Web Application

Unit-1
BASICS OF NETWORKING AND WEB
ARCHITECTURE
 Basic Networking Concepts

A network is any collection of

independent computers that
communicate with one another over a
shared network medium.
 Need for Networking
Computer networks can be used as means of resource sharing and communication.
• Resource Sharing: Connecting computers through networking allows us to share hardware
and software resources. Examples of hardware resources include peripherals (for example,
printers and scanners), CPU, and memory.
• Communication: Connecting computers through a network facilitates exchange of
information amongst the nodes in the network. For example, any of the computer systems in
Figure 1.1 may send data to any of the three computer systems or the printer, as it is
connected to every node in the network.
• Access to remote databases: It is easy for an average person to access any remote database,
say for example airline reservations and thereby book tickets. Likewise databases of trains,
online universities, hotels etc can be accessed as per the requirement.

Figure 1.1 Computer Network

 Requirements of a Network
Every network includes :
• A least two computers – Server or client workstation
• Network Interface Cards (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although
wireless communication between networked computers and peripherals is also possible
• Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell
NetWare, Unix and Linux.

Figure 1.2 Network interface card Figure 1.3 Network interface card
 Network Terminologies
Some terminologies commonly used in networking.
1. Nodes (Workstations) : A computer becomes a node (also called a workstation) as soon as it
is attached to a network. Each user on a network works on a workstation. If there are no
nodes there would be no network.

Figure 1.4 Nodes

 Network Terminologies
2. Server : A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the
network is known as server. A network can have more than one server also. Each server has
a unique name by which it is identified by all the nodes on the network.
Servers can be of two types:
a) Dedicated and b) Non dedicated servers
Dedicated Servers: These are generally used on big network installations where one computer is reserved for
the server's job. It helps all nodes access data, software and hardware resources. Since it does not double
up as a workstation but only manages the network, it is known as a dedicated server and such types of
networks are called master- slave networks.
Non dedicated servers: In small networks, a workstation can double up as a server. These servers are known as
non dedicated servers. The small networks using such a server are known as Peer to Peer networks.

Figure 1.5 Server

 Network Terminologies
3. Network Interface Unit (NIU):- A network interface unit is a device that is attached to each
of the workstations and the server which helps to establish communication between the
server and workstations. As soon as a standalone computer becomes a workstation, it needs
an interface to help establish connection with the network because without this the
workstations will not be able to share network resources or communicate with each other.
The NIC basically acts like an interpreter and is also known as Terminal Access Point (TAP) or
Network Interface card(NIC).The NIC manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each
NIC card and this physical address is known as the MAC address..

Figure 1.6 Network interface Unit

 Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used to efficiently transmit data across the network. The two types of
switching techniques employed nowadays to provide communication between two
computers on a network are:
• Circuit switching is when a dedicated channel or circuit needs to be established before users can speak to
each other on a call. A channel used in circuit switching is kept reserved at all times and is used once the
two users communicate.

Figure 1.7 Circuit Switching

 Switching Techniques
• Packet switching is different from circuit switching because there is no requirement to establish a channel.
The channel is available to users throughout the data network. Long messages are broken down into
packets and sent individually to the network.

Figure 1.8 Packet Switching

 Circuit Switching vs Packet Switching
1. Circuit switching and packet switching are undeniably two of the most widely-used
techniques for transferring data across enterprise networks.
2. Both of these two techniques have their own space within modern networking.
3. Using circuit switching allows you to keep a channel established for high priority voice calls
to give the users the best chance to communicate with each other.
4. In contrast, packet switching uses a more malleable approach so that traffic can travel a
variety of paths.
5. If you want to ensure that voice calls are adequately supported so that delay is minimized
then you’ll want to deploy circuit switching.
6. However, if you need to sustain lots of services at once then you’ll want to use packet
switching.
 Data communication terminologies
Let us learn about some data communication terminologies being used.
Channel
Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is called channel. Transmission channel may
be analog or digital. As the name suggests, analog channels transmit data using analog signals while
digital channels transmit data using digital signals. In popular network terminology, path over which data
is sent or received is called data channel. This data channel may be a tangible medium like copper wire
cables or broadcast medium like radio waves.
Bandwidth
Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its bandwidth. It is measured in bits per
second (bps). Modern day networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps and Gbps. Some of the factors
affecting a network’s bandwidth include −
• Network devices used
• Protocols used
• Number of users connected
• Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.
 Data communication terminologies
Data Transfer Rate
The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per unit time, is called data
transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps). 1 bps means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data
is transferred in 1 second.
• Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −
• 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second
• 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
• 1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
• 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps
Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to communicate over the network. Just like humans,
computers also need rules to ensure successful communication. If two people start speaking at the same
time or in different languages when no interpreter is present, no meaningful exchange of information can
occur.
Some common protocols used over the Internet are −
• Transmission Control Protocol
• Internet Protocol
• Point to Point Protocol
• File Transfer Protocol
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• Internet Message Access Protocol
 Network Types
On the basis of geographical span, the network can be broadly categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN,
and WAN..
Personal Area Network
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computers and devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a
PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even
video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN
typically extends to 10 meters.

Figure 1.9 Personal Area Network

 Network Types
Local Area Network
Local Area networks (LAN) are private networks and can span a radius of up to 1 Km. They are
generally established within a building or campus. LANs operate at a speed in the range 10
Mbps to 1 Gbps.

Figure 1.10 Local Area Network

 Network Types
Metropolitan Area Network
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) may be owned by a single organization or by many individuals
or organizations. These networks are used to establish links within a city, and span an area of
radius up to 50 Km. MANs facilitate sharing of resources by connecting various local area
networks For example, a cable television network within a city.

Figure 1.11 Metropolitan Area Network

 Network Types
Wide Area Network
Wide Area Network (WAN) spans about 1000 Km. They are used for long distance
communication and are well suited for connecting remote areas. They establish links within a
country or continent. A WAN may be owned and managed by several organizations. It
connects various local and metropolitan area networks.

Figure 1.12 Wide Area Network

Networking Concepts - II
 Transmission Medium
A transmission medium refers to the channel of transmission through which data can be
transmitted from one node to another in the form of signal. A signal encodes the data in a
form suitable for transmission on the medium.
A transmission medium may belong to one of the following two categories:
• Guided Medium: The term refers to physical conductors such as twisted pairs, coaxial cable, and fiber
optics. In twisted pair and coaxial cable, the signal travels as voltage and current signal whereas in optical
fibre, the signal is in the form of light.
• Unguided Medium: The unguided medium uses electro-magnetic waves that do not require a physical
conductor. Examples of unguided medium include microwave, radio wave, infrared.

Figure 2.1 Transmission Medium

 Network Topologies
The arrangement (also called layout) of nodes in a network is called network topology. There are broadly two
types of topologies - broadcast and point to point.
In broadcast topology, all nodes share the same physical link. When one node transmits, all nodes receive.
Broadcast topologies are mainly bus and ring.
In point to point topology, every pair of nodes has a dedicated link. Popular point to point topologies are star
and mesh.
Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to which many network
devices and workstations are attached along the length. Server is at one end of the bus. When a
workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with destination address in its header along the bus.

Figure 2.2 Bus Topology

 Network Topologies
Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a circular
shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.
When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits it to
the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data reverses
the network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the network. If the
data reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.

Figure 2.3 Ring Topology

 Network Topologies
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the central
node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server. It is the
most popular topology for information and voice networks as central node can process data
received from source node before sending it to the destination node.

Figure 2.3 Star Topology

 Network Topologies
Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It
incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called
hierarchical topology.

Figure 2.4 Tree Topology

 Network Topologies
Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a type of networking where all nodes cooperate to distribute data amongst
each other. This topology was originally developed 30+ years ago for military applications,
but today, they are typically used for things like home automation, smart HVAC control, and
smart buildings.

Figure 2.5 Mesh Topology

 Network Devices
Creation of a network requires various role in the network.
Modem
• Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data.
• The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa.
Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
• The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the
computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being
received by the computer.

Figure 2.6 Modem

 Network Devices
RJ45 Connector
• RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45.
• RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local
area networks (LANs).
• Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN.
• The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins at
both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to
the network.

Figure 2.6 RJ 45
 Network Devices
Ethernet Card
• Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used
by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN.
• The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed manually.
In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component.
• The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.

Figure 2.7 Ethernet Card

 Network Devices
Router
• A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if
both networks support the same set of protocols.
• So a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and the internet service
provider (ISP).
• It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data frames with their destination
address added. Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it
is also called repeater.

Figure 2.8 Router

 Network Devices
Switch
• Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks
through twisted pair cables.
• It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the
network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to it.
• On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the
correct port.

Figure 2.9 Switch

 Network Devices
Gateway
• Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks.
• A gateway can also be configured completely using software.
• As networks connect to a different network through gateways, these gateways are
usually hosts or end points of the network.

Figure 2.10 Gateway

 Network Devices
Wi-Fi Card
• Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to
achieve wireless connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect
any device to the local network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which
provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set
up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots themselves are connected to the
network through wires.

Figure 2.11 Wi-Fi Card

 Network Protocols
Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and
secure way. The most popular model used to establish open communication between two
systems is the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.
● Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used
for communicating over a network. It divides any message into a series of packets that are
sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
● Internet Protocol (IP) IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with
TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network
until it reaches the destination system. An IP address is a unique identifier for a node or host
connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as
4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated
by decimal points. Example: 140.179.220.200
● Point-to-Point Protocol PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is used for communication between two
computers using a serial interface, mostly a personal computer connected by phone line to a
server. For example, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) may provide you with a PPP
connection so that the ISP's server can respond to your requests, pass them on to the
Internet, and forward your requested Internet responses back to you.
 Network Protocols
● HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two
or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like
text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system for
establishing a connection with the server machine for making a request. The server
acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
● File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another.
Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
● Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP) SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing
EMail. SMTP is a reliable and easy to set up protocol. Messages either get to a recipient, or
there is an error message that explains why that wasn't possible. One of the purposes of an
SMTP is that it simplifies the communication of email messages between servers. It allows
the server to break up different parts of a message into categories the other server can
understand.
● Post office Protocol (POP) POP3 is designed for receiving incoming Emails. Post Office Protocol
3 or POP3 is the third version of a widespread method of receiving email which receives and
holds email for an individual until they pick it up.
 Network Protocols
• Telnet – Telnet is the main internet protocol for creating connection with a remote machine.
It allows you to connect to remote computers over a TCP/IP network (Such as the internet).
Once your telnet client establishes a connection to the remote host, your client becomes a
virtual terminal, allowing you to communicate with the remote host from your computer.
• Internet Relay Chat(IRC) – IRC protocol is used for chatting. It provides chatting between a
group or between two individuals. It was developed by JarkkoOikarinan in Finland in the late
1980s. It is based on the client/server model.
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – It enables the transfer of voice a packet switched
network rather than using a public switched telephone network. By using VoIP software,
phone calls can be done using standard internet connection. This method of making phone
calls is much cheaper than conventional way. There are three different methods of VoIP
service in common use today:
1. ATA – Analog to Digital converted. It is used to connect the telephone device to the computer.
2. IP Phones – IP phones appear much like an ordinary telephone or cordless phone. They are directly
connected to the router or the LAN.
3. Computer to Computer – It is the most easy and simple way to use VoIP. The only cost involved with
computer to computer VoIP is the monthly fee.
 Web Architecture
• Web Architecture can be defined as the conceptual structure of the
internet.
• The WWW or internet is a constantly changing medium that enables
communication between different users and the technical interaction
between different system and subsystems.
• The infrastructure of the internet is made of three core components of
data transmission protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTPS).
• Representation formats (HTML, CSS, XML), and addressing standard (URI,
URL).
• The World Wide Web is a concept that was realized in the 1990s so that
people and machines could communicate with each other with in certain
space.
• It is used to exchange, distribute, and share information in a network.
 Types of Web Architecture
• Client –server model – The web consisted of a two-tiered architecture
client and servers. Retrieving a website using a URL address that directs a
server to a load the site in the client’s browser is an example of the two-
layer model, also known as the client server model. Three prerequisites
must exist in the web architecture for the application systems to
communicate with one another:
– Representation formats with a fixed standard: The most frequently used formats are
HTML (HyperText Markup Language), CSS (Cascadding Style Sheet) or XML (Extensible
Markup Language)
– Protocols for data transfer : HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) or HTTPS (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Secure) is used in web. Other Application such as mail servers use
SMTP( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) or POP (Post Office Protocol).
– The Standard for addressing: This refers to the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) which is
a instance of the more general concept of URI.
 Types of Web Architecture
• Three Tier model –Three tier model include and application logic between the
client and the server, which handles the data processing and allows certain degree
of interaction. For example, an application server can process data while a
database server is dedicated solely to data storage. In this way, content can be
dynamically loaded and saved. There are different programming language and
frameworks to implement three tier models like:
– Hypertext Preprocessor
– Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
– JavaServer Pages (JSP)
– Active Server Pages (ASP.NET)
• Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) – With SOAs business processes can be
automated by the involved systems communicating with one another partly
without human intervention and performing certain tasks. Example online
banking, e-commerce, e-learning, online marketplace and business intelligence
applications. They are known as N-Tier Architectures.
 Identification of Computers and users over Network
• MAC Address - A MAC address is a hardware identification number that uniquely
identifies each device on a network. For this reason, MAC addresses are made up
of six two-digit hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons. For example, an
Ethernet card may have a MAC address of 00:0d:83:b1:c0:8e.
• IP (Internet Protocol) Address is an address of your network hardware. It helps in
connecting your computer to other devices on your network and all over the
world. An IP Address is made up of numbers or characters.
– An example of an IP address would be: 506.457.14.512
– All devices that are connected to an internet connection have a unique IP address which means
there’s a need of billions of IP addresses. This requirement is fulfilled by the new IP version IPv6.
– There are two IP versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the older version which has an space of over 4 billion
IP addresses. However, the new IPv6 version can provide up to trillions of IP addresses to fulfill the
need of all internet users and devices.
• Domain name is the address of your website that people type in the browser URL
bar to visit your website. In simple terms, if your website was a house, then your
domain name will be its address.
 Identification of Computers and users over Network
• MAC Address - A MAC address is a hardware identification number that uniquely
identifies each device on a network. For this reason, MAC addresses are made up
of six two-digit hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons. For example, an
Ethernet card may have a MAC address of 00:0d:83:b1:c0:8e.
• IP (Internet Protocol) Address is an address of your network hardware. It helps in
connecting your computer to other devices on your network and all over the
world. An IP Address is made up of numbers or characters.
– An example of an IP address would be: 506.457.14.512
– All devices that are connected to an internet connection have a unique IP address which means
there’s a need of billions of IP addresses. This requirement is fulfilled by the new IP version IPv6.
– There are two IP versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the older version which has an space of over 4 billion
IP addresses. However, the new IPv6 version can provide up to trillions of IP addresses to fulfill the
need of all internet users and devices.
• Domain name is the address of your website that people type in the browser URL
bar to visit your website. In simple terms, if your website was a house, then your
domain name will be its address.
 Network Threats and Security Measures
Malwares - Malware is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a
computer, server, client, or computer network. A wide variety of malware types
exist, including computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware,
adware, rogue software, wiper and scareware.

– Virus - A computer virus is a type of computer program that, when executed, replicates itself by
modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code. When this replication succeeds, the
affected areas are then said to be "infected" with a computer virus.
– Worm - A computer worm is a type of malware that spreads copies of itself
from computer to computer. A worm can replicate itself without any human interaction, and it does
not need to attach itself to a software program in order to cause damage.
– Trojan Horse - A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a type of malicious code or software that looks legitimate
but can take control of your computer. A Trojan is designed to damage, disrupt, steal, or in general
inflict some other harmful action on your data or network.
 Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping is the act of secretly or stealthily listening to the
private conversation or communications of others without
their consent in order to gather information. The practice is
widely regarded as unethical, and in many jurisdictions is
illegal.
 Denial of Service
A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is an attack meant to shut down
a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its intended
users.
A denial-of-service attack is a security event that occurs when an
attacker prevents legitimate users from accessing specific
computer systems, devices, services or other IT resources.
Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks typically flood servers, systems
or networks with traffic in order to overwhelm the victim's
resources and make it difficult or impossible for legitimate
users to access them.
 Phishing
Phishing is a cybercrime in which a target or targets are
contacted by email, telephone or text message by someone
posing as a legitimate institution to lure individuals into
providing sensitive data such as personally identifiable
information, banking and credit card details, and passwords.
 Cyber Crime
Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a crime that involves a computer
and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a
crime, or it may be the target. Cybercrime may threaten a person,
company or a nation's security and financial health.
Here are some specific examples of the different types of cybercrime:
• Email and internet fraud.
• Identity fraud (where personal information is stolen and used).
• Theft of financial or card payment data.
• Theft and sale of corporate data.
• Cyberextortion (demanding money to prevent a threatened attack).
• Ransomware attacks (a type of cyberextortion).
• Cryptojacking (where hackers mine cryptocurrency using resources they do not own).
Cryptojacking is the malicious use of a person or persons' computing power to mine
cryptocurrencies without consent. Often the victim has no idea their device is being used.
Cryptojacking has quickly become one the most common forms of malware.
• Cyberespionage (where hackers access government or company data).
 Cyber Law
Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with
the Internet, cyberspace, and their respective legal issues.
Cyber law covers a fairly broad area, encompassing several
subtopics including freedom of expression, access to and
usage of the Internet, and online privacy. Generically, cyber
law is referred to as the Law of the Internet.
Cyber offence under IT Act
• Tampering with computer source document – Section 65
• Hacking – Section 66
• Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form Section - 67
 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Issues
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over
the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an
exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain
period of time.
• Trademarks – Used to protect brand logos, company names, phrases, and
symbols.
• Patents – Used to protect manufacturing or design processes.
• Copyrights – Used to protect original works, such as art, dances, or
literature.
 Network Security Tools and Services
• Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A
firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted network and an
un-trusted network, such as the Internet.
• Antivirus Software that is created specifically to help detect, prevent and
remove malware (malicious software). Antivirus is a kind of software used
to prevent, scan, detect and delete viruses from a computer.
• Password Manager is a computer program that allows users to store,
generate, and manage their personal passwords for online services. A
password manager assists in generating and retrieving
complex passwords, potentially storing such passwords in
an encrypted database or calculating them on demand.