Soil Mechanics Lectures

ch-2

F. U
 Three Phase soil system
• A soil mass is three phase system consisting of solid particles
(called grains), water and air.
• The solid particles can be mineral or organic matter or both.
• The mineral portion may consist of different shapes and size.
• The organic portion is plant and animal residue present during
various stages of decomposition.
• The space between solid grains are called void spaces.
• The voids are filled partly with water and partly with air.
• The soil water is called pore water and plays a very important
role in the behaviour of soils under load.
• The three constituents are blended together to form a
complex material.
• The relative proportions of solids, water and air in soil mass
are important factors influencing its physical properties.
 Phase Diagram
• For convenience all the solid particles
are segregated and placed in lower
layer of three phase diagram.
• Likewise water and air particles are
placed separately as shown in figure.
• The diagrammatic block
representation of the different
phases in soil mass that helps for
easy understanding and convenience
in numerical calculation is called the
phase diagram.
• The volumes of the different
constituents are shown on the left
side and the corresponding
mass/weights on the right side of the
block diagram.
 Fig: Different phase system of soil

• The phase diagram consisting of three constituents is called a three phase

diagram.
• Partially saturated soil is represented by three phase soil system.
• When all the voids are filled with water, the sample becomes saturated
and thus gaseous phase is absent whereas in a dry soil the water phase is
absent and voids is completely filled with air.
• Fully saturated soil and dry soil is represented by two phase soil system.
Role of Solid Phase Role of Pore Phase

Chemical Physical Sharing

Interaction Interaction the Load
1- Role of Solid Phase (The Particular Nature of Soil)
• The soil is composed of discrete particles; the discrete
particles that make up soil are not strongly bonded together
in the way that the soil particles are relatively free to move
with respect to one another.
• The soil particles are solid and cannot move relative each
other as easily as the element in a fluid. It is basic fact that
distinguishes soil mechanics from solid mechanics and fluid
mechanics.
• As show in figure, the individual particles deform as the
result of contact forces. The most usual type of deformation
is an elastic or plastic strain in the immediate, and close to
contact points.

Causes of relative motion

among solid particles
2- ROLE OF PORE PHASE
A- Chemical Interaction: -
The nature of pore fluid will influence
the magnitude of shear resistance
existing between two particles by Fluid
introducing chemical matter to the
surface of contact.
The constituents of the pore phase
will influence the nature of the Particle
mineral surfaces and hence affect
the processes of force transmission
at the particle contacts.
Fig: Fluid films surrounding soil particles
After and before application of load
2- ROLE OF PORE PHASE
B- Physical Interaction: -
• Consider a soil whose pore spaces are completely filled with water
(simulate a saturated soil): -
• First, we assumed that the water pressure is hydrostatic. This occurs
when external forces such as gravity are balanced by a pressure-
gradient force. For such a condition there will be no flow of water, as
in the figure.
• Next, we suppose that the water pressure at the base of the box is
increased while the overflow holds the level of the water surface
constant, as in the figure, now there must be an upward flow of
water. The amount of water that flows will be depended on:
• If the excess water pressure at the base is increased by raising the
supply tank, a pressure will be reached where the sand is made to
boil by the upward flowing water, as in the figure. That is a quick
condition.
 2-ROLE OF PORE PHASE
C- Sharing the Load: -
• Because soil is a multiphase system, it may be
expected that a load applied to a soil mass
would be carried on part by the mineral
skeleton and in part by the pore fluid.
• The figure shows a hydro-mechanical analogy
in which the properties of the soil have been
lumped, the resistance of the mineral skeleton
to compression is represented by a spring.

The process of primary consolidation can be

explained with help of the spring Analogy
given by Terzaghi.

Fig: Cylinder with tight fitting piston having a valve

1. Void ratio
• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids in a soil to the volume of soil solids.
𝑉
• ⅇ = 𝑉𝑣
𝑠
• 𝑉𝑣 = Volume of voids and 𝑉𝑠 = Volume of soil solids
• It is denoted by symbol e and expressed in decimal fraction.
• void ratio > 0, i.e. no upper limit for void ratio
• Higher void ratio indicates higher presence of voids and thus less density and less
shear strength.
• Coarse grained soils have generally smaller void ratio than fine grained soil.

2. Porosity
• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids in a soil to the total volume of soil.
𝑉𝑣
• n=
𝑉
• 𝑉𝑣 = Volume of voids and V = Total volume of soil
• It is denoted by symbol n and expressed usually in percentage.
• The range of porosity is 0 < porosity ≤ 100%.
3. Degree of Saturation
• The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water present
in a given soil mass to the total volume of voids on it.
Vw
• Sr = Vv
• 𝑉𝑤 = Volume of water and 𝑉𝑣 = Volume of voids
• It is denoted by symbol Sr and expressed in percentage and is also known as
percent saturation.
• The degree of saturation lies between 0 and 100 percent.
• For fully saturated soil value of Sr = 100% and for fully dried soil value of Sr = 0%

4. Air content
• It is defined as the ratio of volume of air to the volume of voids that soil sample
contains.
V
• ac = Va
v
• 𝑉𝑎 = Volume of air in pores of soil and 𝑉𝑣 = Volume of voids
• It is denoted by symbol ac and expressed usually in percentage
5. Percentage air void
• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids filled by air expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of the soil mass.
𝑉𝑎
• na = x 100
𝑉
• 𝑉𝑎 = Volume of air and V = Total volume of soil
• It is denoted by symbol na and expressed usually in percentage.

Relation between Percentage air void and Air content

𝑉𝑎
• na = 𝑉
Va Vv
• na = x
𝑉 Vv
V Vv
• na = V a x
v 𝑉
• na= ac x n
1. Water Content
• Water content is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of solids in a
given mass of soil.
𝑊𝑤 𝑀𝑤
• w(%)= 𝑊𝑠
x 100 w(%)= 𝑀𝑠
x 100
• 𝑊𝑤 = Weight of water and 𝑊𝑠 = Weight of soil solids
• 𝑀𝑤 = Mass of water and 𝑀𝑠 = Mass of soil solids
• It is denoted by symbol w and expressed in percentage.
• The water content of fine grained soil is generally more than that of the coarse grained
soil.
• The water content, which is usually expressed as a percentage, can range from zero (dry
soil) to several hundred percent.
• The natural water content for most soils is well under 100%, but for the soils of volcanic
origin (for example bentonite) it can range up to 500% or more.

Determination of water content

• Take a soil sample and place it in a container
• Measure weight of taken soil sample (W1)
• Place the soil sample to dry in oven for 24 hours at temperature of 105oc to 110oc
• Mⅇasurⅇ thⅇ wⅇight of ovⅇn driⅇd soil samplⅇ(Ws)
𝑊1 −𝑊𝑠
• w(%)= x 100
𝑊𝑠
1. Bulk Mass Density
• The bulk mass density is defined as the total mass per unit total volume.
• It is density of volume of soil as it exists naturally.
𝑀
• ρ𝑡 = 𝑉
• M = Total mass of soil and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
2. Dry Mass Density
• The dry mass density is defined as the mass of solids per unit total volume.
𝑀𝑠
• ρ𝑑 = 𝑉
• Ms = Mass of soil solid and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
3. Saturated Mass Density
• The saturated mass density is the bulk density of soil when it is fully saturated.
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
• ρ𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉
• Msat = Mass of saturated soil and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
4. Submerged Mass Density
• When the soil exits below water table, it is in submerged condition.
• When a volume V of soil is submerged in water, it displaces an equal volume of water.
• Due to buoyancy the net mass of soil when submerged is reduced.
𝑀
• ρ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑉
• Msub = Submerged mass of soil = Msat – Upthrust(U)
• 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil

Relation between saturated mass density and Submerged Mass Density

• Volume of soil submerged(V) is equal to Volume of water displaced(Vw)
• Upthrust(U) acting at bottom of soil is equal to mass of water displaced by submerged
soil(Mw).
𝑀𝑤
• ρw = 𝑉𝑤
Mw = ρ w x V w Mw = ρ w x 𝑉
𝑀 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡(𝑈)
• ρ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 ρ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉
𝑀 −(ρ x𝑉) 𝑀 (ρ x 𝑉)
• ρ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡 w ρ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − w
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
• 𝝆𝒔𝒖𝒃 = 𝝆𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝝆𝒘
5. Density of Soil Solid
• The density of soil solids is defined as the mass of soil solids per unit volume of
solids.
𝑀𝑠
• ρ𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
• Ms = Mass of soil solid and 𝑉𝑠 = Volume of soil solid
1. Bulk Unit Weight
• The bulk unit weight is defined as the total weight of soil in per unit total volume.
• It is unit weight of volume of soil as it exists naturally.
𝑊
• ϒ𝑡 = 𝑉
• M = Total weight of soil and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
2. Dry Unit weight
• The dry unit weight is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit total volume.
𝑊𝑠
• ϒ𝑑 = 𝑉
• Ws = Weight of soil solid and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
3. Saturated Unit weight
• The saturated unit weight is the bulk unit weight of soil when it is fully saturated.
𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡
• ϒ 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉
• Wsat = Weight of saturated soil and 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil
4. Submerged Unit Weight
• When the soil exits below water table, it is in submerged condition.
• When a volume (V) of soil is submerged in water, it displaces an equal volume of water.
• Due to buoyancy the net weight of soil when submerged is reduced.
𝑊
• ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏
• Wsub = Submerged weight of soil = Wsat – Upthrust(U)
• 𝑉 = Total Volume of soil

Relation between saturated Unit weight and Submerged Unit Weight

• Volume of soil submerged(V) is equal to Volume of water displaced(Vw)
• Upthrust(U) acting at bottom of soil is equal to weight of water displaced by submerged
soil(Mw).
𝑊𝑤
• ϒw= 𝑉𝑤
Ww = ϒ w x V w Mw = ϒ w x 𝑉
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡(𝑈)
• ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 = ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 =
𝑉 𝑉
𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡−(ϒw x𝑉) 𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡 (ϒw x 𝑉)
• ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉
ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝑉
• ϒ 𝒔𝒖𝒃 = ϒ𝒔𝒂𝒕 − ϒ𝒘
5. Unit weight of Soil Solid
• The unit weight of soil solids is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit volume
of solids.
𝑊𝑠
• ϒ𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠
• Ws = Weight of soil solid and 𝑉𝑠 = Volume of soil solid

Density/Unit weight of water

 ρw = 1000 Kg/m3
 ρw = 1 gm/cc
 ϒw = 9.81 KN/m3
Inter-conversion between Density and Unit weight of water
1 gm/cc = 9.81 KN/m3
 Specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the ratio of weight of given volume of soil
solids at a given temperature to weight of an equal volume of water at that
temperature.
 The specific gravity of soil solids is an important parameter and is a factor in many
equations involving weight-volume relationships.
 Specific gravity of soil solids refers only to the solid phase of the three phase soil
system, it does not include the water and air phases present in the void space.
𝑊𝑠
𝑉𝑠 ϒ
Gs = 𝑊𝑤 = ϒ𝑠
𝑤
𝑉𝑤
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑊
Gs = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑊𝑠
𝑤
 Specific gravity of coarse grained soil is lower than fine grained soil.

Typical values of Gs
• Pycnometer apparatus is generally used to determine the Specific gravity of soil
solids.
• It is a container of known volume which has screw type cover (with washer)having
a hole of 6 mm dia at top.

Pycnometer
• A clean and dry Pycnometer is taken and its weight is measured along with cap and washer (W1)
• About 200g to 400g of dry soil (passing 4.75 mm sieve) is placed inside the Pycnometer and its mass is
measured along with cap and washer(W2)
• Pycnometer with dry soil inside is filled with water to its full height and its cover is closed and the
Pycnometer is shaken well without allowing the spill out of water and soil from top to allow the escape
of air present in the voids of soil solids. The weight of Pycnometer containing dry soil and water along
with cap and washer is taken after wiping outside of pycnometer with clean dry cloth (W3)
• The Pycnometer with soil is emptied and cleaned properly to remove traces of soil inside it and it is
filled with water till top of conical cap. The outside of pycnometer is wiped with clean dry cloth and the
weight of Pycnometer with water is taken along with cap and water(W4).
 𝑊𝑠
𝑉
Gs = 𝑠
𝑊𝑤
𝑉𝑤

𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑊

Gs = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑊𝑠
𝑤

Dry weight of soil (Ws) = W2 – W1

 W3 – W2 + Ww = W4 – W1

Weight of water occupying same volume as that of soil solid(Ww)

𝑊𝑤 = (𝑊4 − 𝑊1) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2)

𝑾𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏
𝑮𝐬 =
(𝑾𝟒 − 𝑾𝟏) − (𝑾𝟑 − 𝑾𝟐)
Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be based
on water at 27oC. So the specific gravity at 27oC = K x Sp. gravity at TtoC.
Calculate specific gravity of a sand from the data as shown below:
Mass of oven dried sand = 92.6 gms
Mass of Pycnometer, oven dried sand and water = 722.4 gms
Mass of Pycnometer and water = 663.2 gms

Solution:
Mass of oven dried soil (Ms) = 92.6 gms
Mass of Pycnometer, oven dried sand and water(M3) = 722.4 gms
Mass of Pycnometer and water(M4) = 663.2 gms
Mass of water occupying same volume as that of soil (Mw) = (M4-M1)-(M3-M2)
=M4 – M1 – M3 + M2
= M4 – M3 + M2 – M1
= M4 – M3 + Ms
= 33.4 gms

𝑀𝑠
Gs =
𝑀4 − 𝑀3 + 𝑀𝑠
𝟗𝟐.𝟔
𝐆𝐬 = 𝟑𝟑.𝟒 = 2.77
• A clean and dry Pycnometer is taken and its weight is measured along with cap and washer (W1)
• About 200g to 400g of moist soil whose specific gravity is known is placed inside the Pycnometer and its
mass is measured along with cap and washer(W2)
• Pycnometer with moist soil inside is filled with water to its full height and its cover is closed and the
Pycnometer is shaken well without allowing the spill out of water and soil from top to allow the escape
of air present in the voids of soil solids. The weight of Pycnometer containing moist soil and water along
with cap and washer is taken after wiping outside of pycnometer with clean dry cloth (W3)
• The Pycnometer with soil is emptied and cleaned properly to remove traces of soil inside it and it is
filled with water till top of conical cap. The outside of pycnometer is wiped with clean dry cloth and the
weight of Pycnometer with water is taken along with cap and water(W4).
 𝑊𝑤
 w(%)= x 100
𝑊𝑠
 Weight of water present in moist sample of soil
Ww= W2 – W1 – Ws 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤1
 =
ϒ𝑠 ϒ𝑤
 (W3 – W1) – Ws + Ww1 = (W4 – W1) ϒ𝑤
𝑾𝒔  ww1=ws 𝑥
 (W3 – W1) – Ws + = (W4 – W1) ϒ𝑠
𝑮𝒔 𝑤𝑠
 ww1 = ϒs
ϒw
𝑤𝑠 𝑊𝑤
• W3 – W4 = 𝑊𝑠 –
𝑊𝑠  ww1 =  w(%)= x 100
𝐺𝑠 𝐺𝑠 𝑊𝑠
1
• W3 – W4 = 𝑊𝑠 1 − 𝐺 W2 – W1 – Ws
s  w(%) = x 100
𝐺 −1 𝑊𝑠
• W 3 – W4 = 𝑊𝑠 s
𝐺s W2 – W1
 w(%) = – 1 x 100
𝑊𝑠
W3 – W4
• Ws = 𝐺s − 1
W2 – W1
𝐺s
 w(%) = – 1 x 100
𝐺s W3 – W4 𝑥 𝐺s𝐺s− 1
• 𝑊s = W3 – W4 𝑥 𝐺s − 1
𝑊2 −𝑊1 Gs−1
 w(%) = 𝑥 − 1 x 100
𝑊3−𝑊4 𝐺s
Relation among e, w, Gs, and Sr
𝑉𝑣 𝑉 𝑉𝑤
ⅇ= = 𝑉𝑣 x
𝑉𝑠 𝑤 𝑉𝑠  Sr and w should be in same representation ( fraction or percent)
 For 100% Saturation Sr= 1, So equation becomes e = w x Gs
𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑣 ϒ𝑤
ⅇ= x 𝑤𝑠
𝑉𝑤
ϒ𝑠

𝑉 𝑤 ϒ
ⅇ = 𝑉 𝑣 x ϒ 𝑤 x 𝑤𝑠
𝑤 𝑤 𝑠

𝑉 𝑤 ϒ
ⅇ = 𝑉 𝑣 x 𝑤𝑤 x ϒ 𝑠
𝑤 𝑠 𝑤

1 w ϒ
ⅇ= 𝑉𝑤 x w𝑤 x ϒ 𝑠
𝑠 𝑤
𝑉𝑣

1 w𝑤 ϒ𝑠
ⅇ= x x
𝑆𝑟 w𝑠 ϒ𝑤

1
𝑒 = 𝑆 x w x Gs
𝑟
𝑺𝒓 x 𝒆 = w x G s
Relation between e and n
𝑉𝑣
n=
𝑉
𝑉𝑣
n=
𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠

𝑉𝑣
n=
𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑠 1 +
𝑉𝑠

𝑒
n=
1+𝑒
𝑛
Inversely, ⅇ = 1−𝑛

ⅇ
Relation among ϒt, Gs, e, w, and ϒw
𝑊 𝑤𝑠+ 𝑤𝑤+ 𝑤𝑎 𝑤𝑠+𝑤𝑤
ϒ𝑡 = = =
𝑉 𝑉𝑣 +𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣 +𝑉𝑠
𝑆 𝑥𝑒
1 + 𝑟𝐺
𝑤 𝑠
𝑤𝑠 1 + 𝑤𝑤 ϒ𝑡 = G𝑠 ϒ𝑤 𝑥
1+𝑒
𝑠
ϒ𝑡 =
𝑉
𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑉𝑣 G𝑠 𝑥 𝑆𝑟 𝑥 𝑒
𝑠 G𝑠 + 𝐺𝑠
1+𝑤 ϒ𝑡 = ϒ𝑤
ϒ𝑡 = ϒ𝑠 𝑥 1+𝑒
1+𝑒
𝑮 𝒔 + 𝑺𝒓 𝒙 𝒆
ϒ ϒ𝒕 = ϒ𝒘
But we have, Gs = ϒ 𝑠 𝟏+𝐞
𝑤
ϒ𝑠 = G𝑠 ϒ𝑤

Also we have, 𝑆𝑟 x 𝑒 = w x Gs
𝑆𝑟 𝑥 𝑒
w=
𝐺𝑠 ⅇ
Standard relation When soil is submerged
𝑮𝒔 + 𝑺𝒓 𝒙 𝒆 ϒ sub = ϒsat − ϒw
ϒ𝒕 = ϒ𝒘
𝟏+𝐞 Gs + ⅇ
ϒsub = ϒw − ϒw
1+ⅇ
 When soil is perfectly dry Sr= 0
𝑮𝒔
ϒ𝒅 = ϒ𝒘 Gs + ⅇ
𝟏+𝒆 ϒsub = − 1 ϒw
1+ⅇ
Gs + ⅇ − 1 − ⅇ
 When soil is completely saturated Sr= 1 ϒsub = ϒw
𝑮𝒔 + 𝒆 1+ⅇ
ϒ𝒔𝒂𝒕 = ϒ𝒘 𝐆𝐬 − 𝟏
𝟏+𝒆 ϒ𝐬𝐮𝐛 = ϒ𝐰
𝟏+𝐞
Relation among ϒ𝒕,ϒ𝒅 , w
𝑊 𝑤𝑠+𝑤𝑤+ 𝑊𝑎 𝑤𝑠+𝑤𝑤
ϒ𝑡 = = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑤𝑤
𝑤𝑠 1 +
𝑤𝑠
ϒ𝑡 =
𝑉

ϒ𝐭 = ϒ𝐝 𝟏 + 𝐰

ⅇ
Relation among 𝒂𝒄, 𝒏𝒂 , 𝐒𝐫 𝑉
Also, ac = 𝑎
𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑣 − 𝑉𝑤
na = ac =
𝑉 𝑉𝑣
Va Vv 𝑉𝑤
na = x 𝑉𝑣 1 −
𝑉 Vv
𝑉𝑣
ac =
Va V 𝑉𝑣
na = x v 𝑉𝑤
Vv 𝑉
ac = 1 −
na= ac x n 𝑉𝑣
𝒂𝒄 = 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒓

na= ac x (𝟏 − 𝑺𝒓 )

ⅇ
 𝑊 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡
ϒ𝑡 = ϒ𝑑 = ϒ 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ϒ 𝑠𝑢𝑏 =
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏
ϒ 𝒔𝒖𝒃 = ϒ𝒔𝒂𝒕 − ϒ𝒘
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉

𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 Vw Va 𝑉𝑎
ⅇ= n= Sr = ac = na = x 100 na= ac x n
𝑉𝑠 𝑉 Vv Vv 𝑉

𝑒 𝑛 𝑊𝑠
ϒ𝑠
𝑊2 − 𝑊1
n= ⅇ= Gs =
𝑉𝑠
= 𝐺s =
1+𝑒 1−𝑛 𝑊𝑤 ϒ𝑤 (𝑊4 − 𝑊1) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2)
𝑉𝑤

𝑊𝑤 𝑊2 −𝑊1 Gs−1
𝑆𝑟 x 𝑒 = w x Gs 𝑎𝑐 = 1 − 𝑆𝑟 w(%)= 𝑊𝑠
x 100 w(%) = 𝑊3−𝑊4
𝑥 𝐺 − 1 x 100
s

𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑟 𝑥 𝑒 𝐺𝑠 𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒
ϒ𝑡 = ϒ𝑤 ϒ𝒅 = ϒ ϒ𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ϒ𝑤
1+ⅇ 1+𝑒 𝒘 1+𝑒

Gs − 1
ϒsub = ϒw ϒt = ϒd 1 + w
1+ⅇ
Relation among ϒ𝒅 , 𝑮𝒔 , 𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒂
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 +𝑉𝑤 +𝑉𝑠

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑠
1= + + ww
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉  𝑉𝑤 =
ϒw
w
1−
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑠
= + Also, w = w
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 ws
ww = wws
ww𝑠 ws w𝑤
ϒ Gϒ 𝑆𝑜, 𝑉𝑤 = s
1 − na = w + s w ϒ𝑤
𝑉 𝑉
𝑤𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑠 ws
1 − na = +  𝑉𝑠 =
𝑉ϒ𝒘 𝑉Gs ϒ𝒘 ϒs
ϒ𝑠
𝑤ϒ𝑑 ϒ𝑑 Also, Gs =
ϒ𝑤
1 − na = + w𝑠
ϒ𝒘 Gs ϒ𝒘 So, 𝑉𝑠 =
𝐺𝑠ϒ𝑤
ϒd 1
1 − na = 𝑤+
ϒw 𝐺𝑠

ϒd 𝑤𝐺𝑠 + 1
1 − na =
ϒw 𝐺𝑠
(𝟏 − 𝒏𝐚 )𝐆𝐬 ϒ𝐰
ϒ𝐝 =
𝟏 + 𝐰𝐆𝐬
Show that Degree of saturation in terms of bulk unit weighgt (ϒ𝒕), water content(w), Specific Gravity(Gs) and
Unit weight of water (ϒw)

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 +𝑉𝑤 +𝑉𝑠 ……....Eqn 1

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠 W = 𝑮𝒔 ϒ𝒘 𝑽𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒘 ……....Eqn 5
𝑉𝑣 𝑊
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 1 +
𝑉𝑠 We have, ϒ𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒆 Substituting values of Eqn 2 and Eqn 5
wGs
But, e =
𝑆𝑟
𝒘𝑮𝒔
GsϒwVs(1+𝑤)
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 𝟏 + ……....Eqn 2 ϒt =
𝑺𝒓 𝑤𝐺
𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑆 𝑠
𝑟
W= ww + ws ……....Eqn 3 𝑤𝐺𝑠
ϒt x 1 + = Gsϒw(1+𝑤)
𝑆𝑟
ww
‫= 𝑤؞‬ So, ww = 𝑤ws 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝐺
ws 1 + 𝑆 = ϒ𝑠 ϒw(1+𝑤)
W=𝑤ws + ws 𝑟 𝑡
𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝐺𝑠
W = ws 𝟏 + 𝒘 ……....Eqn 4 𝑆𝑟
= ϒ ϒw(1+w) − 1
𝑡
𝑤𝐺𝑠 ϒw 1
w
‫ ؞‬ϒs = V s So, ws = ϒs Vs 𝑆𝑟
= 𝐺 𝑠 ϒ (1+w) − 𝐺𝑠
s t

ϒs 𝒘
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, ‫𝐺 ؞‬s = , ϒ𝑠 = 𝐺s ϒw 𝑺𝒓 = ϒ
ϒ𝑤 w(1+ 𝒘) − 𝟏
ϒt 𝑮𝒔

So, ws =𝐺s ϒw Vs

Substituting value of ws in equation 4

ⅇ
Prove the relation ϒ𝒔𝒖𝒃 = ϒ𝒅 − (𝟏 − 𝒏)ϒ𝒘

𝐆𝐬 − 𝟏 ⅇ
ϒ𝐬𝐮𝐛 = ϒ𝐰 n=
𝟏+𝐞 1+𝑒
ⅇ
1− =1−n
Gsϒw ϒw 1+𝑒
ϒsub = − 1
1+ⅇ 1+ⅇ =1−n
1+𝑒
ϒ𝒔𝒖𝒃 = ϒ𝒅 − (𝟏 − 𝐧)ϒw
 1 1
Prove the relation 𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒘𝒔𝒂𝒕 = ϒ𝒘 −
ϒ𝒅 ϒ𝒔

𝑆𝑟 x 𝑒 = w x Gs Gsϒw
ϒ 1
wsat = d −
When Saturated, Sr = 1 𝐺𝑠 Gs

e ϒw 1
w𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
Gs
………………eqn 1 wsat = −
ϒd Gs
ϒ 1 ϒ𝑤
But, 𝐺𝑠 = ϒ 𝑠 →G = ϒs
Gsϒw w 𝑠
We have, ϒd = 1+e ϒw ϒw
wsat = −
ϒd ϒs
Gsϒw
𝑒= − 1 … … … … …eqn 2
ϒd 𝟏 𝟏
𝐰𝐬𝐚𝐭 = ϒw −
ϒ𝒅 ϒ𝒔
Gsϒw
−1
ϒd
𝑤sat =
𝐺𝑠
A soil sample has a porosity of 40%. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.7. Calculate a) void ratio
b) dry density c) Unit weight, if soil is 50% saturated d) Unit weight, if soil is completely saturated
ϒt at Sr = 50%
Solution: 𝑮𝒔+𝑺𝒓 𝒙 𝒆 2.7+0.5 𝒙 0.667
ϒ𝒕 = ϒw= x 9.81 = 17.86 kN/m3
Given: 𝟏+𝐞 1+0.667

n = 40% = 0.4 Alternative:

Gs= 2.7 S r x e = w x Gs
S xe 0.5 x 0.667
w= r = =0.124
𝐺𝑠 2.7
To find ϒt = ϒd(1 + w) = 15.89 x (1+0.124)=17.86 kN/m3
e=?
ϒd = ?
ϒt (at Sr =50%) = ? ϒt at Sr = 100%
𝑮𝒔+𝑺𝒓 𝒙 𝒆 2.7+1 𝒙 0.667
ϒt (at Sr =100%) = ? ϒ𝒕 = ϒw= x 9.81 = 19.81 kN/m3
𝟏+𝐞 1+0.667

Alternative:
𝑛 0.4
ⅇ= = = 0.667 S r x e = w x Gs
1−𝑛 1−0.4 S xe 1 x 0.667
w= r = =0.247
𝐺𝑠 2.7
Gsϒw 2.7 x 9.81 ϒt = ϒd(1 + w) = 15.89 x (1+0.247)=19.81 kN/m3
ϒd = = = 15.89 kN/m3
1+e 1+0.667
In a bulk density determination a sample of clay with a mass of 683 g was coated with
paraffin wax. The combined mass of the clay and the wax was 690.6 g. The volume of the
clay and the wax was found by immersion in water to be 350 ml. The sample was then
broken open and moisture content and particle specific gravity tests gave respectively 17
percent and 2.73. Specific gravity of the wax was 0.89. Find degree of saturation.

Given, Mass of soil sample(m) = 683 gm m 683

𝜌𝑡 = = = 2𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐
Mass of sample and paraffin wax = 690.6 gm 𝑉 341.46
Volume of mix (Vmix) = 350 cc 𝜌𝑡 2
W% = 17% =0.17 𝜌𝑑 = = = 1.71 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐
1 + 𝑤 1 + 0.17
Gsoil= 2.73
Gparaffin= 0.89 𝐺𝑠𝜌𝑤 𝐺𝑠𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 = → ⅇ= -1 → e = 0.596
S r= ? 1+𝑒 𝜌d

Mass of paraffin wax(mp) = 690.6 – 683 = 7.6 gm

We have, Sr x e = w x Gs

𝜌𝑝 𝜌𝑝 Gs x w 2.73 x 0.17
𝐺𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑖𝑛 = → 0.89 = → 𝜌𝑝 = 0.89 gm/cc Sr= = = 0.778 = 77.8%
𝜌𝑤 1 𝑒 0.596

m𝑝 7.6
𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑖𝑛 = = 0.89 = 8.54 cc
𝜌𝑝

Volume of soil(V) = 350 – 8.54 = 341.46 cc

Determine the maximum possible void ratio for a uniformly graded sand of perfectly spherical grains.

Solution:
The soils will have maximum possible voids when its grains are arranged in cubical array of spheres.
Consider a unit cube of soil having spherical particles of diameter d.
Borrow Pit and Embankment
GL
GL Compacted
soil
GL GL

Borrow Pit Embankment

For borrow pit For Embankment

γ γ
w% w%
e e
VT VT
Constant Parameter
Gs
Vs

Questions:
Volume of excavated soil from borrow pit??
Choosing Economical Pits??
Earth is required to be excavated from borrow pits for building an embankment having top width 2m and
height 4 m with 45o side slopes. The bulk unit weight of the borrow pits is 18 kN/m3 and its water content is
8%. Estimate the quantity of earth required to be excavated per meter length of embankment. The dry unit
weight required for the embankment is 15 kN/m3 with a moisture content of 10%. Assume the specific gravity
of solids as 2.67. Also determine the degree of saturation of the embankment soil and the volume of water in
the embankment.

Given:
-For borrow pit
γmoist=18 kN/m3 , %w = 8% , Gs=2.67
To calculate:
-For Soil of embankment Volume of excavated soil from borrow pit= ?
γdry=15 kN/m3 , %w = 10% , Gs=2.67 , Sr of Embankment = ?
Volume of water in Embankment = ?
For Embankment
VTE = C.S.A of the embankment(trapezoid)/meter length
1
= 2 × (2+10) ×4 × 1=24 m3/m
𝑮𝒔 𝟐.𝟔𝟕
ϒ𝒅 = ϒ𝒘 → 15 = x 9.81 → e = 0.746
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
For borrow pit
γmoist=18 kN/m3 , %w = 8% , Gs=2.67

VTB = Volume of moist soil in borrow pit required to produce 13.74 m3 of dry soil =?

𝑉
ⅇ = 𝑉𝑣 →𝑉𝑣 = e x Vs= 0.746 x 13.74 = 10.25 m3/m
𝑠

𝑉𝑤 = 0.358 x 10.25 = 3.67 m3/m ✓

An earth dam require one hundred cubic meter of soil compacted with unit weight of
20.5 KN/m3 and moisture content of 8%. The specific gravity of solid particles is 2.7.
Choose economical pit/pits from the three borrow pits given in the table below.

Borrow pit e Cost($)/m3 Available volume

A 0.6 1 80
B 1 1.5 100
C 0.75 1.7 100

Given,
Volume of embankment (VT) = 100 m3
Bulk Unit weight (ϒt) = 20.5 kN/m3
w% = 8% = 0.08

Specific gravity of soil solid(Gs) = 2.7

The volume of soil solid required is VT = Vs(1+e)
But e = ??
We have,
2.7 𝑥 9.81(1 + 0.08)
ϒ𝑡 𝑒= −1
ϒ𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 20.5
1+𝑤
𝑒 = 0.395
𝐺𝑠 ϒ𝑤
ϒ𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝑒 𝑉𝑇 100
𝑉𝑠 = = = 71.68 𝑚3
ϒ𝑡 𝐺𝑠 ϒ𝑤 1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.395
=
1+𝑤 1+𝑒

𝐺𝑠 ϒ𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)
1+𝑒 =
ϒ𝑡

𝐺𝑠 ϒ𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)
𝑒= −1
ϒ𝑡
Soil Solid Volume obtained from different pits
Pit Total Moist volume available, m3 Soil Solid volume available, m3
A 80 𝟖𝟎
= 50
1 + 0.6
B 100 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 50
1+1
C 100 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 57.143
1 + 0.75

Economical Pits probability

S.N First Pit Second Pit
1 A B
2 A C
3 B A
4 B C
5 C A
6 C B
 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.143

First Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit A and required deficient volume from pit B

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit A = 50 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit B = 71.68 – 50 = 21.68 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit B = 21.8(1+eB) = 21.68 (1+1) = 43.36 m3

Total Cost($) = (80 x 1) + (43.36 x 1.5) = $145.04

 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.43

Second Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit A and required deficient volume from pit C

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit A = 50 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit C = 71.68 – 50 = 21.68 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit C = 21.8(1+eC) = 21.68 (1+0.75) = 37.94 m3

Total Cost($) = (80 x 1) + (37.94 x 1.7) = $144.498

 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.43

Third Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit B and required deficient volume from pit A

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit B = 50 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit A = 71.68 – 50 = 21.68 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit A = 21.8(1+eA) = 21.68 (1+0.6) = 34.688 m3

Total Cost($) = (100 x 1.5) + (34.688 x 1) = $184.688

 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.43

Fourth Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit B and required deficient volume from pit C

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit B = 50 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit C = 71.68 – 50 = 21.68 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit C = 21.8(1+eC) = 21.68 (1+0.75) = 37.94 m3

Total Cost($) = (100 x 1.5) + (37.94 x 1.7) = $214.498

 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.43

Fifth Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit C and required deficient volume from pit A

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit C = 57.143 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit A = 71.68 – 57.143 = 14.537 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit A = 21.8(1+eA) = 14.537 (1+0.6) = 23.26 m3

Total Cost($) = (100 x 1.7) + (23.26 x 1) = $193.26

 Borrow e Cost($)/m3 Available Moist volume, m3 Available Soil Solid Volume, m3
pit
A 0.6 1 80 50
B 1 1.5 100 50
C 0.75 1.7 100 57.143

Sixth Case
• Full moist volume obtained from pit C and required deficient volume from pit B

Total soil solid volume required = 71.68 m3

Volume of available soil solid from pit C = 57.143 m3
Deficient soil solid volume to be obtained from pit B = 71.68 – 57.143 = 14.537 m3
Deficient moist soil volume to be obtained from pit B = 14.537(1+eB) = 14.537 (1+1) = 29.08 m3

Total Cost($) = (100 x 1.7) + (29.08 x 1.5) = $213.62

 Total cost of various combination of pits
S.N First Pit Second Pit Total Cost($)
1 A B 145.04
2 A C 144.498
3 B A 184.688
4 B C 214.498
5 C A 193.26
6 C B 213.62

From above table it can be seen that case II is the most economical one. So
required earth material is 80 m3 first from borrow Pit A and 37.94 m3 from
borrow Pit C.
Index Properties
• The civil engineering structures like building, bridge, highway, tunnel, dam,
tower, etc. are founded below or on the surface of the earth. For their stability,
suitable foundation soil is required.
• To check the suitability of soil to be used as foundation or as construction
materials, its engineering properties as well index properties are required to
be assessed.
• Engineering properties of soils are those properties which can be used for
quantifying the engineering behaviour of soils e.g. shear strength,
permeability, compressibility characteristics, compaction characteristics,
swell/collapse potential etc.
• The properties of soil which are not of primary importance to the Geo-
technical Engineers but which are indicative of the engineering properties are
called Index properties e.g water content, Specific gravity, shape, size etc.
• Index properties indicate a qualitative behaviour of soil when subjected to
various types of load. The soils with like index properties have identical
engineering properties.
• Soil index properties are properties which facilitate identification and
classification of soils for engineering purposes.
 The test required for determination of engineering properties is generally
elaborative and time consuming.
 Sometimes for saving the time the geotechnical engineer is interested to have
some rough assessment of the engineering properties without conducting
elaborative test.

Coarse-grained (non-cohesive) soil index properties are:

•Relative density
•Particle shape
•Particle-size distribution

Fine-grained (cohesive) soil index properties are:

•Consistency
•Atterberg limit

Common index properties are:

•Water content
•Specific gravity
•In-situ density
The index properties of soil can be divided broadly in two categories as Soil grain
properties and soil aggregate properties.

 Soil grain Properties

• Soil grain properties are those which are dependent on the individual grains of the
soil and are independent of the manner of the soil formation.
• It can be determined from remoulded disturbed sample.
• The most important properties of individual particles of coarse grained soil are
shape of grain, particle size distribution.

 Soil aggregate properties

• Soil aggregate are those properties which are dependent on the soil mass as a
whole and thus represent the collective behavior of a soil.
• These properties should be determined from undisturbed sample or preferably
from in-situ test.
• These properties are of greater significance in engineering practice since
engineering structure are founded on undisturbed natural soil deposit.
• The aggregate properties of coarse grained soils of great practical importance is its
relative density and of cohesive soil is consistency.
Relative Density
The most important index aggregate property of a cohesionless
soil is the relative density. The engineering property of a mass
of cohesionless soil depend to a large extent on its relative
density (Dr), also known as density index (ID).

emax = maximum void ratio of the soil in loosest condition

emin = minimum void ratio of the soil in densest condition
e = void ratio in natural state

Relative density is the ratio of the difference between the void ratios of a
cohesionless soil in its loosest state and existing natural state to the difference
between its void ratio in the loosest and densest states.
Relative Density
• The relative density of a soil gives a more clear idea of the
denseness than does the void ratio.
• Two types of sands having the same void ratio may have
entirely different state of denseness and engineering
properties. However, if the two sands have the same relative
density, they usually behave in identical manner. If the deposit
is dense, it can take heavy loads with very little settlements.
• Depending upon the relative density, the soils are generally
divided into five categories.
Relative Density
Representation of Relative density in terms of
maximum and minimum dry density
Grain Shape
• Grain shape is a key factor affecting the mechanical properties of granular
materials such as void ratio, shear strength, compressibility etc.

• The soil grains can be bulky, flaky or plate shaped, needle shaped. The
coarse grained soil are bulky and the the shape of bulky grains varies from
very angular to well round.

• Sphericity is a measure of the degree to which a particle approximates the

shape of a sphere. It is the ratio of the surface area of sphere having a
volume equal to that of grain over the surface area of specimen.

• Higher sphericity reduces the tendancy of particles to fracture and

degrade into smaller particles under loading.

Flatness (F) and elongation (E) are defined as

• F = B/T and E = L/B where L, B and T are length, width and thickness.
• The higher the value of flatness and elongation, the more is the tendency
of the soil to fracture.
Grain Shape
Angularity (R) of a particle is defined as

Depending upon the angularity, the particles are qualitatively divided into 5 shapes.

The angularity of particles has great influence on the behavior of coarse grained soils. Angular
particles have greater shear strength than rounded ones because the particles interlock and it
resists relative displacement i.e it is more difficult to make them slide over one another.

The particles with a high value of angularity tend to resist the displacement, but have more
tendency for fracturing. On the other hand, the particles with low angularity do not crush
easily under loads, but have low resistance to displacements as they have a tendency to roll.
Particle size distribution
• Particle size distribution is used to characterise the size
distribution of particles in a given sample.
• The percentage of various sizes of particles in a given
dry soil sample is found by a particle size analysis or
mechanical analysis.
• Mechanical analysis means the separation of soil into
its different size fractions
Mechanical analysis is performed in two stages
• Sieve analysis
• Sedimentation analysis
The first stage is meant for coarse grained soil only while
second stage is meant for fine grained soil. In general a
soil sample may contain both coarse grained particles as
well as fine particles and hence both the stages of
mechanical analysis may be necessary.
Particle size distribution
Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis is a procedure used to assess the particle
size distribution of a granular material by allowing the
material to pass through a series of sieves of
progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount
of material that is retained in each sieve as a fraction of
the whole mass.
Particle size distribution
Procedure of Sieve Analysis
• Sieving is performed by arranging the various sieves one
over the other in the order of their mesh openings-the
largest aperture sieve being kept at the top and the
smallest aperture sieve at the bottom.
• A receiver is kept at the bottom and a cover is kept at the
top of the whole assembly.
• The soil sample is put on the top sieve, and the whole
assembly is fitted on a sieve shaking machine. At least 10
minutes of shaking is desirable for soils with small
particles.
• The portion of the soil sample retained on each sieve and
bottom pan is weighed.
• The percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated
on the basis of the total mass of soil sample taken and from
these results percentage passing through each sieve is
calculated.
Sieve Analysis
Note:
• It is required to wash the soil portion passing through 4.75
mm sieve over 75 micron sieve so that silt and clay particles
sticking to the sand particles may be dislodged.
• Two grams of sodium hexametaphosphate is added per
litre of water used. Washing should be continued until the
water passing through 75 micron sieve substantially clean.
• The fraction retained on the 75 micron sieve is dried in
oven and the dried portion is re-sieved through 2mm,
1mm, 600μ, 425μ, 150μ, and 75 μ IS sieves as explained
earlier.
• The portion passing 75μ sieve (while washing) is also dried
separately and its mass determined.
• If the portion passing 75 μ size is substantial sedimentation
analysis is required to be done.
Sieve Analysis
Data Manipulation
Sieve Analysis
Data Manipulation:
• The weight of the soil retained on each sieve is calculated
by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve from the
recorded weight of the sieve after the test.
• The total weights of particles retained are added and
compared to the initial weight of the soil sample. A
difference lower than 2% is required.
• The percentage retained on each sieve is determined by
dividing each weight retained by the initial weight of the
soil sample.
• Subsequently, the total percentage passing from each sieve
is calculated by subtracting the cumulative percentage
retained in that particular sieve and the ones above it from
totality.
• A graph is plotted on a semi log graph with % finer on y axis
and sieve size on logarithmic x axis.
Sieve Analysis
Plotting of data to obtain particle size
distribution graph:
• A semi log graph paper is used to plot the data
of particle size analysis. Semi-log graph paper is
simply graph paper which has one linear axis
and one log axis. It is used in the case where
the data range on one axis is extremely large.
• The percentage finer is plotted on y axis and
the sieve size is plotted on x axis.
Particle size distribution curve
Coefficient of Uniformity

It is ratio of sieve size that allows 60% of soil to pass through to that of sieve size that
allows 10% of soil to pass.

Coefficient of Curvature

D10 - Particle diameter at which 10% of the soil mass is finer than this size
D30 - Particle diameter at which 30% of the soil mass is finer than
D60 - Particle diameter at which 60% of the soil mass is finer than this size.

The gradation of soil is determined by the

following criteria:
Uniform soil: Cu = 1
Poorly graded soil: 1< Cu< 4
Well graded soil: Cu > 4
If one or both criteria does not meet then the soil is poorly graded.
Particle size distribution curve
Identify the soil

Since the value of Cc lies between 1

and 3 and the value of Cu is greater
than 6 it is Well graded sand
Particle size distribution curve
Engineering Application
• It is used in engineering classification of coarse grained
soils.
• The compressibility of soil can be judged from particle
size distribution curve. A uniformly graded soil is more
compressible than well graded soil.
• It can be used to define the grading specification of a
drainage filter.
• It can be a criterion for selecting fill materials of
embankments and earth dams, road sub-base
materials, and concrete aggregates.
• It can be used to estimate the results of grouting and
chemical injection, and dynamic compaction.
Sedimentation Analysis
The silt and clay fractions cannot be distinguished from one another by sieve analysis.
Clay and silt particles are generally measured with sedimentation using hydrometer or
pipette method. Sedimentation is the process of the setting of soil particles in a liquid.

• The difference in settling rate enables the particle

size classes to be separated.
• The basis for this test is Stoke's Law for falling
spheres in a viscous fluid
• The terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain
diameter and the densities of the grain in
suspension and of the fluid.
• When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the
particles settle at different velocities depending
on their shape, size, weight and the viscosity of
water.
• Larger particles will settle quickly followed by
smaller particles.
Sedimentation Analysis
• When hydrometer is lowered into suspensions, it will
sink into the suspension until buoyancy force is
sufficient to balance the weight of the hydrometer.
• The length of the hydrometer projecting above the
suspension is a function of the density, so it is possible
to calibrate the hydrometer to read the density of the
suspension at different intervals of time.
• In 24 hour period, the time (t) and corresponding
depth (L) are recorded.
• The grain diameter can be calculated from a knowledge
of the distance and time of fall of soil particles. The
hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or
density) of the suspension, and this enables the
percentage of particles of a certain equivalent particle
diameter to be calculated.
For equilibrium, Weight = Drag Force + Upthrust
 1 dyne = 105 N
𝑁∗𝑠
1 poise = 0.1 𝑀2

The percent finer than is obtained by the relation

% finer = ((Gs / (Gs-1)) x (Rc/Ms) x100

Where Gs = specific gravity of soil

Ms = Dry mass of soil

Rc = Corrected Hydrometer reading

50 gm of oven dried soil passing 0.075 mm sieve was used in a hydrometer analysis.
The corrected Hydrometer reading after 2 min in a 1000 c.c soil suspension was 25. For
the hydrometer reading of 25 the effective depth is 12.13 cm. Calculate the particle
size and percentage finer. Given Gs = 2.75,η = 0.01 poise
Consistency of soil
• Consistency is the most important property of fine
grained soil.
• Consistency is a term which is used to indicate the
physical state of fine grained soil by using description
such as soft, medium, firm, soft or hard.
• The consistency in a clay sample is strongly dependant
on the water content.
Depending upon water content a soil can have different
state i.e
• Liquid state
• Plastic state
• Semi solid state
• Solid state
Consistency of soil

Consistency limit or Atterberg limit

The limiting water content at which a soil passes from one state of
consistency to another state is called consistency limit. The consistency
limits were determined for the first time by atterberg in 1911 and therefore
these limits are also called Atterberg's limit.
The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (ws), plastic limit (wp), and
liquid limit (wL) as shown. The values of these limits can be obtained from
laboratory tests. Two of these (wL and wp) are utilized in the classification of
fine soils.
Consistency of soil
Liquid Limit

It is water content corresponding to arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic state of
consistency of soil. It is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid
state, but has a small shearing strength against flow.

The water content, in percent, required to close the distance of 12.7 mm along the
bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit. It is very difficult to
make the water content in the soil to get the required 12.7 mm closure of the groove in
the soil pat at 25 blows.
Consistency of soil

Determination of liquid limit

The liquid limit of collected soil sample was determined with Casagrande apparatus
conforming to IS 2720: PART 5:1985.

• A required amount of soil sample passing 425 µm sieve was taken and
mixed with water using knife plate for 10 minutes until uniform
consistency was obtained.
• After mixing the soil thoroughly, the soil sample was placed in the cup
such that surface of soil paste placed was parallel to horizontal.
• A groove was formed at the center of the soil sample using standard
grooving tool.
• Blows were given to soil sample by using the crank- operated cam that
lifted the cup to the calibrated height of 10 mm and then dropped.
• The number of blows required for soil to fail is noted and soil along failure
plane is taken for moisture content determination.
• The soil sample is considered failed when the bottom of the groove closes.
• At least three tests for the same soil sample were conducted at different
water contents. The water mixed with soil sample was varied such that
number of blows N, required to achieve closure varied between 15 and 35
and sample along failure plane was kept in oven for water content
determination.
Consistency of soil
Determination of liquid limit
• A "flow curve" was prepared representing the relationship between
moisture content and corresponding number of drops of the cup, on semi-
logarithmic graph paper with the moisture contents as abscissae on the
arithmetic scale, and the number of drops as ordinates on the logarithmic
scale.
• The flow curve was a straight line drawn as nearly as possible through the
three or more plotted points. The moisture content corresponding to the
intersection of the flow curve with the 25 blow ordinate is the liquid limit
of the soil.
Consistency of soil
Determination of liquid limit

Flow Index
w1 −w2
• If = N2
log10
N1
• It is the slope of flow curve obtained between water content and number of
blows.
• The flow index indicates the rate of loss in shearing strength upon increase in
water content.
• A soil with higher value of flow index possesses lower shear strength when
compared to a soil with lower value of flow index.
Consistency of soil
Plastic Limit

It is water content corresponding to arbitrary limit between plastic and semi-solid

consistency of soil. From test point of view it is minimum water content at which soil
will just crumble when rolled into a thread of 3 mm diameter.

Plastic limit is the water content of the soil below which the soil ceases to be plastic. It
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of about 3 mm diameter. At this
water content, the soil loses its plasticity and passes to a semi-solid state.
Consistency of soil
Plastic Limit
• A required amount of air dried soil passing 425 µm was taken and mixed with
water, and then the soil sample was rolled with the help of fingers on smooth glass
plate.
• When the thread began to crumble at a diameter of 3 mm or 1/8", the crumbled
pieces were kept in oven for water content determination and the water content at
this stage was taken as plastic limit.

The process was repeated at least twice more with fresh samples and the average of
three tests was taken as the required plastic limit. The plasticity index was then
computed for each soil based on the liquid and plastic limit obtained.
Plasticity Index

 The range of consistency within which soil exhibit plastic properties is called
plasticity index.
 It is numerical difference between liquid limit and plastic limit of soil, Ip = wl - wp
 Soils with high plasticity Index tends to be clay while that with lower plasticity index
tends to be silt.
 Soils with high plasticity index are highly compressible.
 Plasticity index is also a measure of cohesiveness with high value of Ip indicating high
degree of cohesion.
Consistency Index
wl − w
Ic =
IP
wl = Liquid Limit
w = natural water content of soil
Ip = plasticity Index

It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the liquid limit and natural
water content of soil to its plasticity Index.

 When Ic = 1, w = wp i.e natural water content is equal to plastic limit

 When Ic = 0, w = wl i.e natural water content is equal to liquid limit.
 When Ic > 1, soil is in semi solid or solid state and will be stiff
 When Ic < 0 (i.e negative value) it indicates that soil has natural water content
greater than liquid limit and hence soil behaves just like liquid.
Liquidity Index
w − 𝑤𝑝
IL =
IP
Wp= Plastic Limit
w = natural water content of soil
Ip = plasticity Index

 It is defined as the ratio of the difference between natural water content of

soil and its plastic limit to plasticity Index.
 It is used for the same purpose as consistency index
 Relation with consistency index is expressed by IL= 1- Ic

 For a soil in plastic state, IL varies from 0 to 1.

 When IL < 0, behaves like brittle solid
 When IL >1 soil behaves like liquid
Toughness Index
IP
IT =
If
It is the ratio of the plasticity Index to flow Index
It gives idea of shear strength of soil at plastic limit
When IT < 1, the soil is easily crushed at plastic limit.
The following data on consistency limits are available for two soils A and B

S.N Parameter Soil A Soil B

1. Plastic Limit 16% 19%
2. Liquid Limit 30% 52%
3 Flow Index 11% 6%
4. Natural water content 32% 40%

Find which soil is

a. More plastic
b. Better foundation material on remoulding
c. Better shear strength as function of water content
d. Better shear strength at plastic limit
e. Which soil is more compressible
a.
Plasticity index for soil A = wL - wp = 30 – 16 = 24
Plasticity index for soil B = wL - wp= 52 – 19 = 33
Since plasticity index of soil B is higher it is more plastic

b.
wl −w 30−32
Consistency index for soil A, = = −0.083
IP 24

wl −w 52−40
Consistency index for soil B, = = 0.387
IP 31

The consistency index for soil A is negative. Hence it will turn into slurry
when remoulded. Hence soil A is not suitable for foundations. However soil
B will be suitable.
c.
Flow index (If) for soil A = 11

Flow index for (If) soil B = 6

Since the flow index of soil B is lesser than that of soil A, soil B has better shear strength as
function of water content.

d.
IP 24
Toughness index for soil A, IT = = = 2.18
If 11

IP 33
Toughness index for soil B, IT = = = 5.5
If 6
Since toughness index for soil B is greater than that of soil A, soil B has better shear strength at plastic
limit.

e.
Compressibility is a direct function of liquid limit. Since liquid limit of soil B is higher than that of
soil A, soil B is more compressible than soil A.
The following data on consistency limits are available for two soils A and B

Soil A Soil B
No. of W% No. of W%
blows(N) blows(N)
8 43 5 65
20 39 15 61
30 37 30 59
45 35 40 58
wp = 25% wp = 30%
w = 50%
w = 40%
 Which soil has greater plasticity?
 Which soil will be better foundation material upon remoulding?
 Better shear strength as function of water content?
 Better shear strength at plastic limit?
 Which soil is more compressible?