the parent nest.
Bee By-products
Honey
Honey is the complex substance made when the nectar and sweet deposits from plants and trees are
gathered, modified and stored in the honeycomb by honey bees as a food source for the colony. All
living species of bees have had their honey gathered by indigenous peoples for consumption. For
commercial purposes, only the European honey bee & the Asian honey bee have been harvested
substantially. Honey is sometimes also gathered by humans from the nests of various native stingless
bees though this is typically in much smaller quantities.
Nectar
Nectar, a liquid high in sucrose, is produced in plant glands known as nectaries. Nectar is usually high
in moisture and this moisture is mostly evaporated by honey bees when they produce honey. Nectar
plays an important energy resource for honey bees and plays a significant role in foraging economics
and evolutionary differentiation between different subspecies. Nectar is a high source of carbohydrate
in the bees diet.
Bee wax
Worker bees at a young age will secrete beeswax from a series of glands on their abdomens. They use
this beeswax to form the walls and caps of the honeycomb. However, some beekeepers use plastic as
a foundation or substitute for honeycomb. Just like the honey that bees produce, many people harvest
beeswax for various purposes like candles, lip balms, creams, polish and conditioners just to name a
few.
Pollen
Bees collect pollen in their pollen basket and carry it back to the hive. However only the worker
honey bee is equipped to do this task. The queen bee and the male (drone) bee do not collect pollen.
In the bee hive pollen, is used as an essential source of protein to raise the bee brood. In some cases,
excess pollen can be collected from the hives of A. Mellifera and A. Cerana. It is often eaten as a
health supplement eaten in small amounts or even sprinkled on breakfast cereal for example. It also
has been used with moderate success as a source of pollen for hand pollination however, pollen
collected by bees and harvested for pollination must be used within a few hours because it loses its
potency rapidly, possibly because of the effects of enzymes or other chemicals from the bees; hand-
collected pollen may remain usable for weeks, if stored promptly under suitable conditions.
Bee Bread
Rather than what the name would suggest, bee bread is not made of bees but it is made by the bees.
Bee bread is essentially pollen collected by bees and packed into bee brood cells mixed with bee
digestive fluids and nectar. The bees then seal these cells with honey and stored in the hive for later
consumption. Bees do this because they do not consume pollen it’s raw form.
Propolis
Propolis or bee glue is created from resins, balsams and tree saps. Some species of honey bees that
nest in tree cavities use propolis to seal cracks in the hive. Often when a swarm of honey bees take up
residence in a possum box or tree hollow, bees use propolis to make a small entrance to the hive.
Dwarf honey bees use propolis to defend against ants by coating the branch from which their nest is
suspended to create a sticky moat. Because of its’ high medicinal qualities, propolis is consumed by
humans as a health supplement in various ways and also used in some cosmetics.
Royal Jelly
Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae, as well as adult queens. The
worker nurse bee secretes royal jelly from its’ hypopharynx glands. This is fed to the larvae of
queen, worker and drone bees.
Bee Venom
When a worker bee stings, it injects bee venom. This is used as a defense mechanism of the worker
bee to protect itself or its’ colony. Also known as apitoxin, bee venom is a colourless, clear liquid
containing proteins that can lead to localised inflammation or in extreme
cases, severe allergic reaction. Bee venom has been used as an alternative medicine in apitherapy for
some time for its’ benefits to health and to treat some illnesses.
Disease and Pest of Honey Bee

1. Nosema Disease
c/o: Nosema apis
Symptoms
The symptoms of Nosema are relatively nonspecific, which makes it difficult to distinguish from
other diseases of the honeybee. It arises mostly in the spring after periods of bad weather, although it
may also be a winter disease that is only noticed in the spring when beekeepers first inspect their
hives.
 The female worker bees are most strongly afflicted.
 The queen bee is rarely infected since afflicted bees rarely participate in feeding the queen.
 The most notable symptom is dysentery.
 This appears as yellow stripes on the outside of the hive and in severe cases, inside the hive.
Bees may be unable to fly ("crawling") due to disjointed wings.
 Increased girth of the abdomen, missing sting reflex, and early replacement of the queen.
 If the queen is infected, her ovaries degenerate and egg production drops due to atrophy of the
oocytes, after which she is likely to be superseded.
Control
 Treatment with the antibiotic Fumidil B (prepared from Aspergillus fumigatus, the causative
agent of stonebrood), inhibits the spores reproducing in the ventricles, but does not kill the
spores.
 Disinfection of the honeycombs and utensils is recommended for an extensive disease
outbreak.
 The spores are sensitive to chemicals such as acetic acid and formaldehyde, and physical
radiation: ultrasonic and gamma radiation.
 Heat treatment in 49 °C (120 °F) for 24 hours can be used to kill the spores on contaminated
equipment.
2. European Foulbrood Disease (EFD)
European foulbrood (EFB) is a brood disease caused by the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius.

EFB was first detected in Australia in the late 1970s and since then it has spread and is now found in
all states and territories except for WA and NT.
Symptoms
 Larvae of all ages are susceptible to infection and become infected after ingesting food
contaminated with the bacteria.
 The bacterium then multiples in the mid-gut of the larvae and competes for larval food,
resulting in the larvae dying of starvation.
 EFB is characterised by patchy brood with uncapped brood cells where the dead or dying
larvae appear curled upwards, and are brown or yellow, making the larvae appear to be
‘molten’ in the cell.
 An uneven or patchy brood pattern.
 Dead and discoloured larvae in uncapped cells; in some circumstances larvae may die after
capping.
 Infection with EFB may sometimes have a strong ammonia-like (sometimes described as
sour) smell.
Control
 If EFB is detected, beekeepers should replace diseased comb with new combs (with new
foundation) because the diseased comb can act as a reservoir for EFB.
 As a precautionary measure, replace brood frames regularly (ideally every 3–4 years). Older
brood frames allow diseases such as EFB to build up within the colony to damaging levels.
 Since EFB is a stress related diseases, beekeepers should always try to minimise the stress
placed on the honey bee colony.
 The maintenance of the health of the hive may require supplementing the colony’s diet with
sugar syrup and fresh uncontaminated pollen when nutrition is poor.
 Hives should also be placed in a well-ventilated, dry area where the sun is facing the entrance
of the hive to reduce conditions that favour the disease (cold and wet weather conditions).
 The main way that pests and diseases, especially bacterial diseases such as EFB, are spread
between hives and apiaries is through the transfer of infested materials and disease
contaminated equipment.
 Honey bee stocks can also differ in susceptibility to EFB, so beekeepers should replace the
infected colony’s queen bee with one supplied by a reputable breeder.
 In some cases antibiotics can be used to treat infected hives; however there are strict
regulations relating to the use of antibiotics on honey bees, which must always be followed.
3. American foulbrood Disease (AFD)
American foulbrood (AFB) is a fatal bacterial disease of honey bee brood caused by the spore
forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae.
 It is not a stress related disease and can infect the strongest to the weakest colony in an apiary.
 Infected brood usually die at the pre-pupal or pupal stage.
 Heavy infections can affect most of the brood, severely weakening the colony and eventually
killing it.
 Irregular and patchy brood pattern.
 Cell cappings on infected brood may appear sunken, darker coloured or greasy. This is due to
the decomposing larvae inside.
 Cappings may also be perforated by bees trying to remove the dead brood (the remains of
which are infective).
 The larvae die after capping and become a light to dark brown semi-liquid mass.
 Infected hives may also have a sulphurous smell due to the decomposing brood.
 Closer inspection of individual cells in the advanced stages of infection will show that:
 Infected brood changes from a healthy pearly white to a dark brown.
 The dead larval remains become a tough, but brittle scale that is difficult to remove from the
cell.
 If older larvae are infected the ‘tongue’ of the pupae may become stuck to the top of the cell
wall.
Fig: comb cell infected by American Foulbrood disease
Control
 Beekeepers should check brood combs at least twice a year (spring and autumn) for early
signs of AFB. As a precautionary measure, brood combs should be replaced every 3-4 years
as old brood combs can act as a reservoir of the bacterium.
 AFB spores are very difficult to kill and easily transferable between hives.
 AFB can be accidentally spread on tools or via normal beekeeping practices, so look at
implementing simple measures such as cleaning tools between hives and taking care when
moving material between hives in order to reduce the spread of AFB and other pests.
 If you notice that some hives are infected with AFB, always clean your beekeeping gear
before inspecting a new apiary.
 If AFB is detected in a colony, there are two options in dealing with the hive. The first option
is to kill the colony (including the frames) and irradiate all box parts which will destroy the
AFB spores.
 The main way that pests and diseases, especially bacterial diseases such as AFB, are spread
between hives and apiaries is through the transfer of infected materials and disease
contaminated equipment.
 Although antibiotics such as Oxytetracycline (OTC) can be used to control European
foulbrood, which allows for the disease cycle to be broken and the bees to clean up the
disease, OTC should not be used to control AFB for the following reasons:
 Antibiotic use for AFB infected colonies only masks the disease symptoms; it does not
control the disease.
4. Chalkbrood disease
 Chalkbrood is a disease caused by the fungus Ascosphaera apis.
Symptoms
 Initially, the dead larvae swell to the size of the cell and are covered with the whitish mycelia
of the fungus.
 Subsequently, the dead larvae mummify, harden, shrink and appear chalklike.
 The colour of the dead larvae varies with the stage of growth of the mycelia: first white, then
grey and finally, when the fruiting bodies are formed, black.
 When infestation is heavy, much of the sealed brood dies and dries out within their cells.
 When such combs are shaken the mummified larvae make a rattling sound. In the laboratory
the fungus can be identified by its morphology.
Control
 As with other brood diseases, the bees remove the infested brood with their hygiene
behaviour which is especially effective for white mummies.
 During the white mummy stage the fungus continues to develop at the hive bottom.
 If the mummies are not removed quickly, the spores may enter the brood cells carried there by
circulating air.
 The beekeeper can stimulate the hygiene behaviour of the bees by changing the broodrearing
conditions.
 The beekeeper should ensure that the colony has a strong worker population, and that the hive
is well ventilated and free from accumulated moisture.
 At early stages of chalkbrood infection, adding young adult workers and hatching brood,
combined with sugar-syrup feeding, often proves to be helpful.
 Currently there is no known successful chemical control against chalkbrood. It means that
chemical treatment shows a little effect to control chalkbrood. In most cases, commercialised
substances only show a positive effect because they are sprayed, or fed with sugar water as
described above.
Pests of Honey Bee

1. Wax moths
2. Red ant
3. Hornet bee
4. Mites
5. Monkeys
6. Small hive Beetle
7. Snakes
SILKWORM PRODUCTION/SERICULTURE
General Introduction
The word sericulture has originated from two French words, “Seris” meaning silk and
“Culture” which means rearing. Sericulture is a science which deals with various aspects of
silkworms. It’s an agro based cottage industry, the end product of which is silk. Mulberry silk
is also called Mori silk whereas, Non mulberry silk is called Vanya silk.
There are many kinds of natural silk which are commercially known and produced. Among
them Mulberry silk is the most important and contributes as much as 95% of the world
production.
Silkworm Bombyx mori (L), the source for production of fabulous silk and sericulture
industry, has been domesticated more than 4000 years ago. Its adoptability to environmental
conditions is different from that of the wild insects and the rearing techniques vary to suit the
requirements under different ecological conditions. To find out more about business viability
of silk production, see under Sericulture as a business and to find out more about growing
mulberry to feed silkworms.
What is silk?
It is a natural protein fiber secreted by silkworms in form a thread about 400-1500m long,
spun into a cocoon “shell” (protection to pupa inside) Silk containing – 2 proteins.
Fibroin – inner core comprising 75% of silk
Sericin - outer gum comprising 25% of silk
These silk proteins are synthesized by silk glands present in silkworms. Besides proteins, silk
has small residues of fat, resin, minerals and waxy materials. Silk is “Queen of Textiles”
Properties of silk
 Silk is crystalline
 Homogenous in structure
 Hygroscopic in nature
 Light in weight
 Longest and strongest of all natural fibers
 Soft, lustrous and hygienic
 Excellent affinity for dyes-takes colors
 Does not catch fine easily/quickly as nylon or wool
 It is elastic and has elongation of 20%
 Has high tensile strength breaking strength is 4g per denier
SERICULTURE: Sericulture is the scientifically production or rearing of silkworm under

special feeding, care and management for the purpose of producing raw silk.
SILK WORM: The commercially bred caterpillar of the domesticated silk moth ( Bombyx
mori ), which spins a silk cocoon that is processed to yield silk fibre.
MORICULTURE: Moriculture is the production of mulberry leaves. Mulberry leaves are the
leaves that are eaten by silkworms.
TYPES OF SILKWORM
Mulberry:
The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world comes from this variety and often silk
generally refers to mulberry silk. Mulberry silk comes from the silkworm, Bombyx mori L.
which solely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant. These silkworms are completely
domesticated and reared indoors. In India, the major mulberry silk producing states are
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu & Kashmir which
together accounts for 92 % of country's total mulberry raw silk production
Tasar:

Tasar (Tussah) is copperish colour, coarse silk mainly used for furnishings and interiors. It is
less lustrous than mulberry silk, but has its own feel and appeal. Tasar silk is generated by the
silkworm, Antheraea mylitta which mainly thrive on the food plants Asan and Arjun. The
rearings are conducted in nature on the trees in the open. In India, tasar silk is mainly
produced in the states of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa, besides Maharashtra, West
Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Tasar culture is the main stay for many a tribal community in
India.
Oak Tasar:

It is a finer variety of tasar generated by the silkworm, Antheraea proyeli J. in India which

feed on natural food plants of oak, found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan belt of India
covering the states of Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and
Jammu & Kashmir. China is the major producer of oak tasar in the world and this comes
from another silkworm which is known as Antheraea pernyi.
Eri:

Also known as Endi or Errandi, Eri is a multivoltine silk spun from open-ended cocoons,
unlike other varieties of silk. Eri silk is the product of the domesticated silkworm, Philosamia
ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. Ericulture is a household activity practiced mainly
for protein rich pupae, a delicacy for the tribal. Resultantly, the eri cocoons are open-mouthed
and are spun. The silk is used indigenously for preparation of chaddars (wraps) for own use
by these tribals. In India, this culture is practiced mainly in the north-eastern states and
Assam. It is also found in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa
Muga:

This golden yellow colour silk is prerogative of India and the pride of Assam state. It is
obtained from semi-domesticated multivoltine silkworm, Antheraea assamensis. These
silkworms feed on the aromatic leaves of Som and Soalu plants and are reared on trees
similar to that of tasar. Muga culture is specific to the state of Assam and an integral part of
the tradition and culture of that state. The muga silk, an high value product is used in
products like sarees, mekhalas, chaddars, etc.
Classification of Mulberry Silkworm

Entomological classification of Mulberry Silkworm is as follows:
Phylum: Arthropodia
Class: Hexapoda/insecta
Sub-class: Pterygota
Division: Endopterygota
Order: Lepidoptera(butterflies)
Family: Bombycidae
Genus: Bombyx
Species: mori
IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
 High employment potential
 60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture activities in the country

 It is estimated that Sericulture can generate employment @ 11 man days per kg of
raw silk production (in on-farm and off-farm activities) throughout the year. This
potential is par-excellence and no other industry generates this kind of employment,
specially in rural areas, hence, sericulture is used as a tool for rural reconstruction.
 Provides vibrancy to village economies
 About 57 % of the gross value of silk fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers with
share of income to different groups.
 56.8 % to cocoon grower
 6.8% to the reeler
 9.1% to the twister
 10.7% to the weaver
 16.6% to the trade
Thus, large chunk of income goes back to the villages from the cities.
 Low Gestation, High Returns
 Estimated investments of Rs.12,000 to 15,000 (excluding cost of land and rearing

space) is sufficient for undertaking mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing in one
acre of irrigated land.
 Mulberry takes only six months to grow for commencement of silkworm rearing.
Mulberry once planted will go on supporting silkworm rearing year after year for 15-
20 years depending on inputs and management provided.
 Five crops can be taken in one year under tropical conditions.
 By adopting stipulated package of practices, a farmer can attain net income levels up
to Rs.30000 per acre per annum.
 Women friendly Occupation
 Women constitute over 79 % of those employed in down-stream activities of

sericulture in the country. This is possible because sericulture activities starting from
mulberry garden management, leaf harvesting and silkworm rearing is more
effectively taken up by the women folk. Even silk reeling industry including weaving
is largely supported by them.
 Ideal Programme for Weaker Sections of the Society
 Sericulture can be practiced even with very low land holding.

 Acre of mulberry garden and silkworm rearing can support a family of three without
hiring labour.
 Features such as low gestation, high returns make sericulture an ideal programme for
weaker sections of the society.
 Vast tracts of forest based tasar food plantations available in the country, if
judiciously exploited for rearing tasar silkworms, can offer supplementary gainful
employment for tribals.
 Eco-friendly Activity
 As a perennial crop with good foliage and root-spread, mulberry contributes to soil
conservation and provides green cover.
 Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to garden.
 Dried mulberry twigs and branches are used as fuel in place of firewood and therefore
reduce the pressure on vegetation/forest.
 Being a labour intensive and predominantly agro-based activity, involvement of
smoke-emitting machinery is minimal.
 Developmental programmes initiated for mulberry plantation are mainly in upland
areas where un-used cultivable land is made productive.
 Mulberry can also be cultivated as intercrop with numerous plantations.
 Mulberry being a deep-rooted perennial plant can be raised in vacant lands, hill
slopes and watershed areas.
 Currently, only about 0.1 % of the arable land in the country is under mulberry
cultivation.
 Satisfies Equity Concerns
 Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to rural households. As the end-

product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from
high end groups to low end groups.
 Cases of landless families engaged in cocoon production using mulberry contracted
from local farmers are common in some states.
CULTIVATION OF MULBERRY /HOST PLANT OF SILKWORM

Mulberry (Morus spp., Moraceae)
The important character of the members of the family Moraceae (especially Morus spp.) is the
presence of idioblast, an enlarged epidermal cell in the leaf.
Ecological requirements
Climate
Mulberry can be grown up to 800 m MSL. For the optimum growth of mulberry and good
sprouting of the buds, the mean atmospheric temperature should be in the range of 13 oC to 37.70C.
The ideal temperature should be between 24 and 28oC with relative humidity of 65 to 80 percent and
sun shine duration of 5 to 12 hours per day.
Mulberry can be grown in a rainfall range of 600mm to 2500mm. Under low rainfall
conditions, the growth is limited and requires supplemental irrigation. On an average, 50mm once in
10 days is considered ideal for mulberry.
Soil
Slightly acidic soils (6.2 to 6.8 pH) free from injurious salts are ideal for good growth of
mulberry plant. Saline and alkaline soils are not preferred.
Mulberry varieties
Irrigated : Kanva 2, MR 2, S 30, S 36, S 54, DD (Viswa), V1
Semi irrigated : Kanva 2, MR 2
Rainfed : S 13, S 34, RFS 135, RFS 175, S 1635
Propagation of mulberry
 Mulberry is mostly propagated through cuttings.

 Cuttings may be planted straight away in the main field itself or nursery may be raised and the
sprouted and rooted saplings may be planted in the main field.
 The latter method is advisable because of its easy establishment in the main field.
Selection of planting material
 Generally, the mulberry plants are raised from semi-hardwood cuttings.

 Cuttings are selected from well established garden of 8-12 months old.
 Only full grown thick main stems, free from insect and disease damages having a diameter of
10-12mm are chosen for preparation of cuttings.
 The cuttings should be of 15-20 cm with 3-4 active buds and should have 45o slanting cut at
the bottom end.
 Care should be taken to make a sharp clean cut at both the ends of cuttings without splitting
the bark.
 Manually/power operated mulberry cutter (stem cutting machine) is available for quick
cutting of propagation material.
What is sapling?
Sapling is a rooted cutting of specific age, that is, 100-120 days for low or high bush and about 240
days for small trees. Because of well developed root system, saplings get established quickly and
grow vigorously.
Preparation of nursery bed: A flat land nearer to water source is preferred as nursery site. Well
drained land with loamy soil is ideal for nursery. The land must be ploughed or dug 30-40 cm deep
and allowed for weathering in sun for 2-3 weeks. Land is again ploughed two or more times to bring
the soil to fine tilth. Root stocks, pebbles and weeds should be removed at the time of ploughing and
the land should be levelled.
Divide the land into a number of small units to prepare the nursery beds. The size of each bed can be
kept conveniently. A bed size of 240 cm (L) x 120 cm (B) can accommodate 180 cuttings (row to row
20 cm and cutting to cutting in a row 8 cm distance) to raise 4 months old saplings. To raise 6 to 8
months old saplings, the same bed can accommodate only 100 cuttings (row to row 30 cm and cutting
to cutting in a row 10 cm distance). Each bed on all sides should be separated by a bund of 25 to 30
cm width and height and provided with irrigation channel of 25 to 30 cm width and 15 to 20 cm
depth. The following measures are required before planting cuttings in the nursery bed.
 Add 5 pans of organic manure – FYM/sericulture compost/vermicompost to each bed and mix
thoroughly with soil.
 In the case of clayey or black cotton soil, add 5 pans tank silt or sand per bed and mix with
soil uniformly.
 In the case of red loamy or sandy loam soils, there is a possibility of termite infestation. As a
preventive measure, 0.1% Chloropyriphos (5 ml per litre of water) can be sprayed to drench
the soil of nursery beds (2-3 litres per bed).
Irrigation: One time irrigation must be provided immediately after planting. Subsequently, irrigation
is given once in 4 to 5 days in the case of sandy loam, and red soil once in 7 to 8 days in the case of
clayey soil.
Weeding: Nursery beds must be kept free from weeds. At least two rounds of manual weeding are
required, first after 25 to 30 days and second after 55 to 60 days of planting. Only light harrowing
using weeding sickle or weeding fork must be attempted, taking care not to disturb the sprouted
cuttings. Walking or sitting on the nursery bed should be avoided.
Fertilizer application: Chemical fertilizer must be applied in the nursery saplings attain 20 to 25cms
height in about 55 to 60 days after planting, preferably after the second round of weeding. Following
this, 500 g of ammonium sulphate or 250 g of urea can be applied per bed followed by light irrigation.
Plant protection: The most common disease noticed in nursery is leaf spot. Application of 0.1%
Bavistin twice at an interval of 15 to 20 days is recommended. Spraying of 0.1% Rogor to control
thrips and 0.1% Metasystax to control mites are also recommended in case such infestation occurs.
Uprooting, transporting and planting of saplings: Three to four months old saplings are ready for
transplantation to establish bush system of plantation. For tree plantation or for raising high bush
adopting wider spacing and high crown height, 5 to 6 months old saplings are used. Good saplings
attain a height of 90 to 120 cm in 3 to 4 months and about 150 cm in 5 to 6 months in nursery bed.
Before uprooting of saplings from nursery bed, land preparation in the proposed plot should be
adequately watered for easy removal. Nursery bed is loosened with the help of crowbar or guddali or
pick axe to a depth of 30 cm and saplings are taken out one by one, without damaging the main roots.
After uprooting, long time preservation of saplings should be avoided as far as possible and must be
taken to the planting site immediately. If long distance transportation is required, saplings must be
packed in bundles, covered with wet gunny cloth or green leaves and taken to the planting site during
cooler hours. Saplings must be planted immediately after uprooting and as soon as they are received at
the planting site, in the pits prepared for regular plantation.
Lifecycle of a Silkworm
 As in the case of a typical Butterfly (Lepidoptera) insect, the silkworm passes through 4
distinct stages i.e. egg, larva, pupa and adult during its life cycle.
 The duration may last for 6-8 weeks depending on the prevailing climatic conditions.
 For races in Kenya the egg period for the incubated eggs may last for 11-14 days, the larval
period 24-30 days, the pupal period 12-15 days and the adult stage 6-10 days.
This means that a farmer who receives hatched silkworms can rear, harvest and sell cocoons
in about 5 weeks unlike majority of other enterprises that take much longer production
period.
REARING OF SILKWORM
SITE SELECTION FOR REARING HOUSE
 Silkworms are reared in a specifically built house with adequate ventilation, light
which should be rodent proof.
 A silkworm rearing house should be build away from farm animals' housing to
avoid drifting of chemicals during spraying.
 Should be near the mulberry field in order to minimize the transportation distance
thus cutting down on wilting of leaf.
 Doors and windows should be North-South direction to avoid direct sunlight into
the room which could raise the room temperatures and thus cause leaves to dry
fast.
 The size of the rearing house is determined by size of mulberry orchard and
amount of silkworm to be reared.
 Locally available building materials can be used such as Bamboo, off cuts, timber,
stones, mud, bricks etc to build the walls.
 Avoid walls made from iron sheets as it is difficult to regulate house temperatures.
However iron sheets can be used for roofing. Below is a list of houses that a
farmer can choose from depending on his financial capability.
Rearing Equipments
1. Rearing stands: These are racks used to accommodate the trays. They may be made of
wood or iron. The size depends upon the trays. There should be 10 tiers to accommodate 10
trays per stand.
2. Rearing Trays: The worms are reared in trays. They vary in shape and size. They
commonly used rectangular wooden trays measure 3.5’ x 2.5’. The diameter of the circular
bamboo trays ranges from 3 to 4.5’.
3. Cleaning nets: Cotton or nylon nets are used for cleaning rearing beds. Usually, the
following mesh sizes are used for cleaning.
First and second instars - 2 mm2
Third instar - 10 mm2
Fourth and fifth instars - 20 mm2
4. Cocoonage: (Chandrike or mountage): These are meant to enable the ripe worms to spin
cocoons. Chandrike is a rectangular bamboo mat on which spiral bamboo tape is fixed which
gives support to the ripe worms to spin the cocoons.
5. Dry and wet bulb thermometer: This is used to record the room temperature and
humidity during the rearing period. Hygrometer can also be used to record humidity.
6. Charcoal stoves, room heaters/room heating coils: These are used in raising the room
temperature whenever the temperature of the rearing room falls below the required level.
7. Room coolers: These are used in cooling the rearing room.
8. Miscellaneous requirement : Chopping board, chopping knife, leaf preserving baskets,
leaf preservation chamber, mats, leaf basins, ant wells, bird feather, feeding stands, wax
coated paper, foam rubber,wash basin with stand, sand beds, exhaust fans, etc.
Management of Silkworms

Disinfection
 Silk worms are prone to infection if proper disinfection of the rearing house and rearing
equipment is not done properly.
 Disinfection is carried out prior to commencement of rearing as a precaution against
pathogens, which remain in the rearing house.
 The room or house being disinfected should be kept airtight during disinfection and
should remain closed for 15 - 20 hours after disinfection.
 It should be opened 24 hours prior to introduction of worms. Disinfection is done
using 2% formalin solution.
 To achieve this, add 1lt of formalin concentrate into 19 lts of water. You require 40 ft
of formalin solution to cover a room of 5m x 7m x 3m.
 Before disinfection all rearing equipment should be cleaned and returned into the
rearing house. Bleaching powder is spread in a single layer around the house and foot
bath to maintain hygiene.
Temperature and Humidity

Silkworms do well in a temperature range of 23 - 28degC; with high temperatures for the
younger worms and lower temperatures for the older worms. Humidity should range from 70
- 85; hi#gh for the younger worms and low for the older worms. Temperature and humidity
can be moderated by use of wet gunny bags/wet newspapers hung on the walls or pouring
water on cemented floors.
Optimum temperatures and humidity for rearing silkworms of different instars are as

follows:

Table: Temperature/Humidity
INSTARS TEMPERATURE (degC) HUMIDITY (%)
1st 26 – 28 85
2nd 26 – 28 85
3rd 24 – 26 80
4th 24 – 25 75
5th 23 – 24 70
Egg Incubation and Hatching

 Silkworm rearing starts with silkworm egg incubation.
 For healthy development and uniform hatching; eggs are incubated under optimum
temperature 25degC and humidity 80% - 85%. Under these conditions eggs are
expected to hatch within 10 - 12 days.
Brushing newly hatched Silkworms
Transfer of newly hatched larvae (ants) from egg cards with bird feather to wax
paper/paraffin paper placed in rearing trays is called brushing.
There are two acceptable methods of brushing:
a. The hatched worms are brushed with a feather from the egg card directly onto the rearing
bed. Care must be taken not to injure the worms.
b. Chop tender (2nd and 3rd leaf) mulberry leaves into small pieces approximately equal to the
size of the hatched silkworm larvae and sprinkle over the egg card. The hatched silkworms
will crawl onto the chopped leaves and start feeding. Later the cards are removed and larvae
still left on paraffin paper or newspaper are tapped gently onto the rearing bed. When all
larvae are on the rearing beds, then the first feeding is given.
Moulting -
 Moulting is the shedding of skin as worms enter into the next instar.
 Moulting takes 18 - 24 hours (1 day) and the worms should not be fed during this
period.
 The rarer must be able to identify when the worms are getting into and out of
moult apart from counting days.
Moulting Signs:
 Swollen heads
 Raised heads
 Worms are immobile
Signs of getting out of Moult
 The worms are active and move around

 The mouth part is broader
 The body is dull with loose skin
 Shed off skins are easily seen on the bed
Once the worms come out of moult, spread them out evenly to enhance dryness in the bed
and to increase the bed space to match with their increasing body size.
Feed the worms when all of them have come out of moult.
Stages of Growth and Feeding Methods

Silkworms undergo 4 moultings (instars) in the larval stage and are fed according to
these instars.
1st stage (1st Instars) - the young worms should be fed with young tender leaves; 2nd and
3rd leaves from the tip of the shoot. These are chopped into small pieces and fed to worms for
4 days at least twice a day in the morning and late afternoon. After the 4 days the worms go
into moult (sleep).
2nd stage (2nd Instars) - feed 3rd and 4th young glossy leaves. Continue feeding chopped
leaves for 4 days. After this period the worms go into moult again.
3rd stage (3rd Instar) - continue feeding the silkworms on good leaves harvested from the green part
of the stem/shoot for three days. After this period silkworms go into moult.
4th stage - feed worms on whole shoots for 6 Days.
5th stage They stopped to feeding and goes in the rest stage.

Note: 1st and 2nd instar larvae are called “hauki worms” and 3rd and 4th stage larvae is called”
young age worms”.
Bed Cleaning
Bed cleaning is done to remove faecal matter, dead worms and leaf remnants which would promote
fungal growth.
 It is done after every moult for the young silkworms and every other day for the mature
worms.
 Bed cleaning is best done before feeding worms.
 To clean the bed, spread a net over the worms and spread fresh leaves on top of the
net. Worms will crawl up to feed on the fresh leaves on the net.
 Transfer the worms using the net to another clean bed/tray.
 Remove any remaining worms then discard the waste into a composte pile.
 Spread the worms well then feed them.
Silkworm Density/Spacing of Worms:

 Different stages of silkworms require different bed space.
 Spread worms evenly ensuring that they do not overlap each other.
 As worms increase in size, transfer some to another bed/tray to avoid
overcrowding.
 Overcrowding leads to underfeeding, creating a microclimate for disease
spread and could also lead to suffocation.

Rearing Density of Silkworm

Stage Early period Middle period Later period Magnification
1 st
0.3m2
0.4m 2
0.6m 2
1.0m 2
2 nd
1.0m2
1.3m 2
1.6m 2
2.0m 2
3 rd
2.0m2
2.4m 2
3.0m 2
4.0m 2
4 th
4.0m2
5.0m 2
7.0m 2
8.0m 2
5 th
8.0m2
12.0m 2
16.0m 2
17.0m 2
Mounting
Mounting is transferring mature silkworms from rearing beds to montages to
start spinning. Spinning starts 8 days after worms get into fifth (5th) stage.

Signs of Maturity
 Larvae cease to feed and crawl restlessly in search of a corner to attach themselves for
spinning.
 They move to corners of the rearing beds ready to spin
 If picking of mature silkworms is delayed the worms spin on teh bed and silk fiber is
found on the bed
 The worms appear cream white as they are full of silk
 They appear shrank in length

Process of Mounting
The mature worms are picked from the rearing beds and transferred to montages. Care should
be taken to put the right number of worms on the montages to avoid overcrowding and
formation of double cocoons.
Mounting Density
 90 - 100 larvae should be mounted per square foot (1ft2)
 Papers should be spread on the floor below the mountages to absorb urine from the
worms and changed when they become damp.
Environmental Conditions for Mounting
Temperature should not exceed 26degC. Humidity should be between 60-70%. These two
parameters affect the quality of cocoons (reliability). While spinning there should be minimal
disturbance to the silkworm.
Cocoon:
Cocoon is the ball of natural proteins produced by the 5th instars larvae of silkworm. There
are two types of cocoons.
a. Good cocoons:
 Un-infected cocoon.
 Free from pest and disease.
 Uniform shape and size.
 Milky white color.
b. Bad cocoons:
 Double cocoon: two or more larvae made single cocoon is called double
cocoon.
 Infected from disease-pest and inert matter.
 Discolour and blotches appear in cocoon.
 Un-uniform shape and size cocoon.
Harvesting Cocoons
Cocoons are harvested on the 7th to 8th day from the inception of spinning. By this time the
worm will have completed spinning of cocoon and transformed into pupa. To confirm this,
cut 2 or 3 cocoons to check whether pupae are fully formed. The optimum time for harvesting
is when the pupae turn brown in color and become hard.
De-flossing - After harvesting all loose fiber on cocoons surface is removed, giving it a clean look,
ready for the market. Failure to de-floss cocoons lowers the marketability of the cocoon.
Postharvest handling of cocoon

1. Selection of the cocoons
a. Compactness: firm, compact and slightly elastic.
b. Grain: coarse granular cocoons make poor reeling.
c. Weight of the cocoon: quality of raw silk reeled.
d. Shell weight: Higher sell weight greater is the silk yield
e. Shell ratio: 12-24%.
2. Drying of the cocoon:
 To killing the pupa inside the cocoon.
 To protect the cocoon quality
 To preserve the cocoons for reeling
 Dried cocoons can be stored for a longer period without purification and
moulds.
Method of drying
1. Sun drying
2. Stream drying
3. Hot air drying
3. Cocoon storage
 Maintain proper ventilation in the storage room.
 Humidity should be not exceed 70% and temperature 270C.
4. Sorting of cocoons:
Sorting of double, thin shell, insect-pest infected, inert materials, flimsy, pierced
cocoons.
5. Cocoon blending/mixing.
6. Cocoon cooking
7. Brushing:
a. Hand brushing
b. Mechanical brushing
8. Reeling: Process of removing silk thread.
a. Charkha reeling
b. Machine reeling
c. Multi end reeling
9. Rereeling: It is to transfer the raw silk reeled on small reels to a large reel to set
uniform width, weight and length of the skein.
10. Degumming: Removal of gum or sericin is termed as degumming.
Methods of degumming
i. Soap and soda method
ii. Enzymatic method
11. Blenching of silk: Removal of natural pigmentation.
12. Dying: Addition of color.
13. Weaving: Making cloths.
Diseases and Pests of Silkworms

Diseases
Common silkworm diseases are Grasserie, Pebrin, Flacherie and Muscardine.

1. Grasserie
Causal organism: Nosema bombsycis
Symptoms
 The larvae will be sluggish with swollen inter-segmental region

 The larvae will be fragile
 On piercing, milky fluid containing many polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out
from the larval body
 The diseased larvae do not settle for moult
 The larvae appear to be restless
 The dead larvae hang by hind legs head downward
 Young age larvae may get infected with grasserie if the silkworm egg surface is
not disinfected
Control
 Disinfect silkworm rearing house, its surrounding and appliances before brushing

 Conduct additional disinfection with 0.3% lime solution. Rear young silkworms as
well as late age silkworms under strict hygienic condition
 Avoid high temperatures (28-35degC), low rearing temperatures (10-20degC) and
rearing humidity (less than 70%)
 Dust lime uniformly when larvae settle for moult
 Dust every time the larvae come out of moult
 Feed quality Mulberry leaf
2. Flacherie
c/o: Streptococcus and Staphylococcus
Symptoms
 Stunted in growth
 Dull and lethargic
 Soft and appear flaccid
 The thoracic region may be translucent
 The larvae vomit gut juice
 The larvae on dying rot and emit a bad smell
Control
 Clean and disinfect rearing trays once again. The pathogens contaminate the

rearing tray, bed and Mulberry leaf in the bed. They survive in teh rearing tray/bed
for a long time and cause the disease if they are not disinfected effectively.
 Control humidity as per guidelines above. If the temperature and humidty is too
high in the tray/bed, the accumulation of faeces, wasted leaves and poor air
circulation are suitable for the bacteria to multiply in the larvae and rearing bed.
3. Muscardine
Flaccid dead larvae

c/o: Botrytis bassiana
Symptoms
 The diseased larvae prior to death will be lethargic and on death are flaccid
 Oil specks may be seen on the surface of the larvae
 They gradually become hard, dry and mummify into white or green
 The diseased pupae will be hard, lighter and mummified
Control
 Disinfect rearing house and appliances

 Reduce silkworm bed humidity by dusting lime powder after bed cleaning
 Collect the entire diseased larva and burn them
 Practice rearing and personal hygiene during rearing
 Practice control measure against mulberry pests
Silkworm Pests
 Rats
 Birds
 Safari and Black ants
 Snakes
 Lizards
Pest Control
 Put coffee tray wire mesh on all the windows, crevices and any other openings in the
rearing house
 Maintain cleanliness both within and outside the house
 Sprinkle one layer of bleaching powder (calcium chloride) around the rearing house
Mushroom Production
Mushrooms are members of plant kingdom, are edible fungi, belongs to class Hymenomycetes
(Basidiomycetes) of sub- division Basidiomycota. They have the capacity to degrade cellulose, hemi-
celulose and lignin which in turn produce edible fruiting bodies having characteristics aroma and
flavor. A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above
ground on soil or on its food source and characterized by heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Botanical classification of mushroom

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Mycota
Sub-division: Basidiomycota
Class: basidiomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Agaricaceae
Genus: Agaricus
Species: bisporus
History of mushroom cultivation
 The credit of starting investigation on the Nepalese fungi goes back to the work of Lloyd
(1808), Berkeley (1854) and Balfour-Browne (1955, 1968) from where the fungi of Nepal
came to light.
 Elias fries (1794-1878), the founder of mushroom taxonomy
Wild mushroom of Nepal

 Lycoperdon (Fushfuse chyau in Nepali)
 Morels (Gucchi Chyau)
 Cordyceps sinensis (Yarchagumba)
 Cantherellus (Budi chyau) : Found in Kathmandu valley jungle in Shrawan – Bhadra.
 Fistulna hepatica: Found at 500-2500 m altitude. Used as curative of wounds.
 Grifolia frondosa: Found at 1500-3000 m hight. Tamang called Nagrum. It controls tumor.
 Coriolus spp: Found at 1500-3000m altitude from east to west. Controls tumor.
Spawn production of mushroom

The propagating material used by the mushroom growers for planting beds is called spawn. The
spawn is equivalent to vegetative seeds of higher plants. Also, spawn is defined as any substance
having dormant life which provides continuity of survival from vegetative stage mycelium to
reproductive fruiting body.
Quality of spawn is basic for the successful mushroom cultivation. Production and productivity
success of mushroom depends upon the quality and purity of spawn.
Depending upon different environment and substrate types of spawn are as follows.
1. Virgin spawn: When the spore of mushroom land upon the suitable environment and get
suitable medium it starts to grow. Collection of such fungal mycelium can be used as spawn.
2. Fake spawn: When mushroom grows in abundant organic matter, white mycelium
completely covers the beds, collection of organic matter having completely covered
mycelium and drying them for the further use in the form of spawn.
3. Brick spawn: Cattle dung, horse dung and sandy soil are mixed together by adding water
and 5 cm thick layer which looks like brick is made by manually pressing. Then the prepared
brick is cut into pieces and made hole for putting spawn which is made by adding mushroom
mycelium in the sterilized horse dung and tobacco stem. Sometime in the brick hole, spawn
obtained from tissue culture is also used.
4. Manure spawn: Both composted horse dung or synthetic compost may be used. Composted
manure is thoroughly washed to remove such substances in compost which retard growth.
Excess is squeezed out and moisture content is adjusted to 60%. Manure is packed in half liter
milk bottles or heat resistant polypropylene bags and plugged with non absorbent cotton wool
and sterilized for 2 hours at 121oc. then the packed bags are inoculated with large bit of agar
containing mycelium and incubated at 22- 24oc. spawn will be ready in about 2 weeks
5. Grain spawn: Pleurotus and Agaricus successful mushroom cultivation is noted in grain
spawn. From the different experimental research till now spawn developed in wheat, barley
and sorghum are found good. So far due to availability of wheat in large quantity and fast
growing nature of mycelium, in Nepal and India wheat is used for spawn preparation.
Advantage of grain spawn
 Easy method of inoculation of fungus mycelium
 In grain, mycelium grows fast and becomes ready for spawning
 Easy in handling, transportation and storage
Disadvantage of grain spawn
 In high temperature condition difficult in spawn production
 Risk during transportation. When the mouth of the bottles are opened there is chance of
other fungal attack
 Cannot be stored for long period
 More chance of attack of rodents and mites
 Cannot tolerate adverse condition like compost spawn
Causes of low quality spawn
 High moisture or dryness
 High temperature above 35oc or less than 20oc
 Low quality grains
 Not well pasteurized
 High acidic or alkaline condition
 Attack of disease and insect
Beliefs and myths about wild mushroom

 If a clove of garlic turns black when cooked with mushrooms, this is supposed to mean the
mushrooms are poisonous.
 A silver coin is supposed to blacken or a silver spoon tarnishes if placed in the cook pot with
poisonous mushrooms.
 Poisonous mushrooms will lose their poison when cooked with some vinegar or timur
(Zanthoxylum aromatum).
 Mushrooms having a fruity smell are safe to eat.
 Mushrooms with bitter, acrid, or pungent taste are poisonous.
 Smooth-capped mushrooms are edible.
 Rough waxy cap or rough texture are poisonous
 Some use a rule of thumb that mushrooms that stain or secrete a milky fluid when bruised or
have caps that do not peel are poisonous.
 Some edible mushrooms have these characteristics and more importantly, the highly
poisonous amanitas do not.
Mitigation measures for mushroom poisoning
 Mushrooms from each part of country should be extensively explored and documented.
 Regional toxicology/poison centers should be established which would impart public
education on dangers of wild mushroom consumption.
 Nationwide awareness programs through national & local media (radio, television,
newspaper) should be conducted. Miking, postering, mushroom exhibition, etc. about hazards
of mushroom poisoning at the beginning of the rainy season might be more effective.
 Physicians and other health workers should be trained for the effective management of
different types of mushroom poisoning. An appropriate protocol for each type should be
launched to hospitals or poison centers.
 If there is suspicion about poisonous mushroom consumption, immediately nearby health
institute or poison center should be contacted
 It is best and safe to avoid alcohol while consuming mushrooms
Importance of mushroom
1) Source of nutrient
The greatest difficulty in feeding man is to supply a sufficient quality of the body building
material. These body building material are provided by different group of mushroom
Mushroom Moisture Minerals Protein Fat Fibre

Agaricus 89.5% 1.25% 3.94% 0.19% 1.09%
Pleurotus 90.0% 0.97% 2.78% 0.65% 1.08%
Volvorella 88.4% 1.64% 4.98% 0.74% 1.38%
Protein
Digestibility of protein is 72-83%, so less amount of consumed protein is wasted. In dried
mushroom protein content range from 19-35%. In terms of crude protein, mushroom rank
below animal meat (9-20%) but well above other foods including milk (2.9-3.5%)
Mushroom protein contains all essential amino acids;
Glycine- 1.2%, Histidine- 0.68%, Isoleucine- 1.28%, Leucine-2.16%, Tryptophan- 3.94%
(Not found in vegetables).
Energy
In 454gm fresh mushroom 120 kcal energy is obtained, 0.95% mannitol, 0.28% reducing
sugar, 0.59% glycogen, 0.91% glucose
Vitamins
Vit-B2 higher in fresh mushroom so useful for diabetic patients. Ascorbic acid, Pantothenic
acid, folic acid, Niacin are also found in good amount.
Minerals
Minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium and potassium obtained in good quantity.
2) Medicinal use
 Morchella- For fever and diarrhoea

 Pleurotus officinalis- Used against stoppage of bleeding, also against T.B, Jaundice,
Worms
 Fomes ignarius, F. fomentarium- Rapid coagulation of blood
 Lycoperdon giganteum- Soft and comfortable surgical dressing
 Calvatia gigantia- Anasthesia
 Falmmulina velutipes- Lowers blood pressure, active against tumour cells
 Ganoderma lucidum (DADU CHYAU)- Known as longevity mushroom, fights
against any disease
 Lentinus edodes, Auricularia polytricha, Agaricus bisporus- Lowers blood
cholesterol level
3) Neutriceuticals and dietary supplements
Mushroom neutriceutical is defined as mushroom extract which is consumed in the form of
capsules or tablets as a dietary supplement and has potential therapeutic applications
 Fomes fomentarium, Ganoderma applanatus used in making cap, hand bag

 Coprinus comatus used as ink for writing
Advantage of mushroom cultivation
I. Raw materials can actively be used for the cultivation of mushroom. This kind of bio-
conversion can greatly reduce environmental pollution
II. Mushroom cultivation is labor intensive activity, therefore will serve as means of generating
employment, particularly for rural women and youths in order to raise their social status
III. The extractable bioactive compounds from medicinal mushroom will enhance human’s
immune systems and improve their quality of life
IV. Mushroom cultivation is a cash crop, harvested fruiting bodies can be sold in local markets
for additional family income or export outside
V. Some warm mushroom eg Volvoriella volvacea and Pleurotus sajor- caju are relatively fast
growing and can be harvested in 3 to 4 weeks after spawning. It is short return agricultural
business and can be of immediate benefit to the community
VI. Mushroom farming is both science and art. The science is developed through research and art
is perfected through curiosity and practical experience.
Effects of mushroom poisoning

1. Destroy the cells and tissues of the body
2. Damage the nervous system eg. Lepiota, Hebeloma
3. Damage the cells of heart and blood vesses
4. Toxin of the poisonous mushroom are mixed up in the protoplasm eg Amanita phalloides,
A.verna, A. virosa
5. Cause irritation and allergy in the intestine eg Agaricus, Boletus, Tricholoma
6. Coprinus atramentarius when consumed during alcoholic drink is very danger
7. Spores of Pleurotus in closed room may cause allergy, also may into lungs during respiration
and cause breathing problem disease
Morphology of Button mushroom
1. Cap or Pielus
Expanded portion of sporophore which may be thick, fleshy, membranous or corky and varies
greatly in shape, size and color. Pielus surface may be hairy, smooth or rough. Size of the cap
is 5 -10cm broad with white, cream or brown in color.
2. Gills or Lamellae
Situated underside of pielus starting from apex of the stalk and radiate out towards the
margin. It bears spores of different color and may change depending on age of sporophore.
Basidia 2 spored. Stipe and gill attachement may be free or adnate, adnexed, decurrent or
sinulate
3. Veil
Gill remain covered by a tissue that extends from the margin of pielus to the stipe is known as
veil. Sometime from ring on the stipe known as Annulus which is delicate and may be rubbed
off or washed away by rain
4. Stipe or stalk
Stalk supports the pielus. Mostly stalks are centrally attached to cap. They may be solid,
fleshy or hollow having central cavity with pithy substances.
5. Volva
As mushrooms expands with age the universal veil covering the entire fruiting body breaks
and remain as a cup ‘volva’ surrounding the base of stipe
With annulus and volva- Amanita
With volva only- Volvariella
With only annulus- Agaricus
Without annulus and volva- Marasmius oreades
Cultivation practice of Button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)

Agaricus also called white button mushroom. 4 species of Agaricus i.e A.bisporus, A.campestries,
A.rodmani, A.silvicola, are found in Nepalese forest. But recently two species Agaricus bisporus and
exotic Agaricus bitorquis have been grown successfully in Kathmandu and hilly region for 2 seasons
and for 1 season in terai belt.
Procedure for spawn production for Agaricus and Pleurotus(wheat grain spawn)
 Wheat grain which are used for spawn production should be cleaned
 Ten kilograms of wheat grains are boiled in 10 litre of clean water for 15 minutes and
allowed to soak for another 15 minutes without heating
 Excess water is drained off in inclined position and grains are cooled in sieves (Grain
shouldn’t be overcooked and shouldn’t stick to each other)
 Cooled grains are mixed with 120 gm of Gypsum and 30 gm of caco3.gypsum prevents the
grains from sticking and caco3 is necessary to correct Ph.
 The prepared grains are filled into half liter milk bottles or polypropylene bag at the rate of
150-200gm per bottle or bag upto ¾ th of its volume and cover with non absorbent cotton
plug at the rim
 Now it is autoclaved at 15 psi and 121oc for 30 minutes
 After sterilization the material should have ph value of 6.5 to 6.7
 Sterilized bottles or bags with corrected ph are now inoculated with pure culture or grain
spawn. Sometime rice husk, saw dust, rice polish can also be mixed with grains
 Now incubate the bottles or bags at 25±1oc in dark place
 After 2 weeks the filled apparatus is completely covered by white fungal mycelium which
indicates the spawn is ready for use
 Spawn C:N ratio should be 75-80:1 and starch level high which is also available in organic
seeds grain, rice husk. Rice straw and rice husk in ratio of 1:1 is used for spawn
production in India.
Compost preparation: Materials and their functions

1. Base materials
These include wheat straw, maize cob, barley straw, and other similar cellulosic plant
wastes. This material provides proper physical structure to ensure necessary aeration to
built proper microbial population and subsequent spawn growth in compost. The chief
function is to provide cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin in bulk.
2. Supplements
 These are activating fermentation. Supplements may be animal dung eg. Horse
dung, and chicken manure
 Concentrate meal like rice bran, wheat bran, seed meal of cotton and carbohydrate
nutrient (molasses) that supplies both carbohydrate and N2
 Nitrogen fertilizers like ammonium sulfate, calcium ammonium sulphate and urea
that release nitrogen for quick growth of microbial population
 Materials to correct mineral deficiencies are murate of potash and calcium super-
phosphate
 Materials to correct greasiness and maintaining ph are gypsum and calcium
carbonate
Formulation
1. Natural compost
Basic formulae (IARI) (In kg)
Horse dung 1000
Wheat straw (chopped) 350
Urea 3
Gypsum 30-40
Urea can be replaced by 100 to 110 kg of poultry manure
2. Formulated by Ho (1978) in Taiwan

Rice straw- 1000 kg
Ammonium sulphate- 18 kg
Urea- 4.5 kg
Calcium superphosphate- 18
Calcium carbonate- 27 kg
1)Wetting the straw:

The first step in composting is wetting the straw. It is done by spreading the straw on the floor and
sprinkling the water gently. The straw is then turned and again water is sprinkled till the straw absorbs
no more water. At this stage the water content of straw will be 75%. One ton of dry straw will require
about 5000 lit of water.
2)Mixing and heaping:

After the straw is wetted, the supplements except gypsum are uniformly scattered over the straw and
mixed. Then the mixture is finally stacked in a heap firmly but not compactly. The size of the heap
depends upon the weather conditions mainly the temperature. For composting during Sept- Oct one
meter high and one meter width with variable length based on the amount of compost is suitable.
During cooler month a small heap will be able unable to retain temperature and moisture and during
hot summer the temperature variation inside and outside heap will be too small and will become
unsuitable because it will create undesirable acid zones inside the compost.
Turing schedule:
Day zero------------- wet, mix and stack the heap
4th day---------------- First turning, in this turning inner straw should be made outer and outer straw
should be made inner so that straw uniformly decomposes
8th day-----------------Second turning, at this stage while turning straw it mixed with agricultural lime
12th day----------------Third turning, in this lower straw should be brought upper and upper and vice
versa, while heaping it should be manually pressed
16th day-----------------Forth turning, at this stage super phosphate is added, release of ammonia is
felt
20th day----------------fifth turning without adding any substance
22th day ---------------Sixth turning, to suppress other fungal growth add derosal and for insect (mite)
control Nuvan 1-2gm/liter water
25 th day --------------- Seventh turning without any addition
27th day----------------- Eight turning, when the straw turns into brown color and if it easily breaks then
compost is ready
Good compost should have

 Water content 70%, while grasping in hand if no water squeezes and forms a ball then it s said
good quality compost
 Prepared compost should be slightly alkaline 7-7.2
Preparing beds
Self system:
The mushroom house is constructed with built-in shelves. The shelves are half a meter apart and the
lowest one is 20cm from the floor. The shelves may be made out of wooden or steel framework. The
compost should be filled out 14-15 thick in each self
Tray system:
Individual trays of wooden measuring 100cm*50cm*15cm are made. Legs of 1-1.5cm are provided
for each tray so that while stacking there will be small gap for proper ventilation. The trays are filled
with compost. These trays can be put in one room for spawning and can be easily shifted to another
room for cropping
Growing in bags:
Polythene bags of thick gauge can be used instead of trays to hold about 25kg of compost per bag.
They are used in the areas having cooler climates or where the temperature can be controlled.
Spawning
Spawning means sowing the beds with mycelium of mushroom. Freshly made grain spawn of 200gm
is sufficient for 1m2 bed area. Several methods of spawning are used
1. Single layer spawning- The grain spawn is scattered uniformly all over the compost
surface in the tray which is then covered by a thin layer of compost
2. Double layer spawning- The trays are half filled and spawn is scattered and covered with
compost filling completely and again spawn is spread over the surface
After spawning the compost surface is covered with old newspapers, which are sprinkled with water
to provide humidity.
Casing
Normally in about 15 days of spawning the mycelium will cover the compost giving white patches
and mushroom smelling from the room. When they form uniform white coverage it should be covered
with casing of soil or a suitable material. The casing material should have
 Good water holding capacity. All the sprinkled water should be absorbed and should not
allow reaching to the compost
 A soil texture that allows enough aeration and no panning
 Neutral or slightly alkaline Ph
 No harmful molds, insects ad undecomposed vegetable matter
Harvesting
 The fruiting stage of mushroom is extremely sensitive to the environment of the room. The
entire room is ventilated with plenty of fresh air and the room temperature is brought down to
15-18oc. pin head stage of mushroom will be visible usually within 10 days of casing. This
stage may remain for about a week. It takes approx 8-12 days from the time of first
appearance of mushroom to attain its full growth and ready for harvesting. Mushroom will
continue to develop for about 6-8weeks.
 The yields of mushroom are highly variable. Under well developed techniques the average
yield is 20kg/m2 but in developing countries it varies from 6-8 kg only.
Cultivation of Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp)

Advantage of growing Pleurotus sajor-caju
 Grows on most cellulosic farm wastes
 Elaborate composting is not required. Softening of substrate is sufficient for mushroom
production
 Can be grown in variety of containers such as ply bags, nylon nets, baskets, trays
 Spawn run is very rapid and the first crop of mushrooms can be harvested in about 1 weeks
after opening the plastic bags
 casing is not required
 can be cultivated within a wide range of temperature(22-28oc)
 low cost technology
 gives high yield
Spawn production
Same as Agaricus bisporus.
Substrate used
Some of the substrate used: Yield(gm)

Rice straw 652
Maize stover 720
Lady’s finger used fruit 920
Banana dry leaf 275
Papaya stem 210
Cotton stem 30
Saw dust 205
Rice straw husk 925
Cotton lint 1005
Brinjal stem 35
Substrate preparation
 After heating the drum from lower side, vapor is noticed when temperature inside is built
above 95oc. time of sterilization varies depending upon season, if it is winter season
sterilization is done for 1 hour but in summer season sterilization should be done for3 hours.
Doing this pathogenic fungus and other harmful microbes are killed
 After sterilization straw inside the drum are taken out when temperature is lowered.
 When the temperature of the straw is 25oc then it is ready for packing in polybags.
Growing site
Pleurotus spp are usually grown indoors and any ventilated room would be suitable. A bamboo house
of mud plastered with the roof having thick thatch and cemented floor would be good enough. It will
be better if a false ceiling is provided. For better ventilation a room of 3m*3m*3.5m should have two
small windows on the rear wall and a door in the front. Inside the room, bamboo shelves are provided
in 3 tires, a meter apart and half a meter away from the walls.
Spawning
Spawn is mixed with substrate@ 2-5% of the wet substrate weight depending upon the suitability of
environment for the growth of the mycelium. Over spawning cause rise in temperature and carbon
dioxide concentration within the substrate that can cause harmful effect to the mycelium.
Filling
Cultivation of Pleurotus is usually carried out in transparent polythene bags. It is also possible to
grow it in trays, which can be stacked vertically. A wooden mould (50cm*30cm*15cm) having no top
or bottom is usually used. The spawned substrate is packed in bags or filled in mould. It should not
exceed 6kg (1.5kg dry straw) per bag or mould. The bags should be perforated by cutting holes to
permit ventilation and to cool down any increase in temperature. If blocks are made, they are wrapped
loosely in a transparent sheet.
Growing the crop

The packed bags or blocks are incubated in well ventilated room where uniform temperature of 250c is
maintained. The humidity should be 80-85%, the mycelium will cover completely with 3 weeks,
forming a compact block of substrate. At this stage the polythene covering is cut and removed and the
compact blocks are arranged on the shelves. Humidity is maintained by sprinkling water frequently on
the walls and floor. The first crop will grow within 2 weeks. Second crop will be ready within 7-10
days. Within 4-5 weeks 3-4 crops can be expected. Then the substrate can be used as fertilizer.
Harvesting
Mushroom should be harvested when the cap begins to fold and has attained a diameter of 8-10 cm.
picking is done by twisting the mushroom gently so that it is pulled out without leaving any stub, and
also the surrounding fruiting bodies are not disturbed. The base of stipe deep within the straw should
be removed by cutting with a sharp knife. It is possible to get 800gm of mushroom from 1 kg of dry
straw.
Cultivation of paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella spp)

Paddy straw mushroom or simply the straw mushroom is another common edible mushroom in the
tropics and sub- tropics. In Nepal only one species of Volvoriella i.e V.volvacea has been identified.
Beside Agaricus and Pleurotus this mushroom can be cultivated in high temperature in terai, so,
called high temperature mushroom. In India this mushroom has been cultivated since 1943.
Spawn
In this type of spawn production straw is used instead of grains other procedure are similar like in
Agaricus and Pleurotus
 Cut straw in 4-6 cm length
 Soak straw overnight in cool water, be sure straw is well socked
 Drain excess water next day placing in inclined position
 In 100 kg straw mix 10 kg pigeon pea powder
 Now the procedure is similar to Agaricus and Pleurotus
Substrate
Though rice straw is considered better for the cultivation of mushroom but wheat straw, maize stem,
and sorghum are also better substrate but quality of mushroom is not superior to paddy straw. Fungus
has also been successfully cultivated on water hyacinth, oil palm bunch waste, bagasses and banana
leaves.
Cultivation can be done in two ways

1) Room cultivation
Compost preparation
 Straw of 10-15 cm length is cut and sock in 1% caco3 overnight
 Next day straw is taken out and excess water is drained
 Now the soaked straw is pilled in heap and thermometer is inserted at top, when temperature
reaches 50oc then turning are given. After 1-2 days compost is prepared
 When compost temperature is 35oc then compost is ready for filling
 Now, compost is filled in 4 layers. In every layer spawning is done. During spawning
chickpea powder, Tapioca powder can be added.
In cool weather, the rooms are heated with heated with heaters and successfully mushroom is grown.
Generally 10*10*1m3 beds are good. After spawning, the bed is covered with transparent plastic.
Chickpea powder@250 gm in 13 kg paddy straw when added during the bed preparation and
spawning gave good result. Tapioca and chickpea powder when added in straw increased 85% and
65% of yield. Also addition of zinc sulphate increased yield by 20%. Temperature of 30oc is optimum
for successful mushroom cultivation. Fungus mycelium when treated with x-ray and UV- rays
increased yield by 62.5%.
2) Traditional method of cultivation

 Paddy straw is made into bundles of 20-25cm diameter and as long as the straw (75-90cm
long). The straw should be uncrumpled, fresh, not older than a year, free from moulds and
completely dry.
 The bundles have to be soaked in water by immersing them in a tank of suitable size for 18-
24 hrs before laying them into beds.
 The bundles are then taken out from the tank and excess water is allowed to drain off.
 With their butt ends on one side, they are placed lengthwise appressed to each on a bamboo
frame supported on bricks or raised brick platform. The number of bundles so placed should
be such that it approximates the length of the straw so that it makes a square layer.
 A second series of bundles is similarly placed lengthwise with their butt ends on the opposite
side.
 Grain spawn is scattered 7-10cm inside the margin in a row on all sides. If straw spawn is
used, small bits of spawn are placed at a distance of about 12-15cm apart.
 The third and forth series of bundles is placed with their butt ends at right angle to lower the
spawn layer, which is also similarly spawned.
 The bed when completed is as long as the length of straw and broad as width of straw, and
about 50-70 cm high.
 The beds should be firmly pressed, the excess air inside promotes weed fungi and these
interferes with the production of the crop.
 In dry weather the beds are covered with a polythene sheet in such a way that it does not
touch the straw. This produces the favorable humidity and temperature for the rapid growth of
the mycelium.
 Spawn run is completed in about a week after which the polythene sheet is removed.
 The pin heads appears in about 10 days and is ready for picking after 3-5 days.
 After first harvest solution of 0.5% caco3 should be given and cover the bed with plastic for 2-
3 days and second phase mushroom begins to start.
Cultivation practice for Lentinus edodes (Shittake mushroom)
Substrate used for spawn
A. Mother grain spawn
1. Wheat/rye grain + 1.5% gypsum
2. Cotton seed hull 40%, saw dust 38%, wheat bran 20%, sugar 1% and gypsum 1%
B. Planting spawn
1. Saw dust 78%, rice/wheat bran 16%, sugar 1.5%. corn flour 1.7%, ammonium sulphate
0.3%, calcium superphosphate 0.5%, gypsum 2%
Materials required
 Wood log
 Drilling machine of 1-2 cm diameter
 Paraflim wax
 Pinus latex
 Bamboo stick 30cm length
 Muslin cloth
 Spawn
Drilling in wood and spawning procedure

2.5cm deep hole is made by drilling in log with 1-1.5 cm diameter driller. 5 cm in each side of the log
is left and the spacing of 10 cm holes is made. Distance between two lines should be 5cm and holes
made in first line should be in between the second line. Spawn are made small balls and are inoculated
in the holes. After gentle pressing holes are sealed with wax.
Management of bed log

 Bed log after spawning are stacked one after another up to the height of 1 to 1.5 m. in cold
months 1.5 months and in hot months 1 month bed log are stacked in that position.
 After 1 to 2 months, bed logs are placed in scissor position up to 1-1.5 m height inside the
thatch roof
 After 4 months, turnings of bed logs are done so that upper log are placed at bottom and
bottom logs are brought at the top
 After 6-7months bed logs are removed from stacking and placed in straight position. At this
stage, the fungus mycelium colonizes completely and irrigation should be given to maintain
enough moisture
 Inside thatch roof enough light, moisture and temperature are essential. If proper growing
environment is available primordial starts to initiate. After 6 to 10 days of primordial
formation mature mushroom are developed.
Cultivation of red mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum)

Formulation
 Wood ash 90%, rice husk 10%
 Wood ash 72%, maize Stover 20%, rice husk 7.5%, calcium carbonate 0.2%
 Wood ash 76%, finger millet 12%, rice husk 12%
 Wood ash 90%, wheat husk 10%
Procedure:
1. Above mentioned any one formulation substrate should be mixed in clean vessel or plastic
sheet. Water contain should be 60-70%. To check the optimum level of water the substrate
mixed should be squeezed in hand, and if it becomes round without dropping water be sure
substrate is ready.
2. Substrate should be slowly packed in 8*14 inch plastic sheet up to the level of 10 inch and a
hole of egg size is made at the above and plastic mouth is tied with jute rope.
3. Now the tied packet is sterilized for 1 to 1.5 hrs in drum in mono preparing vessel or
scientifically in autoclave for 30Oc. Sterilized packet after 4-5 hrs becomes ready for
inoculation with spawn.
Inoculation of spawn
Sterilized packets are taken in the sterilized room. Now inoculation is done at the rate of 50gm spawn
in individual hole of egg size.
Management after inoculation

1. After inoculation room temperature should be maintained 20-25oc.
2. For successful colonization of white mycelium it takes 3-4 weeks
3. After complete colonization the above tied rope is removed
4. Proper light and fresh air facility should be maintained in room, RH of 70-100%
5. In 2 months mushroom can be harvested, once harvested from same spot it takes one week to
harvest again
6. 3-4 times harvest can be done from single inoculated packet.
Processing and preservation of mushroom

Fresh mushroom can be preserved for 24 hours. But can be preserved in freeze at 0oc for 1-2 weeks.
Agaricus can be preserved for 5-7 days at 15-21oc when covered with plastic of 0.02 to 0.03mm
diameter. Volvoriella when stored at 10-15oc can be preserved for 48 hours in fresh condition. When
blanched with 10% Nacl solution and dried can be preserved for 1 week.
Various methods of preservations are;

1. Room drying: Mushroom can be dried in rooms. While drying they shouldn’t overlap
each other, if it happens there is chance of rotting. Pleurotus sp can be successfully dried
for preservation.
2. Mechanical: Mechanical drier can be used for this type of dry preservation. At first the
base of mushroom are cut down, cleaned with water. After water is dried mushroom are
placed in slab of the drier at 60-65oc. After drying they are packed in plastic bag or
aluminium sheet so that no water is absorbed.
3. Dry freezing: Cleaned and washed mushrooms are frozen at -20oc and dehydrated
through sublimation. This is achieved by gently heating the frozen mushroom under a
very low vacuum for 12-16 hours. The loss of water is about 90% of the total weight. The
appearance is very similar to fresh mushrooms except that they are 10 times lighter. The
product is brittle.
4. Steeping preservation: Blanched mushrooms are preserved in steeping solution

containing sodium chloride (2%). Citric acid, sodium bicarbonate and potassium
metabisulphate (0.15%), for a period of 8-10 days at 21-28oc.
5. Canning: Also called appertization.
Canned mushroom soup

If production is high mushroom can be preserved in the form of soup and can be exported in
foreign country.
Ingredients
Fresh mushroom- 500gm
Butter - 50gm
Wheat flour - 55gm
Nacl 22gm
Red chilly 4gm
Paste of Chinnamomum- 4 gm
Milk 1 litre
Pickled mushroom
Fresh mushroom 500gm
Nacl 28gm
Ginger paste 4 gm
Cut onion 15gm
Chilly 2 gm
Vinegar 500 ml
Diseases and pests of mushroom

1. Viral diseases
Pielus curling upwards, swollen stalks, greatly distorted basidiocarps, premature spore
shedding and elongation of stalk.
Control:
 Raise room temperature to 33oc for 2 weeks and return to normal temperature
2. Bacterial diseases
 Pseudomonas tolaasii, P. agarici, P. fluorescens, Pseudomonas spp
 Brown blotch, black spotting, yellowing, fist shaped and mottled fruit bodies
A. Bacterial rot: (Pseudomonas alcaligens)
 Watersoaked areas and yellow brown discoloration of young sporophores
 Rotting of grown up fruiting bodies starts from the centre towards periphery
 Gills or lower surface turn yellow and cap gets crinkled and rolled upward and
inward
B. Brown spot: (Pseudomonas stutzeri)
 27-37% yield loss recorded
Control
 Streptocycline dip beyond 100 ppm and formalin dip beyond 25 ppm
C. Yellow blotch (Pseudomonas agarici)
 Appear as blotches of varying sizes on pilei, sometime depressed, hazel brown or
orange in colour
 Infected fruits rot and emit foul smell under high temperature and humid condition
 Slimy appearance on infected fruit is very characteristic symptom of disease
Control
 Oxytetracycline, sodium hypochloride (400 ppm each)

3. Fungal diseases
1. Dry bubble
Caused by species of Verticillium. Disese is characterized by the formation of muddy
brown, often sunken spots in the cap of the mushroom. A grayish white growth is seen on
the pielus, in later stages the mushroom becomes dry and leathery. Disease is favored by
temperature exceeding 28oc, poor ventilation and high humidity. When disease appears
temperature must be lowered to below 14oc.
2. Truffle
Caused by fungus Diehiomyces microspores. It is considered as competitor than a
pathogenic fungus to the mushroom. It appears as cottony weft of mycelium on bed
surface. There is considerable reduction in yield particularly from the spots where truffle
mycelium exists. Excessive moisture, high temperature above 20oc after casing in bed,
poor ventilation and high humidity favors disease.
3. Inky cap (weed mushroom)

Common weed mushroom belong to genus Coprinus. The buttons of this mushroom are
long and scaly. They soon open up like an umbrella and the cap dissolves to form a black
inky substance. This weed appears when the compost is not well prepared. After 7-10
days mushroom fruiting body are developed this weed mushroom are seen.
4. Mildew or cobweb
Caused by Dactylium dendroides. A white silky mat grows on the surface of the casing
soil, climbing up and covering any mushroom in its path. The attacked mushroom gets
discolored and become soft and later get completely engulfed in a cottony ball of
mycelium. Source of infection is unsterilized soil. So proper sterilization of casing soil,
initial treatment of mushroom growing room with formalin and proper ventilation facility
should be provided.
5. Wet bubble : (Mycogone perniciosa)

 Initially white and fluffy but with age changes into brown and decay.
Control:
 Spray with 0.1% Benomyl or 0.2% Thiobendazole or alternatively spray with
0.8% formalin (2lit/100 lit water)
6. Weed fungi:
1. Brown plaster mould: Caused by Papulospora byssina. A dense mass of white
mycelium appears on the surface of the compost or casing soil turns brown.
Mushroom doesn’t develop on infected spots. Excess soaked compost, high
temperature of spawn storage favors this condition.
2. Green moulds: Caused by Trichoderma viridae accompanied by species of

Aspergillus and Penicillium. These mould form spots with white margins on the cased
beds where much decomposed organic matter is found in the beds. Green mould
produces toxic substance which inhibits the production of mushroom.
Control
 Spray Benomyl (50 ppm), Carbendazim+Blitox (100 ppm each), Thiram (100
ppm)
4. Insect and pests
a. Sciarid flies: Adult flies are small, black or dark brown. They lay on compost, casing
soil or on mushroom. The larvae feed and burrow up into mushroom, larvae also
burrow mature mushroom and reduce marketable value.
b. Phorids: Megaselia sp larvae damage the spawn, larvae tunnel into the mushroom
tissues
c. Mites: Tryoglyphid mites can cause considerable or complete destruction of spawn in
the beds. They feed on mushroom and make hole. Excessive watering should be
avoided for preventing mite infection. also non pasteurized compost also induce mite
infection
5. Nematodes: Maximum damage is done by pathogenic nematodes Ditylenchus

mycliophagus and Aphlenchoides composticola, their mode of feeding results in damage
to mycelium leading to secondary infection of the cell contents by bacteria. Cause due to
unpasteurized compost and casing soil.

Industrial Intomology and Mushrooms Cultivation

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Industrial Intomology and Mushrooms Cultivation

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2020

Scope of Bee keeping in Nepal

The scope and importance can be listed below……

 Poor deserve healthcare.

Effect of bee pollination on crop

Classification of honey bee

Honey bee species found in Nepal

Apis cerana (The Asian hive bee)

Apis mellifera:( The European bee)

Apis dorsata:( The giant honey bee)

Apis laboriosa:( The rock bee)

Fig: Morphology of honey bee

Fig: Anatomy of honey bee

1. Casts of Honey bee:

Household duties of worker

 Build comb with wax secretion from wax glands.

 Collecting nectar, pollen, propolis and water.

2. Life Cycle of Honey Bee

Management of honey bees during different season

o Provide sufficient shade, under trees or artificial structure

 Maintain strong and disease free colonies

Management during dearth period

 Remove empty combs and store in air tight container.

Rainy season and monsoon management

 Avoid dampness in apiary site. Provide proper drainage

 An apiary (also known as a bee yard) is a location where beehives of honey bees are kept.

Site selection for apiary management

Contributing factors to swarming

 Make the Hive Homey.

Disease and Pest of Honey Bee

c/o: Nosema apis

European foulbrood (EFB) is a brood disease caused by the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius.

Fig: comb cell infected by American Foulbrood disease

Pests of Honey Bee

SERICULTURE: Sericulture is the scientifically production or rearing of silkworm under

It is a finer variety of tasar generated by the silkworm, Antheraea proyeli J. in India which

Classification of Mulberry Silkworm

IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE

 High employment potential

 60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture activities in the country

 Provides vibrancy to village economies

 Low Gestation, High Returns

 Estimated investments of Rs.12,000 to 15,000 (excluding cost of land and rearing

 Women friendly Occupation

 Women constitute over 79 % of those employed in down-stream activities of

 Ideal Programme for Weaker Sections of the Society

 Sericulture can be practiced even with very low land holding.

 Eco-friendly Activity

 Satisfies Equity Concerns

 Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to rural households. As the end-

CULTIVATION OF MULBERRY /HOST PLANT OF SILKWORM

 Mulberry is mostly propagated through cuttings.

Selection of planting material

 Generally, the mulberry plants are raised from semi-hardwood cuttings.

Temperature and Humidity

Optimum temperatures and humidity for rearing silkworms of different instars are as

Egg Incubation and Hatching

There are two acceptable methods of brushing:

Signs of getting out of Moult

 The worms are active and move around

Stages of Growth and Feeding Methods

5th stage They stopped to feeding and goes in the rest stage.

Silkworm Density/Spacing of Worms: