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Bolt Design For Repeated Loading
Bolt Design For Repeated Loading
Bolt Design For Repeated Loading
I
I
p
tan </> =-- (2) If the initial tightening load equals Pc, the force with
c'lc which the members are pressed together is changed
between the limits Po and 0 during the reversal of
Thus, tan 4J is equal to the compression stiffnes con-
the external load between 0 and F. In order to avoid
stant of the connected parts, ce'
an impact condition and to insure a leak-proof fit
The triangle ABC can be constructed. By adding
in the assembly (cylinder head, air chamber, etc.),
the external force F to the system, the bolt experi-
it is customary to make the magnitude of P larger
ences an additional extension ~8b and the final com-
than Po so that
pression of the spring representing the connected
parts becomes smaller by the amount ~8b' Therefore, P = kP c (10)
the bolt force P increases.by amount F" to the amount
F matJJ' Simultaneously, the load on the compressed in which k usually varies from 1.2 to 1.5, but can also
parts decreases by the amount P a to the magnitude be greater. The value of k depends on the type
of P 2 • The su~ of the forces F" and P s must be equal of the bolted assembly and on the accuracy with
to the external force F for the condition of equilibri- which the external force F and the stiffness con-
um, namely stants, Cb and Co, may be determined.
The dependence of Po and on the ratio of stiff-
F1)
or
F
.:l c'lb = -- - . ...... . ""
+ c
Cb C
(6)
(7)
F"",x = Pc + F" = F
c
( _ _C__ + __C_b_) = F DETERMINATION OF TWISTING MOMENT: With the
Cb + Cc Cb + C c
tightening of the nut, 'a twisting moment arises due
and the range ratio of the tension force acting on to friction between the nut and bolt threads. This
the bolt is, therefore, moment may be determined from
A+Y
F---
Cc
M = Pr m -cos
--
a:
Cb +C Co
R = ---
F
-c- = ---
Cb + Co where r"" = mean radius of the thread, inches; it =
helix angle of thread at the mean diameter; "i =
In practice the tightening load P must be somewhat angle of friction; IX = half angle of thread, measured
greater than Pc. Therefore, the type of bolt loading on th~ plane through the axis.
is somewhat different and, consequently, the range In practice, it is more convenient to use
ratio is somewhat higher than the value cel (c b + c e ). '.
However, the previous example shows the manner in M = (3 PD i14 )
which the stiffness constants C b and Cc influence the
type of bolt loading. where f3 = coefficient, determined experimentally;
Thus, from the previous discussion and considera- D = nominal diameter of the bolt, inches.
tion of Fig. 2, the equations for the general case are Coefficient f3 depends upon the magnitude of the
angle of friction as well as upon the type of thread.
(12)
Apparently the type of thread has little influence on
Ch + c.. the twi.:;ting moment, iJiI. Value of the angle of fric-
tion, however, varies significantly. Results of muner-
and also ous experiments show that coefficient f3 depends on:
(1) materials of the bolt and nut, (2) type of heat
P" + F I, =F (13)
treatment, (3) method of forming the threads, (4)
Of the two forces, PI' and F v' the force F'" is more condition of thread surface due to wear, (5) kind
critical for two reasons. First, strength of materials of plating, if any. (6) kind of lubrication, etc. Be-
()~" 06 r---t~--f----:""~~-1---+-..:...-..-1--.J--....;...j
'0
c
o
~ 0.4 r--h.,e-+-~~-+--'--~-4'-""-'+;----,J
'..... \l<...
ch/cr:
~'L~Ct{rNE:
DESIGN-November 1952 1il7
cause of these many variables, the value to be used lieve the bolt of torque. If this is done, the twisting
for M in strength calculation, when the bolts are moment, M, does not need to be determined for
highly stressed, should be based upon experimental strength calculation. This condition is considered
data for the case under consideration. later.
It must be remembered that torque on the wrench
differs from the moment, M, which affects strength
of the bolts. Torque on the wrench overcomes friction Stress Concentration and Local Stresses: On the
resistances both between the nut and bolt, and be- threaded portion of the bolt whic'h is inside the nut,
tween the nut and supporting surface, while the the following loads act simultaneously: (1) the bolt
moment M, which loads the bolt, depends upon fric- is stretched by the initial load P and by the additional
tion in' the threads only.-K· variable force F. v ; (2) the root cross-section is twisted
If specific experimental data are unavailable, aver- by the moment, which arises with the initial tighten-
age values of coefficient f3 for conventional bolt ing of the nut; (3) the threads experience bending
threads which can be used in Equation 14 are: 2·7 due to the pressure of the nut; (4) due to the pres-
sure of the nut, shearing stresses arise in the screw
Well-lubricated, ~mooth surfaces 0.10 threads; (5) compression appears between the thread
Unlubricated, Emooth surfaces 0.12
surfaces.
Well-lubricated, surfaces not smooth 0.13-0.15
Unlubricated, surfaces not smooth 0.18-0.20 Distribution of the axial load among the individual
threads is not uniform; thus, the distribution of bend-
Unlubricated refers to practically dry thread surfaces ing, shearing, and compressive stresses among the in-
(Le., surfaces that have not been intentionally lub- dividual threads is also not uniform. The nonuniform-
ricated but nevertheless could contain a small residue ity of distribution of load among the threads arises
of oil). Well-lubricated refers to oil lubrication. Since due to elastic deformation of the bolt and nut under
repeated tightening of bolts eventually wears out load. Therefore, this non uniformity appears even
the thread surfaces, values of f3 under these cir- in cases of ideal accuracy in thread production. By
cumstances must be based on thread surfaces not using a nut of a special shape, it is possible to de-
considered smooth. Values of f3 given are for steel crease the nonuniformity of force distribution among
bolts with the threads cut-not rolled or ground-and the individual threads and to increase-considerably
without plating. -the endurance strength of the 'bolt.
If bolts are highly stressed, it is desirable to re- Because of the great complexity of the stress con-
• In general, experiments show, the relationship between torque on
ditions at the critical cross-section of the bolt, the
the wrench and initial tightening of the nut, p. is very incoDsJstent and,
therefore, results of calCUlating the force P by torque on the wrench
analytica,I determination of the maximum stress at
are unreliable. Apparently, the only reliable method at present to de- these points is hardly possible. TherefoTe, the actual
termine initial tightening of the nut 1s by actual measurement of bolt
elongation. or effective stress concentration factor, K, must be
applied.
This factor represents the ratio of the strength
of the polished specimen containing no discontinuities
to the strength of the given member of the same
material and having the same critical cross-sectional
area. In determining the actual stress-concentration
factor, the same loading range ratio, R, must be ap-
plied to both the polished specimen and the member.
The subscript with K indicates the magnitude and
the sIgn of the range ratio of the corresponding load-
ing. Therefore, the actual stress-concentration factor
for altprm,Jp ]o::1r'ling ig K -v for gtl:'ady loading [(+1'
and for loading which changes from 0 to maximum
it is K o.
Any fluctuating load without impact can be in-
terpreted as ::1. r,omhinilt.inn of ::1 f':t.f'ar'ly ]o::ln (wit.h
R = +1) and an alternate load (with R = -I),
Fig. 4. Thus, for strength calculations it is neces-
sary to know the actual stress-concentration factors
for both steady a.nd alternate loading. The effect of
the local stresses in the threads and stress concen-
tration on the strength of the bolts for steady load-
ing has been checked by a number of investigators.s,l-!.
These investigations indicate that for static loading
the factor [(+1 can be considered as equal to one.
For some steels K+ 1 is found to be somewhat less
than one. Based on these results, the influence of
stress concentration and local stresses in bolts for
cases of steady loading can be neglected.
Such is not the case for alternate loading, where
stress concentration and local stresses greatly in- the endurance limit of the threaded specimens, with
fluence the strength of bolts. The effect of these fac- nuts. This ordinate is equal to a_11K- I , Point 0
tors on the strength of the baits for variable loading is the limit value for steady loading. It corresponds
has been investigated by a number of investigators. 9 • to the yield point of the material, as. Point 0' is the
12, 1525 In some of these experiments the bolts were yield point a's, as obtained from the test of threaded
investigated under conditions similar tD those existing specimens with nuts. Line ABODEA represents the
in actual bolted assemblies. Available data on actual endurance limits for notch-free specimens for dif-
stress-concentration factors in threads are still not ferent range ratio of loading cycles. The line
quite sufficient for reliable determination of their A'B'O'D'E'A' has the same meaning but for specimens
magnitudes. However, on the basis of data published with threads and nut. The diagram shows not only
it is possible to accept for the present the values the influence of the notch but the combined influence
shown in TABLE 1 for K_ l of all factors which lower the design strength of the
Values in TABLE 1 refer to bolts with the threads ma- bolt and nut assembly. Reliable experiments by Pomp
chined by cutting. When the threads are not heat- and Hempe)l2 show that the line A'B' could be taken
treated after forming and are either formed by roll- as a line parallel to the straight line 00 (zero to as)
ing or by rolling after initial cutting, values of K_ l with sufficient accuracy for practical calculations.
are low,:,r than those given in the table. This de- That is, for repeated bolt loading', the limiting am-
crease due to the rolling process could be stated in plitude of the alternate stress components (av)lilll at
per cent of the values given in TABLE 1 as follows point M, for example, does not depend upon the value
for various bolt materials: 9, 23-30 of the steady stress component. With this form of
Mecl1um carbon steels 14-18 per cent
endurance diagram, thc value of the stress limit,
Ductile alloy steels 20-24 pel' cent an, for an asymmetrical loading cycle can be ex-
Hard alloy steels 30-40 per cent pressed by the formula:
(19)
where Cb = stiffness constant of the bolt; C v C 2 • ••• C"
are the stiffness constants of the individual bolt por-
tions. If the outside diameter of the bearing surface of
the nut is set equal to the outside diameter of the
bearing surface of the head and is designated as D~
OJ = (17)
the diameter of the compression cylinder, d,l.' becomes
where E b = modulus of elasticity of bolt material,
• (20)
psi; A j = cross-section area of the corresponding
bolt portion, square inches; L i = length of this
portion, inches. Stiffness of the connected parts, as If !l thin plate is placed between the flanges, as
they are compressed, can be defined analytically when shown in Fig. 8, the general stiffness constant is de-
the forms of· the parts are relatively simple. termined according to
The assembly of two flat plates bound together 1 1 1
with bolts is an ex.alllvle, Fiy. 7. In this case the stiff- - - = - - + - - ... (21)
Cc cf cp
ness constant of the connected parts is
where cf = flange stiffness constant in compression
(181 obtained as Co from Equation 18; and cp = stiffness
constant of the plate, which is determined by
where Eo = moduluiil of elasticity of the flanging EpAc
materials' in compression, psi; hI + h 2 = flange cp = ---
hp
thickness, inches; A o = effective cross-section area
of the flange portions which are undergoing deforma- where E p = modulus of elasticity in compression of
tion, square inches. the plate material, psi; h p = thickness of the plate,
These flange cross-sections can be represented inches.
by compression cones, as shown in Fig. 7, which cut As was previously mentioned, stiffness of the
the bearing surfaces under the nut and the head at bolted members may be determined analytically with
an angle of about 45 degrees. Elasticity of a double sufficient accuracy for the case of a relatively simple
N= (25)
U max
This is the ratio of the nominal stress limit (endur- Table l-Stress Concentration Factors for Alter-
ance . rIml't for the given stress range ratio) to the nately Loaded Bolts*
Medlum-carbon Hest-treated
maxunum nominal stress at the cross-section under Thread Form Steel!l AllOY steels
considerati . .
15 on, III WhICh UR is obtained from Equation Whitworth thread and unified thread
and, from Fig. 4, with rounded root 3.2-3.8 6.4-6.0
Metrical standard DIN and OST. " .,. 4.4-6.0 6.6-6.4
CTml/:r == am + av . (26) Sellers (American National form wlth
fiat root) .•............•.......... 6.0-6.8 6.4-7.2
~ SUbstituting Equations 15 and 26 in Equation 25, • Lower values for softer and more ductile materials.
e safety factor is
MACHINE D 141
ESIGN--~overnber 1952
found by Moore and Henwood 15 as a means for de- TORSIONAL MOMENT: If the coefficient f;J = 0.15
termining the endurance limit for complete stress is used, Equation 14 gives moment, M = 372 lb-in.
reversals. It may be noticed that these factors are Smallest nominal stress due to the tension in the bolt
found for the load on the sp·ecimens which varies from cross-section with the diameter D K is
nearly zero to the maximum value. Therefore, use of
these factors for determining the endurance limits U",in = P+F'-F
Ax
v
== 4035 psi.
for completely reversed loading cycle could cause
considerable error in the results. Greatest nominal stress in the same cross-section is
1"-12 UNF
Fig. l~Dlesel-engine
coOQecting~rod bolt
!O;;terna.l load which comes on a single bolt is tor, N v approximately equals 1.36. The effect of bend-
ing stresses is not considered in this analysis. This
32,300
F = = 8075 psi effect may be rather significant for bolts in a connect-
4 ing rod which' has relatively flexible bolted members.
B d on published experimental data,19 we may con- Therefore, the safety factor 1.36 is probably too small
'das~ the ratio between. the bolt stiffness and the
S1 eI . '
stiff- for this kind of bolted assembly.
ness of the correspondmg parts of the connectmg rod SAFETY FACTOR AT SHANK CROSS-'SECTION: The crit-
. , that c~
as 1 .'15 =
1.5 Cb' Thus, the value of the crit-
u
ical shank cross-section is located at the fillet between
the shank and the head. The fillet radius is equal to
ieal tightening force is
a.08-inch. The shank diameter is D s = 0.75-inch. Cross-
P =F Cc
= 8075 - -1.5- - = 4845 pounds.
section area is As = 0.4418-square inches. Then CTlnin
Cb + Cc 1.0 + 1.5 =
= 15,350 psi; O"mu", = 22,670 psi; CT", 19,010 psi;
If k = 1.4, then P = 1.4 Po 6780 pounds. The vari- = and O"v = 3660 psi. According to Fig. 6, the actual
stress concentration factor for the steel used is equal
a:ble tension force due to the external load is
to K_ 1 = 1.9 to 2.0. We take K_ 1 = 2.0. The fatigue
Cb 1.0 strength of the shank for the given stress range ratio
F, = F --- = 8075 - - - - = 3230 pounds. is -CTR = 42,51Q. psi, and the safety factor is N. = 1.87.
Cb + Cc 1.0 + 1.5
This"shows that the critical section is at the threaded
Nominal stresses at the critical cross-section at the portion of the bolt.
thread are
P 6780 Improving Bolt Perfonnance: Reliability of a bolt-
<Tmin = ---
Ai(
= ---
0.633
= 10,700 psi; ed assembly can be increased considerably without
changing the basic diameter of the bolt. This could
6780 + 3230 be accomplished by decreasing four factors: (a) ef-
0.633
= 15,800 psi;
fective stress-concentration factor in the threads; (b)
O'm.az + Umin
longitudinal stiffness of the bolt; (c) magnitude of
Um =
2
= 13,250 psi; K_ 1 in the critical shank cross-section and; (d) bend-
ing stresses in the bolt.
(Jmnx - (JOlin At the threads [(_1 can be decreased by rolling the
<T. = ------
2
= 2550 psi. threads, or by using a rolling process after cutting.
Another method is to use a special nut shape which
results in a more uniform load distribution among the
individual threads than in an ordinary nut.
Longitudinal bolt stiffness could be decreased by
decreasing the shank cross-sectional area. However.
this method is limited because of the simultaneous in-
crease of stress in the shank.
The magnitude of K_ 1 at the critical shank cross-
section could be decreased in some cases by increas-
ing the fillet radii at the junction between the shank
and head and at other places where the diameters
change.
BENDING STRESSES: Repeated bending stresses oc-
cur in the bolts due to deformation of the bolted
members under external load. Usually the bending
stiffness of the bolted members is much higher than
the bending stiffness of the bolts. Therefore, the
magnitude of the bending deformation of the bolts
depends primarily upon the stiffness of the bolted
members. It is desirable to reduce the bending mo-
ment that acts on the critical bolt cross-section as
much as possible. Generally, this critical section is
Fig.
due
located at the threaded portion of the bolt. The bend-
ing moment acting on the shank depends upon the
flexibility of the shank. If the radius of curvature, p,
which depends mostly upon the flexibility of bolted
:"L~CHlNE D
, ESlGN-November 1952 143
members, is given, this bending moment is equal to cross-section (in threaded bolt portion) are only in-
significantly smaller, since the moment of inertia of
E b 7T
_-D4 •• (29) the ring at the shank cross-section differs very little
64 p S
from the moment of inertia of the whole cross-section
with the same diameter.
where E b modulus of elasticity of the bolt material,
psi; I= moment of inertia of the shank cross-section, Three different cross-sections with the same area
inches 4 ; p = radius of curvature of the bolt axis, are represented in Fig. 13. The cross-section at the
right, seemingly, solves the problem of decreasing the
inches; D8 = shanl{ diameter, inches (see Fig. 11).
The same moment, M b , acts on the critical cross- bending stresses in the best manner, while the left
cross-section does it in the poorest manner. The bolt
section of the threaded portion of the bolt. There-
fore, the nominal bending stress at the threaded por- with the shank cross-section represented at the right
tion of the bolt is equal to could be used with success if the repeated bending
moment acts in one definite plane relative to the bolt,
which is usually the case in machine parts. The pre-
64p supposition is that the bolt bends in the plane X-X'.
In the case of a circular flange joint the axes X-X'
must coincide with the radii of the flange.
32
where D Ii: = minor diameter of the screw thread, Improved Connecting Rod Design: By applying
inches; Zb = section modulus of the threaded portion the above-mentioned measures to the bolts of the pre-
of the bolt, inches 3 • Thus, by decreasing the shank vious connecting rod example, the safety factor could
diameter, the magnitude of the bending stress at the be increased without changing the basic diameter of
critical bolt cross-section decreases very rapidly. Since the thread. The following steps are taken: (a) the
the bending moment and, consequently, the stress in thread is finished by rolling after cutting; (b) the nut
the critical cross-section depends upon the moment of is undercut in order to have more uniform load dis-
inertia of the shank cross-section, it is highly desir- tribution among the threads; (c) a form is given to
able to decrease, as far as possible, the moment of the shank, corresponding to Fig. 12b, by which the
inertia of the shank. The actual radius of curvature, smallest bending stresses can be obtained; (d) the
p, hardly can be calculated in most cases. Therefore, radii of all fillets are made equal to. Ys-inch.
'.lominal bending stresses cannot be taken into con- The actual stress concentration factor, K -1' in the
sideration when determining the safety factor, al- thread which was previously equal to 5.7, decreases
though they influence rather significantly the strength by an amount of 30 to 40 per cent due to the rolling
of some bolted assemblies'!. 36, 37 However, these effect and by an amount of 25 to 30 per cent due to
bending stresses must be kept in mind in design. the nut undercutting (References 2, 19, 21, 26, 35, 38,
From this standpoint, the design shown in Fig. 12a 39, 41, 42). Therefore, from the lower value of these
is very unsatisfactory. In this rather widely used de- figures, K_ 1 :::::: 3.0. The nominal stresses remain un-
sign, the cross-sectional area is decreased by drilling changed because the loads and the cross-section areas
a hole in the shank along its axis. By this means remain the same as previously calculated. Therefore,
only the longitudinal stiffness can be decreased. Bend- UR, reduces to 28,900 psi and the safety factor, N" be-
ing stresses in the shank remain the same as those in cqmes 1.83. This safety factor of 1.83 can be consid-
the solid shank having the same outside diameter. ered as satisfactory for this kind of assembly. The
Bending moment and bending stresses at the critical magnitude of the safety faci'or increases from 1.36 to
Usually there are two critical cross-sections where where D K is the minor diameter of the screw thread.
the safety factor of the bolt must be checked. These Equations 31 and 32 are based upon the assumption
are section I-I at the thread and section II-II at
that the line of the limiting nominal stresses in the
Lhe junction between the shank and head, Fig. 8. Goodman diagram, Fig. 5, for the cross-section I-I,
Sometimes the critical section II-II can be located at
as well as the same line for the cross-section II-II
other points of the Shank. We have already found
are parallel to the line zero to us' This is true for
that salety factor in the threads increases with a de-
cross-section I-I, but may be an approximation for
crease of the shank stiffness. But, at the same time,
cross-section II-h. the values A" and D s from
When he shank cross-section decreases, stresses in
Equations 31 and 32 must be considered as the theo-
the cross-section IT-II increase and the safety fac-
tor ". . ' retical minimum shank cross-section area and diam-
, , tn thls section decreases. Theoretically, high-
est reJ" b'l' eter, respectively. For practical purposes the shank_
la '1 'tty of the bolt will be reached when the
diameter should be somewhat greater than this mini-
Safety factor at both critical section I-I and II-II
a t'e equal " ' mum value to assure that the shank will not become
. ~ll Illvestigation can be conducted of the
case wh' 'h h weaker than the threaded portion of the bolt. The
ternal 11C ap~ens often in machine design-the ex- extent to which the shank cross-sectional area can be
from. ~ad achng on the bolted assembly changes decreased is also limited because the magnitude of
unloa~e~O to maximum, Also assume that the bolt is Urn " + (U - /K
1 - 1") must not exceed the magnitude
ecti r from the torsional moment. At the cross- of Us for the bolt material. Furthern;lOre, shearing
On -I, Fig. 8,
stresses in the shank due to torsional moment in-
U rnin ' :::: k ( ~) ( Co )
crease rapidly as the shank diameter decreases. There-
A Cb + Co fore, if the diameter of the shank is much smaller
MAClIThlE D
ESIGN-:November 1952 145
than the thread diameter, normal and shearing stress- 16. H, Wiegand-aber die Dauer/estlgkelt von Schraubenwerkstef!en Und
f~~r~ubenverblndUngen, Dissertation, Tech. Hochschule, Darmstadt.
es arising in the shank when the nut is tightened
17. A. Thum and WUrges--Dle Zweckmasslge Vorspannung In Schrau_
must be checked. For bolts which are not relieved benverblndungen, V. D, 1. Verlag, Berlin, 1940.
from the torque, the safety factor N" must be deter- 18. A, Thurn and Lorenz---Vorspannung and Daue'rhaltbarkelt an Schrau_
~';~~i~bi~~~~gen mit olner und mehreren Schrauben, V. D. I. Verlag,
mined using Equation 28. This factor must be some-
what greater than the factor N' determined using the 19. A. Thum and F. Debus-Vorspannung und Dauerhaltbarkeit von
Schraubenverblndungen, V. D. I. Verlag, Berlin, 1936.
same formula. 20. A. Thum and W. Staeclel-"Uber die DauerfestJ~kelt von Schrauben
und Ihre Beelnllussung durell Formgebung-Herstellungsart and
Werkstoff," Ze/tsohrl/t MU6clllllellbau, No. 11. 1932.
I
Summary: The new calculation method suggested 21. A. Thum and H. Wiegand-"Die Dauerhaltbarkeit von Schrabenver_ J