Bicol University

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department
ISO 9001:2015 Guinobatan, Albay
TUV Rheinland ID 910863351

FLUID FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

(Handout)

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ABE 14

(Fluid Mechanics)

MEMBERS
Arabaca, Ronnie M. Jr.
Bedis, Kylle D.
Bibat, Yshi Lorica M.
Dela Torre, Joshua Y.
Diaz, Jureina A.
Gonzales, Zusmitha Mae C.
Racines, Sheinly A.
(Group 5, II–ABE2)

MYKA NOSARES-GREBIALDE, PABE

ABE 14 - Fluid Mechanics, Instructor

April 30, 2023

 INTRODUCTION
_______________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
In fluid mechanics and hydraulics, open-channel flow is a type of liquid flow within
a conduit with a free surface, known as a channel. An open channel is a waterway,
canal or conduit. In most applications, the liquid is water and the air above the flow is
usually at rest and at standard atmospheric pressure. This refers to the flow of fluid
(usually water) in a channel that is not completely enclosed by walls. In other words, the
fluid is in contact with the atmosphere or an open space above the channel. Examples
of open channels include rivers, canals, and irrigation ditches.
There are two categories of fluid flow in an open channel: uniform flow and non-
uniform flow. While in non-uniform flow, the fluid's velocity varies along the channel, in
uniform flow, the fluid's velocity is constant at any given point in the channel. Hence,
open channel flow can also be defined as the flow of liquid through a passage at
atmospheric pressure. The flow in an open channel takes place due to gravity that is
achieved by providing a bed slope. It describes the flow in rivers, man-made channels
and partially full pipes (sewers, drains), as well as the behavior of hydraulics structures
such as weirs, spillways and sluices.
FIGURE

The flow of liquid through the open channel can be of several types like steady and
unsteady flow, laminar or turbulent flow or uniform or non-uniform flow and finally sub-
critical, critical and supercritical flow. The type of flow depends on various factors, such
as the shape and size of the channel, the slope of the channel, and the properties of the
fluid. Open channel flowmeters measure the flow of liquids in open channels and are
particularly relevant to measuring the flow of water in rivers as part of environmental
management schemes.
Examples:
1. The natural drainage of water through the numerous creek and river systems.
2. The flow of rainwater in the gutter of our houses.
3. The flow in canals, drainage ditches, sewers and gutters along roads.
4. The flow of small rivulets, and sheets of water across fields or parking lots.
5. The flow of the cutches in water rides.
TOPIC OUTLINE
• Lesson 1: Open Channel
• Specific Energy
• Chézy Formula
➢ Kutter and Gunguillet Formula
➢ Manning Formula
➢ Bazin Formula
➢ Powell Equation
• Lesson 2: Uniform Flow
• Lesson 3: Boundary Shear Stress
• Lesson 4: Normal Depth
• Lesson 5: Most Efficient Section
• Proportions for Most Efficient Sections
➢ Rectangular Section
➢ Trapezoidal Section
➢ Triangular Section
• Circular Sections

• Lesson 6: Velocity Distribution in Open Chanel

• Lesson 7: Alternate Stages of Flow
• Froude Number
• Critical Depth
• Lesson 8: Non-Uniform or Varied Flow
• Lesson 9: Hydraulic Jump
• Lesson 10: Flow around Channel Bends
PRE-TEST

1. It is a type of liquid flow within a conduit with a free surface, known as a channel
a. Open Channel
b. Pipes
c. Steady
d. Uniform Flow
2. It is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the channel
a. Specific Energy
b. Normal Depth
c. Critical Slope
d. Non-uniform flow
3. It is the simplest of all open channel problems is the uniform flow condition
a. Non-Uniform Flow
b. Uniform Flow
c. Most-Efficient Cross-Section
d. Normal Depth
4. an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water. Flow at the jump
changes from a supercritical to a subcritical stage with an accompanying loss of kinetic
energy.
a. Hydraulic Jump
b. Non-uniform or varied flow
c. Normal depth
d. NOA
5. Also known as the most economical sections, these sections which, for a given slope
S, channel cross-sectional are A, and roughness n, the rate of discharge is maximum.
a. Non-uniform flow or varied flow
b. Most-Efficient Cross-Sections
C. Hydraulic Jump
d. Critical Depth
LESSON 1: OPEN CHANNEL
________________________________________________________________
An open channel is one in which the stream is not completely enclosed by solid
boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
The flow in such a channel is caused not by some external head, but rather by the
gravity component along the slope of the channel. In an open channel flow, the
hydraulic grade line is coincident with the stream surface since the pressure at the
surface is atmospheric. The flow in open channel may either be uniform or non-uniform.

Specific Energy
The specific energy (H) is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the
bottom of the channel. It is given by:
𝑣2
H = 2𝑔 + d

Chézy Formula
In Figure 8 – 1, the head lost between any two points in the channel is:
ℎ𝐿 = SL
Where;
𝑆 is the slope of the energy grade line
𝐿 is the length or run
From Darcy-Weisbach relation:
𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐷 2𝑔
where 𝐷 = 4𝑅
 𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿 = 4𝑅 2𝑔
ℎ𝐿 𝑓 𝑣2 ℎ𝐿
= 8𝑔 , where =S
𝐿 𝑅 𝐿

8𝑔
𝑣 2= RS
𝑓
1
1
8𝑔 2
( 𝑓 ) (𝑅𝑆)2
1
8𝑔 2
For a given channel shape and bottom roughness, the quantity (𝑓) is constant
and can be denoted by C. The equation becomes,

v = C√𝑅𝑆
Q = AC√𝑅𝑆
These equations are called Chezy Formulas, first developed by the French
engineer Antoine Chezy in 1769. The quantity C is called the Chezy Coefficient, varies
1
𝑚2
from about 30 for large smooth channels.
𝑠

A great deal of hydraulic researchers correlated C with roughness, shape and

slope of various open channels. Among them were Ganguillet and Kutter in 1869,
Manning in 1889, Bazin in 1897 and Powell in 1950.

Kutter and Ganguillet Formula

1 0.00155
+23+
𝑛 𝑆
C= 𝑛 0.00155 , (S.I. Units)
1+ (23+ )
√𝑅 𝑆

1.811 0.00281
+41.65+
𝑛 𝑆
C= 𝑛 0.00281 , (English Units)
1+ (41.65+ )
√𝑅 𝑆

Manning Formula
1
1
C = 𝑛 𝑅6 , (S.I. Units)
1
1.486
C= 𝑅6 , (English Units)
𝑛
2 1
1
v = 𝑛 𝑅3 𝑆 2 , (S.I. Units)
2 1
1
Q = A𝑛 𝑅3 𝑆 2 , (S.I. Units)

Bazin Formula
87
C= 𝑚 , (S.I. Units)
1+
√𝑅
87
C= 𝑚 , (English Units)
0.552+
√𝑅

POWELL EQUATION
𝐶 ℇ
𝐶 = −42 log ( + )
𝑅𝑒 𝑅
Where:
𝑛 = roughness coefficient
𝑚 = Bazin coefficient
𝑅 = Hydraulic radius
ℇ = roughness in meter
𝑅𝑒 = Reynold’s number
𝑆 = slope of energy grade line

UNIFORM FLOW ( 𝑺 = 𝑺𝒐 )
The simplest of all open channel problems is the uniform flow condition. For the
flow to be uniform, the velocity, dept of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow at any point
of the stream must be constant (i.e., 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 , 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 , 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 ). For this condition, the
stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the
stream surface, therefore the slope of the energy grade line S is equal to the slope of the
channel bed
S.

BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS

The average boundary shear stress, τ 0 , acting over the wetted surface of the channel is
given by:

τ 0 = ꝩRS

where ꝩ is the unit weight of the liquid, R us the hydraulic radius, and S is the slope of the
EGL, and for the uniform flow or for S <1/10{θ<5.7° = 𝑆0

NORMAL DEPTH
The normal depth dπ, is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.
Normal depth may be determined from Chézy formula with S = S0. The resulting equation
usually requires a trial-and-error solution.
MOST EFFICIENT CROSS-SECTIONS (MES)
Also known as the most economical sections, these sections which, for a given slope S,
channel cross-sectional are A, and roughness n, the rate of discharge is maximum.
From Manning formula,
1
Q = A𝑛 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2

It can be seen that with A, n, and S constant, Q is a maximum when the hydraulic radius
R is a maximum, and since R = A/P, then R is maximum is P is minimum. Therefore, the
most efficient section is the one that have the least wetted perimeter and therefore
requires the least cost of grading and lining, which makes it most economical.

Of all canal shapes, the semicircular open channel is the most efficient. Semicircular
flumes are often built of pressed steel and other forms of metal, but for other types of
construction such a shape is impractical. For the wooden flumes the rectangular shape
is usually employed. Canals excavated in earth must have a trapezoidal cross section,
with side slope less than the angle of repose of the bank material. Thus, there are other
factors besides hydraulic efficiency which determine the best cross section.

PROPORTIONS FOR MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS

To derive the proportions from most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional constant.

Rectangular Section
Perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑
Area, 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑
𝑏 = 𝐴/𝑑
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑑 + 2𝑑
𝑑𝑃 𝐴(1)
=− +2=0
𝑑𝑑 𝑑2
𝐴
𝑑2
=2

𝐴 = 2𝑑 2
𝑏𝑑 = 2𝑑 2
𝑏 = 2𝑑 𝐸𝑞. 8 − 15
𝐴 𝑑2
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 𝑏+2𝑑

𝑑2
𝑅 = 2𝑑+2𝑑
𝑑
𝑅= 2
𝐸𝑞. 8 − 16
Trapezoidal Section
Perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. 1
1
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + [2 𝑑 tan 𝜃 (𝑑)] × 2

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑑 2 tan 𝜃
𝑏𝑑 = 𝐴 − 𝑑 2 tan 𝜃
𝐴
𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. 2

In Eq. (1)
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑑 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. 3

By partial differentiation
𝜕𝑃 𝐴
𝜕𝑑
= − 𝑑2 − tan 𝜃 + 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 0
𝐴
= 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 − tan 𝜃
𝑑2

𝐴 = (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 − tan 𝜃)𝑑2

In Eq. 3
(2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃−tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
𝑃= + (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 − tan 𝜃)𝑑
𝑑

𝑃 = 2(2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃)𝑑 → 𝐸𝑞. 4

𝐴 (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃−tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
𝑅=𝑃= 2(2 sec 𝜃−tan 𝜃)𝑑

𝑑
𝑅= 𝐸𝑞. 8 − 17
2

From the figure:

𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 → 𝐸𝑞. 5
But
𝐴 (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃−tan 𝜃)𝑑 2
𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 𝑑
− 𝑑 tan 𝜃

𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃

𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2𝑑 tan 𝜃
In Eq. 5
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑑 tan 𝜃
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 = 2𝑦
𝑥 = 2𝑦 𝐸𝑞. 8 − 18
Therefore, the most efficient trapezoidal section (including the rectangle) has its top
width (x) equal to the sum of the sides (2y), which is a proportion for a half-hexagon.
From Eq.2
𝜕𝑃
= 𝜃 − 𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 2𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝜃

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 2 tan 𝜃
1 sin 𝜃
= 2 cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃

sin 𝜃 = 1/2
𝜃 = 30°
This shows that the best of all efficient trapezoidal section is the half-regular hexagon
(all sides are equal).

Triangular Sections

𝜃
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec (2 )
1 𝜃
𝐴 = × 2𝑑 tan ( ) × 𝑑
2 2
√𝐴2 + 𝑑4
𝜃
𝐴 = 𝑑 2 tan (2 )
𝜃 𝐴
tan (2 ) = 𝑑2 𝜃/2

𝜃 √𝐴2 +𝑑 4 𝑑4
sec (2 ) = 𝑑2

Then,
𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec ( )
2
√𝐴2 + 𝑑 4 √𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝑃 = 2𝑑 = 2
𝑑2 𝑑
4𝑑 3
− √𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝑑
dP 2 4
= 2 2√𝐴 + 𝑑 4 =0
dd 𝑑
2𝑑 4
= √𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
√𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
2𝑑 4 = 𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝐴2 = 𝑑 4

A = 𝑑2 Eq. 8-19
𝜃 𝐴
tan ( ) = 2
2 𝑑
 𝜃 𝑑2
tan ( ) = 2 = 1
2 𝑑

𝜃
= 45°
2

𝜃 = 90° Eq. 8-20

Therefore, the most efficient triangular section is the 90° V-notch.

Circular Sections
A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth d of flow is 93.8 %
of the diameter D, and the velocity is a maximum when the depth is 82% of the
diameter. See PROBLEM 8-23.

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL

The velocity distribution in wide open channels is given by the expression:
1 𝑦′
𝑢 = 𝑣 + 𝐾 √𝑔𝑦𝑠 (1 + 2.3 log 𝑦 ) Eq. 8-21

Where: 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑚

𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 ′ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑑
𝐾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑛 𝐾𝑎́ 𝑟𝑚𝑎́ 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 0.40 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟.
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑠 0.20)
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝐺𝐿

ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

The channel shown in the figure below carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity
V.
 𝑣2
The total specific energy in the channel is 𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑

Solving for v, 𝑣 = √2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠, 𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)

If the equation will be plotted (as shown in the figure at the right side), it can be seen that
when d = 0,
Q = 0 and when d = H, Q = 0 and by substituting values of d in terms of H we can establish
a curve.

It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths at which any
given discharge will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called
alternate stages, and are spoken as the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower
stage.

On the upper stage, the Froude number 𝐹𝑁 < 1, while on the lower stage 𝐹𝑁 > 1.0

FROUDE NUMBER
The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the expression:

𝑣
𝐹𝑁 = Eq. 8-22
√𝑔𝐿

For rectangular channel, L = depth of flow d.

𝑣
𝐹𝑁 = Eq. 8-23
√𝑔𝑑

CRITICAL DEPTH, 𝒅𝒄
 From the figure shown, there is a certain depth 𝒅𝒄 that for a given total specific
energy 𝐻, the discharge is maximum. The depth is called a critical depth and is
defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or
conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum.
Its value can be obtained by differentiating the following equation:

𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)

CRITICAL DEPTH ON RECTANGULAR SECTION

For rectangular channel, the discharge per meter width can be expressed as:

𝑞 = 𝑑√2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
Where:
𝑚3
𝑞 = unit flow in per meter width of canal = 𝑣𝑑
𝑠
𝑄
𝑞= 𝑏

𝑚3
𝑄 = total flow in 𝑠

𝑏 = channel with in m

𝑑 = √2𝑔(𝑑√𝐻 − 𝑑)
𝑑𝑞 (−1)
= √2𝑔 [√𝐻 − 𝑑(1) + 𝑑 ]=0
𝑑𝑑 2√𝐻 − 𝑑
𝑑
= √𝐻 − 𝑑
2√𝐻 − 𝑑
𝑑 = 2(𝐻 − 𝑑)
𝑑 = 2𝐻 − 2𝑑
3𝑑 = 2𝐻
2 2
𝑑𝑐 = 𝐻 or 𝐻 = 𝑑𝑐
3 3

3𝑑
𝑞 = 𝑑√2𝑔( − 𝑑)
2

𝑞 = 𝑑√𝑔𝑑

Square both side:

𝑞 2 = 𝑑 2 (𝑔𝑑)
𝑞 2 = (𝑑 2 𝑔)(𝑑3 )
𝑞2
𝑑3 =
𝑔
 3 𝑞2
FOR RECTANGULAR CHANNEL 𝑑𝑐 = √ 𝑔

𝑄
𝑞 = 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑏
Replacing 𝑞 = 𝑣𝑑
(𝑣𝑑)2
𝑑3 =
𝑔
𝑣 2𝑑2
𝑑3 =
𝑔
Divide both side by 𝑑 2 and multiply by 𝑔
𝑣 2 = 𝑔𝑑
𝑣
𝑣 = √𝑔𝑑 or = 1 (FROUDE NUMBER, F)
√𝑔𝑑

This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.

CRITICAL SLOPE
The slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth is known as the critical slope 𝑆𝑐 .
The equation for critical slope for a wide rectangular channel is
𝑔𝑛2
𝑆𝑐 = .
𝑑𝑐 1/3

CRITICAL DEPTH on ANY SECTION

For any section, the critical depth can be computed by the following derived
formula:
𝑣2
From 𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑 , where 𝑣 = 𝑄/𝐴

Then,
𝑄2
𝐻 = 2𝑔𝐴2 + 𝑑

With 𝑄 is constant
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐻 𝑄 2 2𝐴
= [− 2𝑑𝑑2 ] + 1 = 0
𝑑𝑑 2𝑔 (𝐴 )

𝑑𝐴
𝑄2
𝑑𝑑 = 1
𝑔𝐴3
From the figure shown, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 × 𝑑𝑑 and
𝑑𝐴
= 𝐵, then;
𝑑𝑑

𝑄2𝐵
=1
𝑔𝐴3
𝐴3
Multiply both side by 𝐵
 𝑄 2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
Where:
𝐴 and/or B, if variable, must be expressed in terms of 𝑑.
The critical velocity 𝑉𝐶 in irregular channel can be taken by replacing 𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑣𝑐 in
𝑄 2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
(𝐴𝑣)2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
𝐴2 𝑣 2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
𝑔
Multiply both sides by 𝐴2 then take the square root of both side

𝑔𝐴𝐶
𝑣𝑐 = √
𝐵𝐶

NON-UNIFORM OR VARIED FLOW (𝑺 ≠ 𝑺𝑶 )

Uniform flow rarely occurs in natural in streams because of changes in depth, width,
and slope along the channel. The Manning equation for uniform flow can be applied to
non-uniform flow with accuracy dependent on the length of real L taken. Thus, a long
stream should be divided into several reaches of varying length such that the change in
depth is roughly the same within each reach.
From the figure shown:
𝑣12 𝑣22
+ 𝑑1 + 𝑆𝑜 𝐿 = + 𝑑2 + 𝑆̅ 𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣22 𝑣12
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 − 𝑆̅𝐿 = ( + 𝑑2 ) − ( + 𝑑1 )
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣22 𝑣12
( 2𝑔 + 𝑑2 ) − (2𝑔 + 𝑑1 )
𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆̅
𝐻2 − 𝐻1
𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆̅
𝑆1 + 𝑆2
𝑆̅ =
2
Where:
𝐻 = specific energy
𝑣2
𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑

𝐿 = Length of reach
𝑆𝑜 = Slope of channel bed
𝑆1 + 𝑆2 = slope of the energy grade line at section 1 and 2, respectively, computed using
Manning’s formula
𝑛2 𝑣12
𝑆1 =
𝑅1 4/3
𝑛2 𝑣22
𝑆2 =
𝑅2 4/3
n = Manning’s coefficient of roughness
R = hydraulic radius (A/P) ; P = wetted perimeter
V = flow velocity

Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water. Flow at the jump
changes from a supercritical to a subcritical stage with an accompanying loss of kinetic
energy.
A hydraulic jump is the only means by which the depth of flow can change from less
than critical to greater than critical to a uniform channel.
Consider that in a short interval of time, the mass 𝑚 shown in Figure 8-2 moves from
section 1 to section 2. In changing positions, the water losses momentum. The
unbalanced force (𝐹2 − 𝐹1 ) must be equal to the rate of change of momentum. 𝐹.

Momentum, 𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣1 − 𝑚𝑣2

𝑣1 −𝑣2 𝑊
𝐹=𝑚 , where 𝑚 =
𝑡 𝑔

𝑊 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝐹=
𝑔 𝑡
𝛾 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝐹=
𝑔 𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙
But = 𝑄, then;
𝑡

𝑄𝛾
𝐹= (𝑣 − 𝑣2 )
𝑔 1
Applying equilibrium conditions.

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0

𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝐹
𝑄𝛾
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = (𝑣 − 𝑣2 )
𝑔 1
Where 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 is the total hydrostatic pressure acting on areas 1 and 2 respectively.
𝑄
Replacing these quantities with 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴 and 𝑣 = 𝐴 :
 𝑄𝛾 𝑄 𝑄
𝛾ℎ̅2 𝐴2 − 𝛾ℎ̅1 𝐴1 = ( − )
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ℎ̅2 − 𝐴1 ℎ̅1 = ( − )
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2
For rectangular sections:

𝑄 = 𝑞𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑
𝑑
ℎ̅ =
2
𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = 𝑏
𝑑2 𝑑1 (𝑞𝑏)2 1 1
𝑏𝑑2 ( ) − 𝑏𝑑1 ( ) = ( − )
2 2 𝑔 𝑏𝑑1 𝑏𝑑2

𝑑2 2 − 𝑑1 2 𝑞 2 𝑏 2 1 1 1
𝑏 = ( − )
2 𝑔 𝑏 𝑑1 𝑑2
(𝑑2 + 𝑑1 )(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ) 𝑞 2 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
= ( )
2 𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑞 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
=
𝑔 2
𝑄
Where 𝑞 =unit flow = or 𝑄 = 𝑞𝑏
𝑏

This equation can be rearranged to give an explicit expression for the depth before and
after the jump as

𝑑2 8𝑞 2
𝑑1 = (−1 + √1 + )
2 𝑔𝑑2 3

𝑑1 8𝑞 2
𝑑2 = (−1 + √1 + )
2 𝑔𝑑1 3

The head lost in the jump in rectangular section is:

(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 )3
𝐻𝐿 =
4𝑑1 𝑑2

Flow Around Channel Bends

Because of the inability of liquids to resist shearing stress, the free surface of a steady
uniform flow is always normal to the resultant of the forces acting on the water. When
water flows in a curved path, its surface assumes a position normal to the resultant of
the forces of gravity and radial acceleration.
 𝑣2
tan 𝜃 =
𝑔𝑟
𝑣 2𝐵
𝑦=
𝑔𝑟

Sample Problem:
1. Determine the uniform flow through a trapezoidal concrete lined canal having side
slope of 3H to 4V and the bottom width of 2m if the depth of flow is 2m. The channel is
laid on a slope of 3m per kilometer. Use 𝑛 = 0.013.
Solution:
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
5
𝑦 = (4) 2 = 2.5𝑚
5+2
𝐴= (2)
2

𝐴 = 7𝑚2
𝑃 = 2 + 2(2.5) = 7𝑚
𝐴
𝑅=𝑃
7
𝑅=7

𝑅 =1𝑚
3
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜 = 2000

𝑆 = 0.0015
1
𝑄 = (7) 0.013 (1)2/3 (0.0015)1/2

𝑄 = 20.85 𝑚3 /𝑠

2. The section of a storm drain tunnel is as shown. During the heavy storm, the water
surface is 2.5 m above the semicircular section. If 𝑛 = 0.02 and the slope of the channel
is 0.009, calculate the discharge.

Solution:
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
 1
𝐴 = 5.5(2.5) + 2 𝜋(1.25)2

𝐴 = 16.20 𝑚2
𝑃 = 2.5(2) + 1.5(2) + 𝜋(1.25)
𝑃 = 11.93 𝑚
𝐴
𝑅=𝑃
16.20
𝑅 = 11.93

𝑅 = 1.358 𝑚
1
𝑄 = (16.20) 0.02 (1.358)2/3 (0.009)1/2

𝑄 = 94.28 𝑚3 /𝑠
KEY TO CORRECTION 5: FLUID FLOW IN OPEN
CHANNELS
____________________________________________________________________
Part I. Identification.

1. An open channel is one in which the stream is not completely enclosed by solid
boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure.

2. Normal depth is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.

𝒗𝟐
3. Specific Energy formula. H = 𝟐𝒈 + d

4. For the flow to be uniform, the velocity, depth of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow
at any point of the stream must be constant.

5. Critical depth is defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is
maximum, or conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is
minimum.
𝟏
6. Manning formula. Q = A 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐 (2 pts.)
𝒏

7. Hydraulic Jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water.

8. UNIFORM FLOW: 𝑺 = 𝑺𝒐 , NON-UNIFORM: 𝑺 ≠ 𝑺𝑶
9. What is the most efficient open channel of all canal shapes? Semicircular
10. The flow in an open channel takes place due to gravity that is achieved by
providing a bed slope.

Part II. Enumeration.

1-2 Categories of fluid flow in an open channel

Uniform Flow

Non-uniform Flow

3-5 Examples of Open Channel

Rivers

Canals

Irrigation ditches

Part III. Problem Solving.

The section of a storm drain tunnel is as shown. During the heavy storm, the water surface
is 3.5 m above the semicircular section. If 𝑛 = 0.04 and the slope of the channel os 0.007,
calculate the discharge.

Solution:
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
 1
𝐴 = 8.5(3.5) + 2 𝜋(1.25)2

𝐴 = 32.20 𝑚2
𝑃 = 3.5(2) + 2.5(2) + 𝜋(1.25)
𝑃 = 15.93 𝑚
𝐴
𝑅=𝑃
32.20
𝑅 = 15.93

𝑅 = 2.02 𝑚
1
𝑄 = (32.20) 0.04 (2.02)2/3 (0.007)1/2

𝑄 = 107.62 𝑚3 /𝑠
RESULT IN QUIZ 5: FLUID FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
____________________________________________________________________

NAME SCORE (Total)

ABARDO, Melvin Jay

ADRA, Angeline

ARABACA, Ronnie Jr. REPORTER

ARAÑA, Yvanah Faye

AZUELA, Mark John

BALIAT, Lyka Jane

BALILO, Lyka Joy

BALINSAYO, Geraldine

BATALLER, Gemma

BEDIS, Kylle REPORTER

BIBAT, Yshi Lorica REPORTER

BIO, Joven

DE LA TORRE, Joshua REPORTER

DESTAJO, Fevis

DIAZ, Jureina REPORTER

ESCUREL, Yulo

ESTOLA, Jermaine Kaye

FELICIA, Nicchol Edwards

GONZALES, Zusmitha Mae REPORTER

JACOB, Christine Mae

LLENAS, Shinri Mae

LOLA, Jessa Elaine

LUBANG, Samuel Elijah

LUZARRAGA, Angel
MEDALLA, Hannah

MIRANDA, Jacinta

NAVIO, Stanley

NIMO, Al Patrick James

NUÑEZ, Jay

OCFEMIA, Denver

POPMPOSO, John Michael

PORMELOS, Charmie Marizz

RACINES, Sheinly REPORTER

RAFALLO, Rachel

RELATO, Ma. Patricia Mae

SAYSON, John Miel

TAGUMPAY, Aimee

TOMARONG, Dominic John

 REFERENCES

Gillesania, D.I. (1997,1999,2005,2015). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Fourth Edition.

Cebu City, Philippines: Cebu DGPrint, Inc.

K, N. S. (2020, January 25). What is Open Channel Flow? Types of Flow in Open Channels. The

Constructor. https://theconstructor.org/fluid-mechanics/open-channel-flow-types-

flow/37501/?amp=1&fbclid=IwAR0XSutiz-

sWNWyEdDIEQwwCYAJfyO8mzcvCcefUw5Qqct_XWp2UzrshYXE