OVERVIEW OF URBAN & REGIONAL THEORIES AND

ISSUES : IMPLICATIONS TO ARCHITECTURAL

PRACTICE

THEORIES OF EXPLAINING THE EMERGENCE OF TOWN

1) CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

Developed by the German geographer Walter Christaller in 1933. It

explains the reasons behind the distribution patterns, size, and number of

cities and towns.

TWO MAIN CONCEPTS OF CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

Threshold – The minimum population needed to make a service viable at a

particular place.

Range – This is the maximum distance a consumer is willing to travel to

purchase goods or avail a service, beyond this distance consumer will not

travel as the distance travelled for good/service will outweigh the benefit.

Range has two limits:

ASSUMPTIONS

 Humans will always purchase goods from the closest place.

 Unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface.

 Evenly distributed population.

 All settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern.

Evenly distributed resources .

CRITICISM & LIMITATIONS OF CHRISTALLER’S CENTRAL PLACE

THEORY

 It is unrealistic.

 The basic assumptions are flawed. It is nearly impossible to have very

large flat terrain, perfect market, and absence of preference for shopping

places.

 Resources are never equally distributed, and some enjoy disproportionate

benefits.

2) PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY

Advanced by Paul Peterson in his 1981 book, City Limits .States that

urban politicians and governing regimes are subordinate to the overall

economic principles that force cities to compete to capture new investment

and capital.

Public choice theory emphasize the behavior and process of choosing

what public goods are provided, how they are provided and distributed, and

the corresponding matching rules are established.

 Studies how the decision is made

 Examines how the political process is used to determine the quantity of

goods and services

 Provides an economic perspective purpose of politics to provide useful

goods and services

 Is influenced by ideology

 Most common public choice = Majority Rule

3) BID RENT THEORY

Geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand

for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD)

This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximize their

profitability, so they are much more willing to pay more for land close to the

CBD and less for land further away from this area. The amount they are

willing to pay is called "bid rent".

THEORIES OF EXPLAINING HOW TOWNS ARE ARRANGED

1) GRID MODEL/ HIPPODAMIAN PLAN

it is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other,

forming a Grid. Proposed by Hippodamus of Miletus who isconsidered the

father of rational city planning.

2) CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

Also known as The Burgess Model, The Bull's Eye Model.Developed in

the 1920's by the urban sociologist Ernest Burgess. The model portrays how

cities social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings. The size of the

rings may vary, but the order always remains the same.

Zone I: Central Business District (called the “loop” in Chicago) where most

of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport

infrastructure converges, making this zone the most accessible.

Zone II: Factory Zone: a zone where many industrial activities locate to take

advantage of nearby labor and markets.

Zone III: Zone of Transition: reconverted to other uses by expanding

manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the

urban population, notably first-generation immigrants living in low-cost

housing.

Zone IV: Working class Zone: Residential zone dominated by the working

class . A low-cost location for the working class.

Zone V: Residential Zone: Represents higher quality housing linked with

longer commuting costs.

Zone VI: Commuter Zone Mainly high class and expensive housing in a

rural, suburbanized setting.

3) MULTIPLE NUCLEI METHOD

The Multiple Nuclei Model is an ecological model created by Chauncy

Harris and Edward Ullman in the 1945. City grows from several independent

points rather than from one central business district.

As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area.

Ports,universities, airports and parks

4) URBAN REALM MODEL

Developed by James E. Vance Jr. in the 1960’s. Each realm is a

separate economic, social and political entity that is linked together to form a

larger metro framework. Suburbs are within the sphere of influence of the

central city and its metropolitan CBD. Now urban realms have become, so

large they even have exurbs, not just suburbs. Depends on the following:

 Overall size of the metropolitan region.

 Amount of economic activity in each urban realm.

 Topography and major land features.

 Internal accessibility of each realm.

5) CORE FRAME MODEL

The Core frame model was first suggested by Ronald R. Boyce &

Edgar M Horwoof; is a model showing the urban structure of the Central

Business District of a town or city.

The model includes an inner core where landis expensive and used

intensively.The outer core and frame have lower land values and are less

intensively developed. The various land uses are linked to the bid rent theory
ISSUE OF URBAN PLANNING

1) INDIVIDUAL CONTROL OR SMALL PARCELS OF LAND

Within the city limits, both the government and the private parties

including individual owned small parcels of land exist. They may own the land

in the form of residences, stores, factories, commercial centres including

recreational centre, and vacant land

2) ARBITRARY POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

Effective urban planning requires that the city/town be dealt with as an

integrated natural unit. An adequate plan covers not only the builtup area of

the city but also parts of the unoccupied hinterland, which need to be

controlled in order to secure both orderly future growth of the city/town and

reasonable protection of its resident

3) IRREGULARITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SITE

Every city/town occupies a unique environmental site, hills, valleys,

rivers, waterfronts, or any other physical features make one city/town look

different from another. As an effective urban plan has to take into account all

these unique features, the concrete plan of every city/town differs from all the

other cities.
4) HERITAGE OF PAST CONSTRUCTION

With few exceptions, most of the cities of the town have grown without

the early guidance of comprehensive city plans. Some which have grown,

based on plan, have now outgrown their earlier designs.

5) ANTICIPATION OF FUTURE CHANGE

The city planner cannot exactly say the future changes that may affect

the city. But he can anticipate some of the changes and provide for it in the

plan. These may turn out to be inadequate in the long run.

 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING PROCESS

Comprehensive Planning Process is an attempt to establish guidelines

for the future growth of a community. As the term “comprehensive” suggests,

this is an all-inclusive approach to addressing the issue of a community’s

future growth. A comprehensive plan is the formal document produced

through this process.

WILLIAM I. GOODMAN

- a well-known author on the subject of comprehensive planning, the

key principle in the concept of the comprehensive plan is that it is an

instrument to be used by community leaders who establish the policies and

make the decisions regarding physical development. According to Goodman,

the plan document should fulfill six basic requirements:

SIX BASIC REQUIREMENTS

 It should be comprehensive.

 It should be long-range.

 It should be general.

 It should focus on physical development.

 It should relate physical design proposals to community goals and social

and economic policies.

 It should be a policy instrument first, and a technical instrument only

second.
COMPREHENSIVE PLAN

The elements of a comprehensive plan can vary from community to

community. In most cases though, the plan consists of a study of existing

conditions and a discussion of future trends, goals, and objectives. Land-use

patterns, housing conditions, population, roadways, and other infrastructure

are usually the principle elements that are studied.

8 ELEMENTS OF COMPREHSIVE PLAN

1) POPULATION & DEMOGRPAHY

Should be looked at in terms of existing conditions and future ends

2) LAND USE

Existing land use map should be included along with projections of future use.

3) TRAFFIC CIRCULATION & TRANSPORTATION

As automobile use rises and traffic worsens, the need for roadway

expansions, system improvements, and public transportation increases.

4) PARK AND OPEN SPACE

Element is fairly easy to grasp. Changes to the existing system should

be outlined as well as projections of future need based upon forecasted

growth
5) HOUSING

Information can include provisions for affordable housing, planned

residential growth, and building density requirements

6) UTILITIES AND SERVICES

Should include water, sanitary and storm sewer, and treatment information.

7) COMMUNITY FACILITIES

Include hospitals, schools and government buildings, and so forth

8) ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Will also be a necessary element of the plan for communities. Whether

geared toward serious efforts to attract major employers or toward business

retention and improvement, an economically strong community is a common

goal

8 DIFFERENT STEPS OF COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING

Comprehensive Planning follows a typical planning process which

consists of eight different steps. By following this process, planners are able

to determine a wide range of interconnecting issues that affect an urban area.

Each step can be seen as interdependent and many times planners will revise

the order to best fit their needs.

1) IDENTIFYING ISSUES

The planner must first address the issues they are investigating. “To be

relevant, the planning process must identity and address not only

contemporary issues of concern to residents, workers, and business people,

but also the emerging issues that will be important in the future.

2) STATING GOALS

Once issues have been identified by a community, goals can then be

established.

Goals are community visions. They establish priorities for communities and

help community leaders make future decisions which will affect the city.

3) DATA COLLECTION

Data is needed in the planning process in order to evaluate current city

conditions as well as to predict future conditions. However many communities

actively collect their own data

3) DATA COLLECTION

Method of Data Collection Primary Sources:

 Visual Observation

 Interviewing

 Secondary Sources

 Documents

 Satellite Units
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

1)Environment (wind, temperature, rainfall)

2)Traffic conditions (road system, traffic load, car ownership).

3)Economic Conditions (income, economic base, investments)

4)Social Conditions (such as population and income).

5)Public Services and Utilities ( electrical, water supply)

6)Land Use Conditions (such as housing, sport …etc.)

4) PREPARING THE PLAN

The plan is prepared using the information gathered during the data collection

and goal setting stages. A typical comprehensive plan begins by giving a brief

background of the current and future conditions found in the data collection

step.

5) CREATING IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

During this stage of the process different programs are thought of in

order to implement the goals of the plan. These plans focus on issues such as

cost and effectiveness. It is possible that a variety of plans will result from this

process in order to realize one goal. These different plans are known as

alternatives.
6)EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES

During this stage each alternative should be weighed given its potential

positive and negative effects, impacts on the community, and impacts on the

city government. One alternative should be chosen that best meets the needs

and desires of the community and community leaders for meeting the

community goals.

7) ADOPTING A PLAN

The community needs to adopt the plan as an official statement of

policy in order for it to take effect. This is usually done by the City Council and

through public hearings.

8) IMPLEMENTING & MONITORING A PLAN

Using the implementations plans defined in the earlier stages, the city

will carry out the goals in the comprehensive plans. City planning staff monitor

the outcomes of the plan and may propose future changes if the results are

not desired