Ch.

1 - Cellular Function
Sunday, January 8, 2023 17:36

Summary:
• Cells are the basic units of life that adapt to challenges presented in order to not die
○ Adaptations can be permanent or reversed
• Neoplasms occur when there is proliferation or differentiation in cells
○ The more differentiation = more they are like the parent cells
○ The less differentiation = less they are like the parent cells
Benign neoplasms Malignant neoplasms
More differentiated Less differentiated
•
Less likely to be harmful to host More likely to be harmful to host
Less likely to metastasize (except in location) More likely to metastasize
• Teratogens = factors that disrupt normal fetal development or interact with defective
genes --> genetic/congenital disorders (which can be present at birth or present later
in life)
○ Ex:
§ Chemicals
§ Radiation
§ Infections

Intro
• Any alterations or maladaptations made to cells creates a foundation for disease to
develop

Basic Cell Function and Structure

• Basic cell components
○ Cytoplasm aka protoplasm = colorless/viscous liquid made of water, nutrients,
ions, dissolved gas, and waste that allows cellular work to take place but
supporting the organelles
○ Organelles = internal cell structures that work to maintain cell's life
○ Cell membrane aka plasma membrane = semipermeable boundary that contain
the cell and its organelles
• Organelles and their components (table 1-1)
○ Histones = proteins that bind DNA into chromosomes
○ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) connects nucleus to cell membrane
○ Polysomes = mRNA and ribosomes
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 ○ Cell membrane aka plasma membrane = semipermeable boundary that contain
the cell and its organelles
• Organelles and their components (table 1-1)
○ Histones = proteins that bind DNA into chromosomes
○ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) connects nucleus to cell membrane
○ Polysomes = mRNA and ribosomes
○ mRNA = carries genetic material from DNA
○ Nicotine adenine dinucleotide and ATP = cell's fuel source
○ Not all cells have cilia
○ Flagella only found on sperm
○ Centrioles are only found in animal cells
• Cellular permeability = ability of the cell to dictate what enters the cell and what does
not
• Diffusion = movement of solutes from high concentrations to low concentrations
○ Solutes = particles dissolved in a solvent
○ Solvent = dissolves solutes
○ Solution = made of solvent and solutes
• Facilitated diffusion = movement of substances from high concentration to low
concentration with help of carrier molecule
○ No energy needed for this
○ Number of molecules moved depends on concentration of carrier molecule
• Osmosis = movement of water (or any other solvent) from area of high water
concentration (low solute concentration) to area of low water concentration (high
solute concentration)
○ Osmotic pressure decreases with overhydration and increases with dehydratio
○ Osmotic pressure depends on solute concentration NOT water amount
§ Will go to areas of high solute
• Things that affect filtration (movement out of the cell) and reabsorption (movement
into the cell)
○ Osmotic pressure
§ When high, will draw water in (bc increase in pressure = dehydration)
§ When low, will push water out
○ Hydrostatic pressure
§ When high, will push water out
§ When low, will draw water in
○ Colloid osmotic pressure aka oncotic pressure
§ When high, will draw water into the cell
§ When low, unable to bring water into the cell so water stays out
• Active transport = using a carrier molecule and ATP to carry substances from areas o
low concentration to areas of high concentration
○ Going against the concentration gradient
• Osmolality = fluids inside body
○ Normal = 270-300
○ Osmolol gap = difference between measured osmolality and calculated
osmolality
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 low concentration to areas of high concentration
○ Going against the concentration gradient
• Osmolality = fluids inside body
○ Normal = 270-300
○ Osmolol gap = difference between measured osmolality and calculated
osmolality
§ Normal = 6
• Osmolarity = fluids outside body
○ Normal = 282-295
• Endocytosis = bringing substance into a cell that is too large to come in otherwise
• Exocytosis = releasing of large particles within a sac out of the cell onto the cell
membrane
• Lactate levels can increase through
○ Hypoxia (decreased o2 intake)
○ Decreased perfusion of o2 to tissues
○ O2 demand is increased (despite adequate o2 perfusion and uptake)
○ Liver/kidneys not being able to metabolize and excrete lactic
• Chromosomes, DNA, genes
Chromosomes Made of DNA, histones, and nonhistones; made of 2 indentical
chromatids held together by centromere
Nucleotide Where genetic codes are stored; double helix strand made of
sugar molecules and phosphates attached by nitrogen bases
Chromatin DNA that is combined/wrapped around histones; when coiled
up and form a structure, this makes up a chromosome
Base pairs Adenine with thymine, guanine with cytosine
○
Genes Small parts/sections attached to the double helix
Genotype aka Blueprint of the gene
karyotype
Genome Complete set of DNA and genes
Phenotype Physical expression of genotype
Chromatid Individual copies; each half makes up 1 chromosome
• Figure 1-11: cell cycle
• Types of stem cells
○ Pluripotent = primitive, undifferentiated; still in embryonic stage; can develop
into any type of cell
○ Multipotent = adult stem cells; can only make cells from same germ layer
○ Unipotent = adult stem cells; can only make single cell type
• Germ layers
○ Peripheral = placenta
○ Inner
§ Ectoderm = outer layer
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 ○ Multipotent = adult stem cells; can only make cells from same germ layer
○ Unipotent = adult stem cells; can only make single cell type
• Germ layers
○ Peripheral = placenta
○ Inner
§ Ectoderm = outer layer
□ Ex: brain, spinal cord
§ Mesoderm = middle layer
§ Endoderm = inner layer
□ Ex: digestive system

Cellular Organization
• Tissue types
○ Epithelial = lines outside and interior areas of body
○ Connective = made up of a large extracellular matrix and fibroblasts to make di
types of fibers
○ Muscle tissue = made of myocytes
§ Myocytes = made of contractile proteins actin and myosin
○ Neural tissue = made of neurons to process and transmit info

Cell Adaptation and Damage

• Figure 1-14
○ With necrosis, the death of the cell will illicit an inflammatory response
○ With apoptosis, the death of the cell does NOT illicit an inflammatory response
AND results in phagocytosis of the fragments
• Phases of carcinogenesis
a. Initiation = exposure of normal cell to environmental substance/damage that
causes DNA to be damaged or mutate
b. Promotion = involves mutated cells' exposure to factors that promote further
growth
c. Progression = tumor invades, metastasizes, and becomes drug resistant
i. Permanent/irreversible
• DNA methylation = causes gene to be inactive --> inhibiting transcription of DNA
• Acetylation = uncoiling of histones using histone acetyltransferase
○ Allows access for transcription of DNA
• microRNA = non-coding proteins that decrease mRNA's translation of DNA
○ Functions as a regulator

Genetic and Congenital Disorders

• Single-gene disorders aka Mendelian inheritance patterns
○ Incomplete penetrance = have genotype of disorder but its feature may never
develop
○ Variable expressivity = have genetic disorder but clinical s/s vary widely
• Hereditary mutations = passed on from mom/dad
• Acquired mutations = not passed on from mom/dad; comes spontaneously or d/t
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• Single-gene disorders aka Mendelian inheritance patterns
○ Incomplete penetrance = have genotype of disorder but its feature may never
develop
○ Variable expressivity = have genetic disorder but clinical s/s vary widely
• Hereditary mutations = passed on from mom/dad
• Acquired mutations = not passed on from mom/dad; comes spontaneously or d/t
environmental factors
• Autosomal dominant disorders
○ Ex: marfans, neurofibromatosis
• Autosomal recessive disorders
○ Ex: phenylketonuria, tay-sachs
• Sex-linked disorders
○ Ex: Fragile x syndrome
• Aneuploidy = creation of too much or too little chromosomes --> congenital disorders
○ Ex: down syndrome (trisomy 21)
○ X-linked
§ Ex: turner syndrome (monosomy X)
§ Klinefelter syndrome (polysomy X)
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