Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Review

Thermal performance evaluation of solar water heating systems in

Australia, Taiwan and Japan e A comparative review
E. Halawa a, *, K.C. Chang b, M. Yoshinaga c
a
Centre for Renewable Energy (CRE), Research Institute for the Livelihoods and Environments (RIEL), Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia
b
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Science and Technology, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The need for domestic hot water in regions with cool climate represents a significant proportion of
Received 20 December 2014 domestic energy consumption. The steady increase in the electricity costs and environmental concern
Accepted 8 April 2015 from use of fossil-based fuel raises the interest in the search for alternative energy sources. In the case of
Available online 29 April 2015
domestic hot water provision, many governments have initiated a gradual switch to more environ-
mentally friendly systems powered by renewable energy such as solar. Solar water heating (SWH) is a
Keywords:
mature technology and is gaining popularity in many countries with increasing number of affluent
Solar industry
population in society. The increasing adoption of these systems and technologies is a welcome devel-
Solar water heating systems
Thermal performance rating
opment; however the robust methods of assessment of their thermal performances are required. This
Subsidies paper presents a comparative study of the methods of evaluation of SWH systems' thermal performance
Renewable energy certificates in three countries with increasing hot water systems penetration: Australia, Taiwan and Japan. The aim of
this comparative study is to discuss merits and weaknesses of each approach and to explore possible
common approach that will improve the existing methodologies.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
While energy efficiency has played a significant role in curbing
energy consumption in many countries over the last 3 e 4 decades
[1e3], ever increasing activities in all sectors and inevitable
depletion of fossil-based fuel resources make it necessary to find
alternative resources. The pairing of energy efficiency and renew-
able energy in meeting future energy demands has been hailed as
the most promising pathway for energy sustainability [4].
A number of studies have carried out the technical, economic,
environmental and life cycle analyses of SWH systems. The work of
Morrison and his co-workers (e.g. Refs. [5e8]) dealt mainly with
the research on characterisation and development of various types
of SWH systems, the results of which have made their way into
relevant Australian (and New Zealand) standards. Tsilingiridis et al.
[9] carried out life cycle environmental analysis of a thermosyphon
SWH system and found that domestic SHW systems can make
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ61 8 8946 6249; fax: þ61 8 8946 7720.
E-mail addresses: Edward.Halawa@cdu.edu.au, e.halawa@gmail.com
(E. Halawa).
significant energy saving of electrical water heater but this benefit
would be significantly reduced if the system they replace are
powered by natural gas. The same study showed that steel and
copper used in making the SWH systems “have the major contri-
bution on the environmental impacts [[9], p. 1288]. A study carried
out by Kalogirou [10] revealed that the energy saving of about 79%
can be attained from installing thermosyphon SHW systems which
translates to a monetary payback period of 2.7 years. Furthermore,
the study showed that energy used for the systems fabrication and
installation could be recovered within 13 months of the system
operation. A study on 30 years (1978e2007) use of domestic SWH
systems in Greece [11] demonstrated the significant energy saving
and greenhouse gas emission reduction due to installation of those
systems.
In Australia, domestic hot water consumption represents about
a quarter of the total energy consumption in residential sector [12].
In 2011 more than half (52%) of hot water systems were electric and
36% were run by mains gas [13]. SWH systems share is still rela-
tively small at about 8%, despite a twofold increase from 2005
figure of 4% [14]. The 2010e2011 energy consumption figures show
that solar hot water systems contributed 11 PJ to Australia's energy
production which accounted for 4.23% of total renewable energy

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.04.023
0960-1481/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1280 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286
production. This is an almost twofold increase from the 2006e2007
of 6 PJ. Based on the latest figures released in September 2014, the
total number of SWH systems and air source heat pumps installed
in Australia within the period 2001e2014 are 881 872; of which
54 938 units were installed in 2014 [15], as shown in Fig. 1. As seen,
the number of units installed peaked at 2009 coinciding with the
Australian government introduction of Solar Hot Water Rebate for
the systems “installed on or after 3 February 2009 until 30 June
2012” [16]. A recent study projected that total installation of SWH
systems in 2014 would reach 30 520 units and would rise to 43 141
in 2016, a significant increase ‘driven by rebate to be made available
under the “One million solar roofs” program’ [17].
The prospect for more efficient and more environmentally
friendly forms of water heating systems (including solar hot water
systems) was boosted by the introduction of Australian (federal,
state/territory) governments' initiative to phase out greenhouse
intensive (electric) hot water system starting from 1 January 2010
[18]. Following this, all new Class 1 buildings in all states (except
Northern Territory, Queensland and Tasmania) have restricted the
installation of greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive hot water systems
[19].
Taiwan is an isolated island and depends exclusively on im-
ported fossil fuels to fulfill its energy needs. In 2012, the total do-
mestic energy consumption was 100,383  103 metric ton of oil
equivalent, in which the energy use in the industrial and residential
sectors accounted for 38.2% and 10.9%, respectively [20]. Moreover,
utilization of renewable energy sources is critical for future socio-
economic development. The Renewable Energy Development Bill
was promulgated in 2010 by the government of Taiwan. The total
capacity for power generation by renewable energy was
3696.7 MW in 2012, including conventional hydropower
(2081.3 MW), wind power (571 MW), solar photovoltaic
(222.4 MW), and biomass (822 MW). The accumulated area of solar
collectors for SWH systems installed in Taiwan reached 2.27 million
m2 [21]. The renewable energy accounted for 1.89% of the total
energy production [20].
Taiwan, straddling the Tropic of Cancer, is situated between
latitudes 22 and 25 N. Insolation ranges between 1 200 and 1 700
kWh/m2/year. Solar thermal system has potential to help reduce
domestic energy consumption of LPG, natural gas and electricity.
The area of solar collectors installed per annum (SASC) in Taiwan is
shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the installed area of SWHs was
quite limited (SASC < 10 000 m2) until the mid 1980s. The signifi-
cant increase in SASC after 1986 was due to the first subsidy pro-
gram (1986e1991). The second subsidy program was initiated in
2000 [22]. The accumulated area of solar collector installed
Fig. 1. Number of SWH and air source heat pump systems installation in Australia,
2001e2014 [15].
Fig. 2. SAsc in Taiwan, 1982e2013.
(2000e2013) is approximately 1.5 million m2. A remarkable in-
crease in installation of SWH resulted in a price reduction in the
first four years. However, the price has changed little in recent
years. In terms of sale price of solar collectors for SWH, the current
cost is approximately 10 500 NTD/m2 (Chang et al.,20141). A direct
subsidy of 2 250 NTD/m2, based on the area of solar collectors
installed (ASC), is granted to the end user who purchases a certified
SWH with glazed flat-plate or evacuated-tube type solar collectors.
The subsidy is 1500 NTD/m2 for unglazed flat-plate solar collectors.
It has also been noted that the noticeable increase in the sales of
SWH systems in 2010 was attributed to additional regional subsidy
programs by few local governments [23]. However, it is considered
that the financial incentive might only be remarkably effective at
the initial stage of each subsidy program [23]. Nevertheless,
dissemination of SWH systems represents the most successful story
of utilization of renewable energy in Taiwan.
Japan is one among 12 countries in the world with significant
capacity of SWH systems in operation by the end of 2011 with 1.5%
share of the world's total capacity of 223 GWth [24]. However most
of these systems were installed in 1970e80s and the number of
new installation has continuously dropped, as shown in Fig. 3.
The history of use of solar-powered hot water systems in Japan
perhaps can be traced back to the work of Ei-ichi Okamodo who
founded Chiryu Heater in 1944, a solar thermal company that “has
relentlessly produced collectors and tanks since 1957” [26].
Japan's Solar Energy Utilization and Promotion Forum (SEUPF)
was established in 2009. The Forum set up 5 working groups,
namely on: (1) Promotion Policies, (2) Housing Technologies, (3)
Standardization, (4) Design, and (5) Commercial Technologies. The
Housing Technologies Working Group is tasked to establish the
methodology for rating the solar domestic hot water systems in
Japan [27]. The work on systems rating was envisioned as a means
of stimulating the market.
This paper presents a comparative study of methods for evalu-
ating the thermal performance of SWH systems in Australia, Taiwan
and Japan. The main objectives of the SWH systems rating are to (1)
help consumers in making appropriate decision in choosing the
appropriate systems, (2) verify the claimed energy performance
and greenhouse gas offsets of the system, (3) provide basis for
1
1 USD z30 NTD.
 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286
Fig. 3. Number of SWH systems installation in Japan, 1975e2013 [25].
comparison of greenhouse impact of all forms of water heating
appliances, and (4) provide the reference for supporting program
such as subsidy or rebate schemes [28].
2. Assessment methodologies
There are a number of existing standards that have been
developed for evaluating the thermal performance of solar collec-
tors. Based on the classification made in a review paper on the test
standards for SWHs [29], the test standards can be split into two
principal groups based on their approaches. One is stationary
methods specifying that the test should be carried out for a number
of hours which satisfy certain basic weather conditions. These
methods can be applicable to either thermosyphon or forced-flow
type of SWHs. The other is dynamic methods which have been
developed in order to minimize test duration and carry out tests
under any weather conditions. These existing test standards can be
further grouped as indoor and outdoor methods. The indoor testing
under a solar simulator provides an ideal facility for controlling
various environmental parameters independently, but its testing
cost is more expensive as compared to the equivalent outdoor
testing. Further, the realistic simulation of actual outdoor sky
conditions, such as the diffuse fraction of insolation, is difficult to be
realized in the indoor testing. Thus, outdoor testing is usually
preferred. This includes the ISO Standard 9806e1:1995 [30] and the
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 93:2003 [31].
2.1. Australia
There has been some interesting development recently with
termination and changes of some of the incentive schemes nor-
mally offered to people who purchase SHW systems. At federal
level, the previous incentive scheme in the form of renewable en-
ergy certificates (RECs) for small scale renewable systems is now
available as small scale technology certificates (STCs).2 However, at
state/territory level, most of the incentive schemes have now been
terminated. For example, Victoria solar hot water rebate was closed
in May 2013, although the other incentive, the Victorian Energy
Efficiency Certificates (VEECs) - known as the Energy Saver Incen-
tive e is still offered [33] but will be closed at the end of 2015 [34].
2
The Certificate was introduced in 2001 as the Renewable Energy Certificate
(REC) created under the Commonwealth Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000
[32].
1281
In New South Wales (NSW), the State Government financial
incentive3 for solar or heat pump hot water systems or for gas hot
water systems ended in 30 June 2011 [35]. Similarly, the Queens-
land government solar hot water rebate scheme which commenced
in 1 July 2010 ceased in June 2012 [36].
2.1.1. The methodology
The existence of various renewable energy incentives at both
federal and state/territory levels as mentioned above has created
some variation on energy performance evaluation of the SWH
systems for the purpose of determining the various financial
incentives.
Despite these minor differences, the methodology is based on “a
combination of test results for component performance and a math-
ematical model to determine the standardized annual purchased en-
ergy use” [37]. In this approach, the actual thermal performance of
the main components of a SWH system (solar collector, tank and
pump) is tested using a standardized method in laboratory or test
field while the overall system performance is assessed using rating
software developed for that purpose [38].
Three related standard are used for thermal performance eval-
uation of SWH systems in Australia, namely: AS/ANZ 2535.1:2007
[39], AS/NZS 4234:2008 [36] and AS 3498:2009 [40]. The former is
used to evaluate the thermal performance of glazed liquid collec-
tors including the pressure drop whilst the second for calculating
the energy consumption. The AS 3498:2009 [41] concerns the re-
quirements for plumbing products including requirements for
compliance with the legionella control. The AS/ANZ 2535.1:2007
[39] is part of ISO 9806 [41], an international standard that evalu-
ates durability, reliability and safety as well as the thermal perfor-
mance of fluid heating conditions under steady-state and quasi-
steady-state collector. Like ISO 9806 [41], AS/ANZ 2535.1:2007
[39] is not intended to cover the integrated collector storage solar
water heating systems4
2.1.2. Overview of the AS/ANZ 2535.1:2007 Procedure5e7
The Standard details the procedure for steady-state efficiency
testing outdoor or indoor using a solar simulator. Whichever
method is used, the aim of the test is to obtain the coefficients of
the collector characteristic equation which is normally expressed in
a quadratic form:
DT ðDTÞ2
hcoll ¼ c0  c1  c2 ; (1)
G G
which applies to flat plate collector whose heat lose coefficient is
temperature dependent., or quadratic form:
4 4
DT T  Ta
hcoll ¼ c0  c1  c2 ; (2)
G G
for evacuated tubular collectors.
In the above equations:
3
The incentive came under NSW Home Saver Rebates Program (formerly the
Residential Rebates Program).
4
These systems combine the function of heat collection and storage; as such
individual assessment of each function cannot be carried out.
5
The discussion is focussed on the thermal performance evaluation aspect
covered in the Standard.
6
Although the Standards discussed in this Section apply to both Australia and
New Zealand, the discussion is focused for Australia solar hot water systems.
7
Variations to the ISO 9806:1 take into account specific conditions which apply
to which Australia (and New Zealand). These include additional test requirements
for outdoor steady-state efficiency test which sets operating ranges for efficiency
testing. This is detailed in Annex ZB of the Standard [39].
1282 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286
hcoll ¼ collector efficiency, percent
c0 ¼ maximum (intercept) efficiency
¼FR(ta)
c1 ¼ negative of the slope of the efficiency curve, kJ/(hr.m2K)
c2 ¼ negative of the second order efficiency coefficient, kJ/
(hr.m2-K2)
DT ¼ collector temperature difference, either (Tcin  Ta) or
(Tm  Ta), K
Tcin ¼ collector fluid inlet temperature,  C
Ta ¼ ambient temperature,  C
Tm ¼ 0.5 * (Tcin þ Tcout), K
FR ¼ collector heat removal factor, fraction
(ta)n ¼ transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence,
fraction.
I ¼ solar irradiance on the collector surface, kJ/hr-m2.
As seen, the calculation of the collector characteristic equation
coefficients requires the measurements of fluid inlet and outlet
temperatures (Tcin and Tcout), ambient temperature (Ta) and solar
irradiance (I) on the collector surface at the constant fluid mass
flow rate.
The thermal performance of the solar collector is affected by
collector materials (through (ta) product), insulation, collector
orientation and slope and the environment (wind, dust, etc.).
2.1.3. Overview of the AS/ANZ 4234:2008 procedure
The Standard uses the combination of test results and computer
modeling to assess the annual energy performance of water
heaters. For solar and heat pump waters heaters, the Standard
provides the procedure for calculating the energy displaced by
those systems compared to the reference water heaters. This is
required in the calculation of small scale technology certificates
(STCs) of these systems.
The fraction of energy savings is defined as:
ðBr  ðBs þ Be ÞÞ
fR ¼ ; (3)
Br
where:
Br ¼ annual purchased energy use of the reference water heater
using the same fuel type and supplying the same load in the
same zone,
Bs ¼ annual supplementary energy use for the system being
rated
Be ¼ annual electrical energy used by auxiliary equipment for
the system being rated
In Equation (3), the numerator is equivalent annual displaced
energy (DE) for the system. For gas boosted systems, DE is evalu-
ated as follows:
h  h i
ref
DE ¼ Br  Bg þ Be (4)
100
where href is the reference gas water heater thermal efficiency, set
as 78.8%.
The Standard also mandates the use of TRNSYS simulation
package to calculate the energy consumption of the systems.
The calculation of fR is based on the standard operating condi-
tions for Australia's domestic water heating. The standard oper-
ating conditions specified include: electric boost availability times,
solar collector inclination and orientation, climatic zones, hot water
thermal energy loads, temperature of cold water inlet, load
reference of electric and gas water heaters and annual purchased
energy consumption of various reference water heaters.
Electric boost availability times for electric boosted systems are
classified as: continuous supply, night rate, extended off-peak, and
locally controlled supply.
To account for the impact of climate on the water heating, the
Standard introduces 4 zones where the typical meteorological year
(TMY) climate data for Rockhampton, Alice Springs, Sydney and
Melbourne represent data for zones 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Based
on this zoning, peak daily thermal energy loads (in MJ/d) for large,
medium and small systems are set. The Standard also sets daily and
seasonal (monthly) load profiles which are the same for all zones.
Different monthly cold water inlet temperature profiles are estab-
lished for each of the 4 climatic zones.
2.1.4. Tanks and plumbing
2.1.4.1. Storage tank. The thermal performance of the storage tank
depends on the tank dimension and material of tank wall and tank
insulation. The most important parameter is the tank standing heat
loss, taken as the minimum energy performance requirement of the
Standard AS/NZS 4692.1 [42].
2.1.4.2. Pump. For a forced circulation SWH system a pump is
required to recirculate the water between the collector and the
tank.
2.2. Taiwan
In Taiwan, certifications of a SWH or a solar collector which is
the major component of a SWH, in which the standards have been
enforced by the government since the first subsidy program in
1986, are required when filing for a rebate.
2.2.1. The methodology
There are two rating methodologies that have been introduced
at national level to target the certified products of SWHs for the
subsidy programs. For thermal performance test of a solar collector,
the Chinese National Standards CNS 15165-1-K8031-1 [43] is in full
compliance with an international standard of ISO 9806-1, while
CNS 12558-B7277 [44] is applicable to the thermal performance
test of a SWH. Both standards specify outdoor test methods, con-
ditions and apparatus for determining the stationary thermal
performances.
2.2.2. Overview of the CNS 15165-1-K8031-1
CNS 15165-1-K8031-1 [43] is employed to determine the ther-
mal performance of solar collectors under the conditions of the
outdoor insolation being more than 800 W/m2 and the wind speed
falling within 2e4 m/s Table 1 summarizes the evolution of the
certified standards for solar collectors in Taiwan. Here FR(ta) and
FRUL are the intercept (maximum efficiency) and negative of the
slope of collector efficiency curve (heat loss), respectively. In
Taiwan, the metal type solar collector is usually a stainless or
copper flat plate with selective coating on it while there is no glass
cover for the unglazed type collector. It is noticed from Table 1 that
the levels of standards were raised by year in the first subsidy
program (1986e1991), while remain unchanged in the present
(second) subsidy program (since 2000).
2.2.3. Overview of the CNS 12558-B7277
The thermal efficiency of a SWH is defined as the ratio of useful
heat absorbed by a SWH system to incoming solar energy on solar
collectors [44]. The test conditions of [44] specify the daily inso-
lation per square meter (7 MJ/m2), the average wind speed (<4 m/
s), fluid initial temperature Ti, and ambient air temperature Ta. Note
 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286 1283

Table 1
Evolution of the standards of flat-plate or evacuated-tube solar collectors in Taiwan.

Metal type Non-metal type Unglazed type

FR(ta) F RU L FR(ta) F RU L FR(ta) F RU L

First subsidy program 1986 0.65 12.0

1987 0.68 10.0 0.50 10.0 0.75 25
1988 0.72 8.0 0.60 8.0 0.80 22
1989e1991 0.75 7.0 0.65 7.5 0.85 20
Current program 2000epresent 0.75 7.0 0.65 7.5 0.85 20

that the ratio of volume of storage tank to solar collector area
typically ranges from 50 to 80 L/m2. The thermal efficiency is
calculated using the following formula.
 .

h ¼ MCP Tf  Ti Ag G
where:
Cp: specific heat, MJ/(kg  C)
Ti: initial temperature in the hot water storage tank,  C
Tf: final temperature in the hot water storage tank,  C
Ag: effective area of solar collector, m2
G: daily insolation per square meter, MJ/m2
A certified SWH must possess the quality of h  0.5 when filing
for a rebate. Further discussion on [44] can be found in the study of
Joshi et al. [29].
2.3. Japan
2.3.1. The evaluation program
Japan is currently developing the methodology for evaluating
the performance of SWH systems, the task of which is assigned to
Housing Technologies working group of the Solar Energy Utiliza-
tion and Promotion Forum (SEUPF) [27]. Japan is adopting deeming
assessment approach which has been introduced in a number of
countries such as Australia and UK.
Work is currently underway in two fronts: (1) to compare the
outputs of two simulation tools e TRNSYS [45] and EESLISM e
which will be used in deeming process [27], and (2) to validate the
accuracies of the results from computer modeling using field test
data. EESLISM is a computer modeling software package developed
in 1989 by Udagawa and Sato [46].
The experimental work involved an approximate standard size
system installed in a test building at Tsukuba, Japan. The system
consisted of two flat plate collector having 4 m2 area and a storage
tank having a capacity of 200 L able to supply hot water for a
household with 4 people. During the test, the hot water load was
controlled based on the modified M1-mode with 6 different load
patterns. Global solar radiation on horizontal and collector surfaces
and the ambient temperature were recorded. The field measure-
ments were run throughout three representative periods of winter
2010, summer 2011 and fall 2011 [27].
Fig. 4 and Table 2 show the system overview and the mea-
surement points.
The primary pump is ON/OFF controlled by the temperature
deference between the collector outlet temperature and the lower
part temperature in the tank. The system has an auxiliary gas boiler
with a rated efficiency of 95%. The auxiliary system e placed
downstream of the storage tank e works only if the temperature in
the tank is lower than the set point of 42  C and there is hot water
draw-off.
2.3.2. Assessment
For the system performance evaluation, the values of the
following quantities are required: solar energy collected, the elec-
tricity used to drive the pump, the amount of auxiliary energy
(5) input, and the primary energy use.
The system coefficient of performance (SCOP) is a performance
index often used for the primary-based energy efficiency of Heating,
Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) or water heating systems in
Japan and is defined as:
Q load
SCOP ¼   (6)
45000Gb þ 9:76 Eb þ Ep
where:
QLoad: actual total hot water load in the period [kJ]
Gb: Gas energy use for a boiler in the period [m3]
Eb: Electrical use for a boiler in the period [Wh],
Ep: Electrical use for a collector pump in the period [Wh]
For the proposed methodology, the mains water temperatures
for the three representative periods of winter, summer and fall are
12.4  C, 24.8  C and 17.2  C, respectively. The hot water draw off
temperatures are set to 37.6  C, 38.4  C and 37.8  C for respective
representative periods. Hot water flow rate is set to the modified
M1-mode to satisfy the hot water requirements of 4 people. The
detail of all technical specifications required in the model can be
found in Yoshinaga [27,47].
2.3.3. The outcomes
The outcomes of the project appear in the form of measured
data from the field test and the comparison with the simulation
results using TRNSYS and EESLISM. Overall, the values predicted by
both the modeling packages are in agreements with the experi-
mental data within 20%8 for summer whilst the agreements are
even better for the winter and fall, i.e. within 10% Yoshinaga [27,47].
Both software packages have now been accepted as modeling
tools for SHW systems modeling.
2.3.4. Issues to be resolved
To proceed with the establishment of the methodology that can
be used in the development of relevant standards in the future, a
number of issues need to be resolved. These include development
of appropriate seasonal and daily hot water load profiles,
8
This was not due to the issue associated with the simulation packages as there
was very little (insignificant) difference between the outputs of both packages. This
was due to the collector efficiency observed from the field (in summer) being about
10% higher than that calculated from the formula that the manufacturer proposed.
In theory this should not be the case and it might be related to the accuracy of
experimental test, one of the issues that need to be resolved (Section 2.3.4).
1284 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286

Fig. 4. System overview [26].

improvement in the accuracy of the experimental test for collec- of estimating the future performance of the systems which proves
tors, establishment of appropriate whether data, etc [27]. very helpful in assessing the level of incentives or subsidies to the
systems. This is especially useful since the upfront costs of systems
3. Discussion are among the main barriers to the widespread adoption of the
SWH systems.
Deeming assessment e first introduced in Australia in 2001 e is In Australia, the energy efficiency (performance) of the SWH
a speedy way of assessing the performance of SWH systems which systems is currently not subject to any regulation [19,48]. The rat-
has been adopted in many countries. This approach combines the ing methodology is used to calculate the number of small-scale
field test data of the SWH components with the computer renewable energy technology certificates (STCs) that a system can
modeling of the overall system performance. It is an effective way generate during its deeming life of 10 years, where one STC equals 1
MWh of electricity displaced by the system. Thus, the STC and the
methodology developed for its calculation is directed at boosting
Table 2 the production of renewable energy which may not necessarily
Measurement points. translate directly into higher system efficiency. On the other hand,
No Parameter Taiwan entails the minimum system thermal efficiency of 50% to
1 Total radiation on tilted surface
enable to file for a rebate, which not necessarily translates into
2 Total radiation on horizontal surface higher electrical energy displaced by the system. On the collector
3 Ambient temperature side, Taiwan raised the performance requirements during four
4 Collector inlet temperature consecutive years starting from 1986 as shown in Table 2. Japan is
5 Collector outlet temperature
yet to decide the path in which the methodology developed is
6 Tank HX outlet temperature
7 Tank HX inlet temperature directed.
8 Main water temperature The deeming approach relies very much on a number of as-
9 Mixing valve outlet temperature sumptions that have to be made for it to work. This includes the
10 Hot water supply temperature assumption of constant profiles of various parameters such as hot
11 Tank surface temperature 1
12 Tank surface temperature 2
water load, weather data, cold water temperatures, seasonal and
13 Tank surface temperature 3 daily load, all of which are inputs to the modeling software. All of
14 Tank surface temperature 4 these parameters can in reality vary significantly over time and
15 Tank surface temperature 5 need periodic (say 5 yearly) revision. The actual performance of a
16 Tank outlet temperature
SWH system will also be affected by the performance degradation
17 Brine flow temperature
18 Main water flow rate of each component (such tanks, collectors, pumps, piping, etc.)
19 Hot water supply flow rate which is not accounted for in the computer model.
20 Gas consumption rate A recent research [19] revealed a number of issues related to the
21 Electrical energy consumption rate for boiler real performance of the SHW systems against the relevant stan-
22 Electrical energy consumption rate for pump and tank unit
dards. For instance the study found that the stated energy savings
 E. Halawa et al. / Renewable Energy 83 (2015) 1279e1286
based on the computer modeling might not reflect the actual
annual energy savings. Whilst the computer model assumes
perfectly working components of the systems, the components of
actual systems themselves may not comply with the requirement of
the relevant Standards. The actual heat/energy losses of many
systems, according to the study, are higher than the assumption
made in the model. The standing heat loss of 70% of the systems
tested, according to the study, did not pass the minimum require-
ment set for conventional electric storage water heaters. The SHW
systems performance in the cold areas is particularly concerning
where actual heat losses are much higher than the prediction due
to very generous assumption of test being “performed at 20  C with
only very light breeze” [ [19]; p.3].
In Taiwan, only the thermal efficiency of a single solar collector
or a SWH at stationary condition is currently enforced. However,
the actual thermal performance of a SWH system which is usually
comprised by a series of solar collectors remains unknown. The
overall thermal performance of a SWH system can be assessed
using either the field measurement test or a methodology based on
the simulation by the standard computer software developed for
that purpose. However, this work remains to be fulfilled in the
future.
The Japanese approach to the rating methodology development
is similar to Australian and Taiwanese approaches where system's
annual energy performance is calculated from combined results
from actual test of components and computer modeling.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
A comparative study of methodologies for rating the thermal
performance of SHW systems in Australia, Taiwan and Japan has
been presented. The three countries, with Japan at the early
stage of methodology development, are taking practically
similar approaches on performance rating of SWH systems. They
employ combined results of actual test on SHW system com-
ponents with the computer model to assess the energy saving of
the system.
System performance rating employing the deeming approach is
a quick and efficient way of assessing the performance of SWH
systems and very useful as a tool for assessing the level of in-
centives to be rewarded to the systems.
In Australia, there has been an emphasis on maximizing the
contribution (production) of renewable energy in domestic water
heating sector in its STC methodologies. Taiwan, on the hand, bases
its incentive scheme on the system efficiency by establishing
minimum energy performance of systems that are eligible for
rebate. Japan is in the process of finding the pathway on which the
methodology currently being developed is to be directed while at
the same time is learning lessons from Australia's and Taiwan's
experience.
Using deeming approach future performance of systems are
assessed based on a number of assumptions that may need to be
revised periodically to reflect the actual conditions in which a
system is operating. Furthermore, a separate mechanism needs to
be established to ensure that actual conditions, installation and
operation of each of the components as well as the whole system
closely reflect those envisaged in the model. In the absence of such
a mechanism, a combined actual test results and computer model
again should be developed to take into account the impacts of
environmental degradation on the thermal performance of the
system during its operating life. For instance, a degradation “co-
efficients” could be developed to account for these impact during
the deemed operating life of the systems.
Solar hot water systems have the potential to contribute to
reducing energy required for water heating and reducing
1285
greenhouse gas emissions and proper performance rating meth-
odologies are required to realise this potential.
Acknowledgment
The authors sincerely thank the reviewers for their constructive
inputs and comments to the manuscript.
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