CHAPTER VIII:

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

Background
One of the most important and the most controversial engineering properties of soil is its shear
strength or ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within a mass. The stability of a cut,
the slope of an earth dam, the foundations of structures, the natural slopes of hillsides and other
structures built on soil depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil along the probable
surfaces of slippage. There is hardly a problem in the field of engineering which does not involve
the shear properties of the soil in some manner or the other.

What is shear?

Shear is nothing but the relative displacements of soil particle when subjected to loading (ext. or
int.). Hence the loading causes motion in soil particles.

What is shear strength?

The shear strength is the maximum resistance or stress that a particular soil can offer against
failure over its improper surface loading.

The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass can
offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it.

Applications
The shear strength of soils is thus one of the most important aspects that geotechnical engineers must be able to
calculate properly because if the applied stress exceeds the shear strength of soils, failure occurs. The
principal design situations addressed by geotechnical engineers regarding the shear strength of
soils are the bearing (or load-carrying) capacity of foundations, earth pressures on
retaining walls and stability of slopes. The failure modes that govern these situations are shown in

Figure below.
Factors controlling the shear strength of soil

The stress-strain relationship of soils, and therefore the shearing strength, is affected by:

1. Soil composition (basic soil material): Mineralogy, grain size and grain size
distribution, shape of particles, pore fluid type and content, ions on grain and in
pore fluid.
2. State (initial): Defined by the initial u, effective normal stress and shear stress (stress
history). State can be described by terms such as: loose, dense, over consolidated,
normally consolidated, stiff, soft, contractive, dilative, etc.
3. Structure: Refers to the arrangement of particles within the soil mass; the manner the
particles are packed or distributed. Features such as layers, joints, fissures, slickendes,
voids, pockets, cementation, etc., are part of the structure. Structure of soils is described
by terms such as: undisturbed, disturbed, remolded, compacted, and
cemented; flocculent, honey-combed, single-grained; flocculated, deflocculated;
stratified, layered, laminated; isotropic and anisotropic.
 4. Loading conditions: Effective stress path, i.e., drained, and un drained; and type of
loading, i.e., magnitude, rate (static, dynamic), and time history (monotonic, cyclic).
5. Confining Stress also affects the shear strength of the soil as more deviator stress is
required for failure in the case of soil under high confining pressure.

Main Constituents of Shear Strength

The shear strength along any plane is mobilized by cohesion and frictional resistance to sliding
between soil particles. The cohesion c and angle of friction υ of a soil are collectively known as
shear strength parameters

The main constituents of shear strength are:

 the structural resistance offered by interlocking of particles
 the frictional resistance offered by particles due to their shape and surface
 the cohesion and adhesion
1. Cohesion :
Cohesion (C), is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soils
2. Internal Friction:
Internal Friction angle (f), is the measure of the shear strength of soils due to friction

3. Angle of Repose
Angle of Repose determined by: Particle size (higher for large particles) Particle shape
(higher for angular shapes) Shear strength (higher for higher shear strength
Principal Planes and Principal Stresses of Soil
At a point in a stressed material, every plane will be subjected to a normal or direct stress and a
shearing stress. A principal plane is defined as a plane on which the stress is fully normal or one
which does not carry shearing stress.

The normal stress acting on this principal planes are known as principal stresses. There exist
three principal planes at any point in a stressed material. These three principal planes are
mutually perpendicular.

In the order of decreasing magnitude the principal planes are designated as major principal plane,
minor principal plane and intermediate principal plane and the corresponding principal stresses
are designated in the same manner.

Inclination of the plane of failure caused by shear (Obliquity relationship)

As stated by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, failure from shear will occur when the shear stress on

a plane reaches a value given by Eq. of r. To determine the inclination of the failure plane with the major

principal plane, refer to Figure 2, where and are, respectively, the major and minor effective principal

stresses. The failure plane EF makes an angle u with the major principal plane. To determine the angle u

and the relationship between and refer to Figure 3, which is a plot of the Mohr's circle for the state of

stress shown in Figure 2.

In Figure 3, fgh is the failure envelope defined by the relationship ' 𝜏 = ‘+ ’ tan ∅’'. The radial line ab

defines the major principal plane (CD in Figµre 2), and the radial line ad defines the failure plane (EF in

Figure 2). It can be shown that ≤ bad =2Ɵ = 90 +∅',

Ɵ = 45 + ' ∅'/2

Again from Figure 3,ad/ fa = sin∅ '

fa = f 0 + Oa = c' cot ∅'+( 1’ + 3/2 ’)

 ,N Ø’=’ tan2 (45 + Ø’ / 2) =Flow Ratio
’
1= 3 N Ø’’ + 2 ’ ( N Ø’’ )1/2………is known as obliquity relationship
Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion

Mohr (1900) presented a theory to explain the failure in materials. In his theory, Mohr said that the

failure in any material happens because the critical combination of both normal stress (σn) and shear

stress (τ), and not from just one of them alone. The Mohr theory is concerned with the shear stress and

the normal stress at failure. The curve is defined by this is known as failure envelope. Thus, it is

important to find the relationship between normal and shear stresses as:

𝜏 = ( ) ………….(1)

The real relationship (failure envelope) between these stresses is a curve, but for soil mass, it is
sufficient to consider that the shear stress in the failure plane as a linear.

The linear relation used to connect both stresses is:

 𝜏 = + n tan ∅ )

Where:

τf: shear resistance at failure ,

c: cohesion,

σn: normal stress at the failure plane

Ø: angle of internal friction

The failure envelope defined by Eq.(1) is a curved line.

For most soil mechanics problems, it is sufficient to approximate the shear stress on the failure plane as
a linear function of the normal stress (Coulomb. 1776). This linear function can be written as 𝜏 = + n
tan ∅ is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.

In Coulomb's equation c and ∅ are empirical parameters, the values of which for any soil depend upon
several factors; the most important of these are :

1. The past history of the soil.

2. The initial state of the soil, i.e., whether it is saturated or unsaturated.

3. The permeability characteristics of the soil.

4. The conditions of drainage allowed taking place during the test

In saturated soil, the total normal stress at a point is the sum of the effective stress ( ') and pore water
pressure (U), or = '+U. The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, expressed in terms of effective stress,
will be in the form:,

𝜏 = ‘+ n’ tan ∅’ .(3)

Where : c' : cohesion and ∅' : friction angle, based on effective stress

 The cohesion (c) for gravel, sand and inorganic clays equal to zero

 The effective cohesion (c) for normally consolidated clays is zero

Figure above shows the shape of Mohr-Columb failure criterion depends on the previous equation.
As shown on the figure, the normal and shear stresses on the plane ab is (σ’) and (τ), respectively,
according to the failure envelope shown in the same figure, if the magnitudes of both stresses are
located:

 Under the failure envelope (point A), the soil element doesn’t suffer from shear failure.
 At the failure envelope (point B), then the soil element suffering from shear failure along the
plane ab. –
 The magnitudes of both stresses cannot be located at point above the failure
In order to find the inclination (the angle θ) of the failure plane (EF) (the plane of τf) form the principle
plane (σ1, σ1, and τ=0), as shown in the figure above.

= 45+Ø’ /2
’
1=
’
3 tan
2
(45 + Ø’ / 2) + 2 ’ tan (45 + Ø’⧵ 2 )

The same above equation can be used in terms of total stresses (σ1), (σ3), (Ø) and (c).
2
1= 3 tan (45 + Ø/ 2) + 2 tan (45 + Ø⧵ 2 )

MOHR’S CIRCLE

Otto Mohr, a German scientist derived a graphical method for the determination of stresses on a
plane inclined to the major principal planes. The graphical construction is known as Mohr‘s circle. In
this method, the origin O is selected and the normal stresses are plotted along the horizontal axis and
the shear stresses on the vertical axis.

To construct a Mohr circle, first mark major and minor principal stresses on X axis. Mark the centre
point of that as C. A circle is drawn with c as centre and CF as radius. Each point on the circle gives
the stresses σ and τ on a particular plane. The point E is known as the pole of the circle.

1. Mohr‘s circle can be drawn for stress system with principal planes inclined to co-ordinate axes

2. Stress system with vertical and horizontal planes are not the principal planes
METHODS OF DETERMINING SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

The shear strength parameters c and Ø of soils either in the undisturbed or remolded states may
be determined by any of the following methods:

1. Laboratory methods

(a) Direct or box shear test (b) Triaxial compression test (c) Unconfined Compression test

2. Field method:

Vane shear test or by any other indirect method

Choice of Methods

The laboratory or the field method that has to be chosen in a particular case depends upon the
type of soil and the accuracy required. Wherever the strength characteristics of the soil in-situ are
required, laboratory tests may be used provided undisturbed samples can be extracted from the
stratum. However, soils are subject to disturbance either during sampling or extraction from the
sampling tubes in the laboratory even though soil particles possess cohesion. It is practically
impossible to obtain undisturbed samples of cohesionless soils and highly pre-consolidated clay
soils. Soft sensitive clays are nearly always remolded during sampling. Laboratory methods may,
therefore, be used only in such cases where fairly good undisturbed samples can be obtained.
Where it is not possible to extract undisturbed samples from the natural soil stratum, any one of
the following methods may have to be used according to convenience and judgment :

1. Laboratory tests on remolded samples which could at best simulate field conditions of the
soil.

2. Any suitable field test. (Vanes Shear Test)

A- Direct Shear Test

Dry sand can be conveniently tested by direct shear tests. The sand is placed in a shear box that
is split into two halves. A normal load is first applied to the specimen. Then a shear force is
applied to the top half of the shear box to cause failure in the sand.

The specimen is confined in a metal box (known as the shear box) of square or circular cross-
section split horizontally at mid-height, a small clearance being maintained between the two
halves of the box. Porous plates are placed below and on top of the specimen if it is fully or
partially saturated to allow free drainage: if the specimen is dry, solid metal plates may be used.
The essential features of the apparatus are shown diagrammatically in Figure. A vertical force
(N) is applied to the specimen through a loading plate and shear stress is gradually applied on a
horizontal plane by causing the two halves of the box to move relative to each other, the shear
force (T) being measured together with the corresponding shear displacement (l). Normally, the
change in thickness (h) of the specimen is also measured. If the initial thickness of the specimen
is h0 then the shear strain can be represented by l/hr and the volumetric strain (v) by h/h. A
number of specimens of the soil are tested, each under a different vertical force, and the value of
shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. The shear strength
parameters are then obtained from the best line fitting the plotted points.

Using direct shear test, one can find out the cohesion and angle of internal friction of soil which
are useful in many engineering designs such as foundations, retaining walls, etc.

This test can be performed in three different drainage conditions namely unconsolidated-
undrained, consolidated-undrained and consolidated-drained conditions. In general, cohesionless
soils are tested for direct shear in consolidated drained condition.
Apparatus Required for Direct Shear Test

Apparatus required for conduction direct shear test are

 Shear box
 Shear box container
 Base plate with cross groves on its top
 Porous stones (2 Nos)
 Plain Grid plates (2Nos)
 Perforated grid plates (2Nos)
 Loading pad with steel ball
 Digital weighing machine
 Loading frame with loading yoke
 Proving ring
 Dial gauges (2 Nos)
 Weights
 Tampering Rod
 Spatula
 Rammer
 Sampler
 Fig : Direct Shear Test Apparatus

Test Procedure of Direct shear test contains following steps:

1. Collect the soil specimen which is either undisturbed or remolded. The sample should be
taken using sampler and Rammer. If cohesionless soil is taking then sampler and rammer
are not required.
2. The inner dimensions of sampler should be 60 mm x 60 mm in plan which are also the
inner dimensions of shear box. The Thickness of box is about 50 mm while the thickness
of sample should be 25mm.
 Fig : Shear Box,Porous Stones, Grid Plates, Loading pad

3. Now attach the two halves of the shear box with locking pins and place the base plate at
the bottom.
4. Above the bottom plate, Place the porous stone and above it place the grid plate. Plain
grid plates are used for undrained conditions while perforated grid plates are used for
drained conditions.
5. Now we have baseplate, porous stone and grid plate in the shear box. Weigh the box at
this stage and note down.
6. After that place the soil specimen above the grid plate. Undisturbed sample is directly
transferred to shear box. If sandy soil is using, place it layers wise and tamper the each
layer to get the required density.
7. Note down the weight of shear box with soil specimen.
8. Above the soil specimen, place the upper grid plate, porous stone and loading pad one
above the other.
 Fig : Different Layers Positions in Shear Box

9. Now the whole box is placed in a container and mounted on the loading frame.
10. Proving ring is arranged in such a way that it should contact the upper half of the shear
box.
11. Loading yoke is placed on the steel ball of loading pad of shear box.
12. Two dial gauges are fitted one to the container for measuring shear displacement and
other one is to the loading yoke for measuring vertical displacement.
13. Now locking pins are removed from the shear box and spacing screws are placed in their
respective positions of the box.
 Fig : Applying Load on Specimen

14. The upper half of the box is raised slightly with the help of spacing screws. The spacing
is decided depending upon the maximum size of particle.
15. Now apply the normal stress which is generally 25 kN/m2. Also apply the shear load at a
constant rate of strain.
16. Now the box starts reacting to loads applied and for every 30 seconds note down the
readings of proving ring and dial gauges.
17. If the proving ring reaches maximum and suddenly drops it, means the specimen is failed.
Note down the maximum value which is nothing but failure stress.
18. For some soils, failure point is taken at 20% of shear strain.
19. Finally remove the box and measure the water content of the specimen.
20. Repeat the same procedure for different normal stresses of 50, 100, 150,200,250,300,400
kN/m2

Observations and Calculations for Direct Shear Test

Calculations are to be done using the observations taken from the test as follows:

 Size of the box =

 Area of the box =
 Thickness of specimen =
 Mass of specimen =
 Volume of specimen =
  Bulk Density of soil =
 Dry density of soil =
 Void ratio =
 Mass of box + base plate + porous stone + grid plate =
 Mass of box + base plate + porous stone + grid plate + Soil specimen =
Calculate the shear stress using below tabulated observations:
Elapsed Horizontal dial Horizontal Vertical dial Vertical Proving ring Shear Shear
S.No
time gauge reading displacement gauge reading displacement reading force stress

Now determine the shear stress at failure for different normal stress values:
Normal
Test stress Shear Stress at Failure Shear Displacement at Initial Water Final Water
no. (kN/m2) Failure Content Content
(kN/m2)

Now plot a graph between normal stress and shear stress by taking normal stress on abscissa and
shear stress at failure on ordinate. The graph looks like as shown below.

In a direct shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the
failure plane is horizontal. Point P1 on the stress diagram in Figure represents the stress condition
on the failure plane.
The coordinates of the point are normal stress = and shear stress = s.
 Envelope mohr

Fig : Graph plotted between Normal Stress and Shear stress

From the graph cohesion intercept (c‘) and angle of shearing resistance ( ) can be known

and shear strength (s) can be calculated from the formula.

Result of Direct Shear Test

Shear strength of the given soil sample is = ______________ kN/m2

1-Stress Controlled Direct Shear Test The shear force is applied in equal increments until the
specimen fails. The failure occurs along the plane of split of the shear box, the shear
displacement and the volume change is measured by a dial gauge when each load increment
application is completed. The test apparatus is shown in the figure (4)
2- Strain Controlled Direct Shear Test A constant rate of shear displacement is applied to one-
half of the box by a motor that acts through gears. The resisting shear force of the soil can be
measured by a horizontal proving ring or load cell. The volume change is also measured.

Merits
1- The simplest test to find the shear strength parameters
2- The most economic test
3- It can be performed to find the shear strength parameters (ca and δ) between soil and the
material of foundation (concrete, steel, wood… etc).
Demerits
1- The soil is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane but is forced to fail along the plane of
split of the shear box.
2- The shear stress distribution over the shear surface of the specimen is not uniform
3- Because Mohr‘s failure envelope is a curvilinear, so the effective angle of friction which
determined from this test is the average of the values.

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining shear
strength parameters. It is used widely for research and conventional testing. A diagram of the
triaxial test layout is shown in Figure.
In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76 mm long. A thin rubber membrane
encased the specimen and placed inside a plastic cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with
water or glycerin.
The test consists of two-stage the first one is isotropic loading where the specimen is subjected to
a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the chamber. The second stage is shearing to
cause shear failure in the specimen, where axial stress is applied (sometimes called deviator
stress) through a vertical loading ram.
The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial deformation is
measured by a proving ring or load cell attached to the ram.
3 A cylindrical specimen, generally having a length/diameter ratio of 2, is used in the test and is
stressed under conditions of axial symmetry in the manner shown in Figure. Typical specimen
diameters are 38 and 100 mm. The main features of the apparatus are shown in Figure.

The circular base has a central pedestal on which the specimen is placed, there being access
through the pedestal for drainage and for the measurement of pore water pressure. A Perspex
cylinder, sealed between a ring and the circular cell top, forms the body of the cell. The cell top
has a central bush through which the loading ram passes. The cylinder and cell top clamp onto
the base, a seal being made by means of an O-ring Triaxial test

Triaxial shear strength test on soil measures the mechanical properties of the soil. In this test, soil
sample is subjected to stress, such that the stress resulted in one direction will be different in
perpendicular direction. The material properties of the soil like shear resistance, cohesion and the
dilatancy stress is determined from this test. The test is most widely used and is suitable for all
types of soils.

1. Triaxial testing machine complete with triaxial cell : This unit have the provision to
insert a cylindrical soil specimen that is sealed by means of rubber membrane to restrict
the entry of lateral fluid. Radial fluid pressure and the vertical stress is applied by means
of a piston arrangement. The unit also have the provision to prevent the drainage of
specimen. The fluid pressure in the cell can be measured by means of a pressure gauge.
2. Equipment for loading
3. Equipment to measure load and Deformation : Proving is used to measure the load
application by the piston. A dial guage is used to measure the deformation of the
specimen.

Confining pressure and deviator stress

Fig.:Schematic Diagram of stress system at soil during triaxial test

The normal size of the sample will be 76mm x 38mm & 100mm x 50mm. The sample is
subjected to three principal stresses. Among this three stresses, two are stress due to water
pressure that is within the confining cell. The two values are equal.

The application of a load on the top of the cell by means of a ram as shown above is the applied
third stress. This stress is different from other two stresses.

The sample tested has its ends sealed by top cap and bottom pedestal by rubber O-rings. If these
involve pore pressure measurement, porous stones can be placed at the bottom and the top of the
specimen.

Pressure transducers are used to measure the pressure that is developed inside the specimen.

The triaxial shear testing can be conducted by two steps:

Step 1: The soil sample is prepared and set in the triaxial cell. Then the confining pressure is
applied.

Step 2: Here, deviator stress is applied, which is an additional axial stress. This induces shear
stresses within the sample. The axial stress applied is increased till the soil sample fails.

The applied stresses, axial strain and the pore water pressure is measured for both the above
steps.

Triaxial Shear Test Procedure

The specimen can be prepared either remoulded or undisturbed. Undisturbed soil can be tested
on soils that have sufficient cohesion. In order to make remoulded soils, cohesive soil is
collected and compacted properly. Care is taken while preparing the cohesion less soils.

Calculations
The test specimen is subjected to all around lateral pressure ( ). The deviatric stress applied
be . Then total vertical stress is ,

A mohr‘s circle is drawn by plotting and in x- axis and the shear stress is the y-axis.
Mohr‘s rupture envelope is obtained by drawing the tangent to the circles obtained. The tangent
will intercept at the y-axis. The y intercept will give the value of cohesion (C). The slope of the
failure plane or the tangent line will give the angle of internal friction of the soil ( ø).
The loading can increase the cross section of the soil specimen. This will require a correction for
the deviator stress . Here, the correction is applied by assuming that the volume of the
specimen remain constant and the area varied. The corrected deviatric stress is

P1 = Applied Load
Ao = Original Area of cross section
l0 = Specimen Original length
l = deformation of the specimen

The shear resistance of the sample is given by:

 Fig.: Determination of Stress parameters by Mohr’s Circle

Effective Stress Conditions

The effective stresses acting on the soil specimen during testing are shown in figure. In this case
effective minor principle stresses is equal to the cell pressure (fluid pressure) minus the pore
pressure. The major principle stress is equal to deviator stress plus the cell pressure. Hence, the
effective major principle stress is equal to the major principle stress minus the pore
pressure.

Let the stress components on the failure plane MN be and and the failure plane is
inclined at an angle to the major principle plane.

Mohrs circle

Fig.Effective Stress Determination by Mohr’s Circle

Let the envelop DF cut the abscissa at angle , C be the centre of the Mohr‘s circle.
From and we get,

Principle stresses relationships at failure

OC =

OF =

Again from ,

On solving this equation, we get

But

Therefore,
From the Mohr‘s circle drawn, the straight line forms the failure plane and the intercept created
is the effective strength parameter c‘ of the soil. The angle made by the plane ø‘ forms the angle
of friction.Hence, effective shear strength is given by

Pore water pressure measurement

Pore water pressure must be measured under conditions of no flow either out of or into the
specimen, otherwise the correct pressure gets modified. It is possible to measure pore water
pressure at one end of the specimen while drainage is taking place at the other end. The no flow
condition is maintained by the use of the null indicator, essentially a U-tube partly filled with
mercury.
MERITS

 The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.

 The specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane
 There is complete control over the drainage.
 Pore pressure changes and the volumetric changes can be measured directly.
 The state of stress at all intermediate stages upto failure is known. The Mohr circle can be
drawn at any stage of shear.
 This test is suitable for accurate research work and the apparatus adaptable to special
requirements such as extension test and tests for different stress paths.

DEMERITS

 The apparatus is elaborate, bulky and costly.

 The drained test takes place a longer period in comparison with a direct shear test.
 It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the specimen at larger strains, as
the assumption that the specimen remains cylindrical does not hold good.
 The strain conditions in the specimen are not uniform due to frictional restraint produced
by the loading cap and the pedestal disc. This leads to the formation of the dead zones at
each end of the specimen.
 The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic, whereas in the field, the
consolidation is generally anisotropic.

Procedure

 A loading cap is placed on top of the specimen and the specimen is then sealed in a
rubber membrane, O-rings under tension being used to seal the membrane to the pedestal
and the loading cap.
 In the case of sands, the specimen must be prepared in a rubber membrane inside a rigid
former which fits around the pedestal.
 A small negative pressure is applied to the pore water to maintain the stability of the
specimen while the former is removed prior to the application of the all-round pressure.
 A connection may also be made through the loading cap to the top of the specimen, a
flexible plastic tube leading from the loading cap to the base of the cell; this connection is
normally used for the application of back pressure.
 Both the top of the loading cap and the lower end of the loading ram have coned seating,
the load being transmitted through a steel ball.
 The specimen is subjected to an all-round fluid pressure in the cell, consolidation is
allowed to take place, if appropriate,and then the axial stress is gradually increased by the
 application of compressive load through the ram until failure of the specimen takes place,
usually on a diagonal plane.
 The load is measured by means of a load ring or by a load transducer fitted either inside
or outside the cell.
 The system for applying the all-round pressure must be capable of compensating for
pressure changes due to cell leakage or specimen volume change.

Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen, or to measure pressure in the pore
water (as per the test conditions), also are provided. The following three standard types of
triaxial tests generally are conducted:

1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)

2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test

In the CD test, the saturated specimen first is subjected to an all-around confining pressure, 3,
by compression of the chamber fluid. As confining pressure is applied, the pore water pressure of
the specimen increases by Uc (if drainage is prevented). This increase in the pore water pressure
can be expressed as a non-dimensional parameter in the form
B = Uc/ 3
Where, B = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954)
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

The consolidated-undrained test is the most common type of triaxial test. In this test, the
saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by an all-around chamber fluid pressure, ’3, that
results in drainage. After the pore water pressure generated by the application of confining
pressure is dissipated, the deviator stress, (Δ d), on the specimen, is increased to cause shear
failure. During this phase of the test, the drainage line from the specimen is kept closed. Because
drainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure, ΔUd, will increase. During the test,
simultaneous measurements of (Δ d) and Δud are made. The increase in the pore water pressure,
Δud, can be expressed in a non-dimensional form as:
Â= ΔUd,/ (Δ d)
Where  Skempton‘s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954),
Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not permitted during the
application of chamber pressure 3. The test specimen is sheared to failure by the application of
deviator stress, (ΔUd), and drainage is prevented. Because drainage is not allowed at any stage,
the test can be performed quickly. Because of the application of chamber confining pressure 3,
the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will increase by Uc. A further increase in the pore
water pressure (Δud) will occur because of the deviator stress application. Hence, the total pore
water pressure u in the specimen at any stage of deviator stress application can be given as
U = Uc+ ΔUd

MERITS

 The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.

 The specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane
 There is complete control over the drainage.
 Pore pressure changes and the volumetric changes can be measured directly.
 The state of stress at all intermediate stages upto failure is known. The Mohr circle can be
drawn at any stage of shear.
 This test is suitable for accurate research work and the apparatus adaptable to special
requirements such as extension test and tests for different stress paths.

DEMERITS

 The apparatus is elaborate, bulky and costly.

 The drained test takes place a longer period in comparison with a direct shear test.
 It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the specimen at larger strains, as
the assumption that the specimen remains cylindrical does not hold good.
 The strain conditions in the specimen are not uniform due to frictional restraint produced
by the loading cap and the pedestal disc. This leads to the formation of the dead zones at
each end of the specimen.
 The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic, whereas in the field, the
consolidation is generally anisotropic.
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

The unconfined compression test is a special form of unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test in

which the confining pressure is zero. The test can be conducted only on saturated cohesive soils,
which can stand unsupported without confining pressure. A cylindrical soil specimen is
subjected to axial vertical stress (major principal stress), as shown in Fig. below, until the
specimen fails due to shearing along a critical plane of failure. The test can be conducted only on
clayey soils which can stand without confinement. In this test, the confining pressure is 3= 0.
An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause failure. At failure, the total minor
principal stress is zero, and the total major principal stress is 1. There are two types of UCC
machines machine with a spring and machine with a proving ring
A compressive force is applied to the specimen till failure. The compressive load can be
measured using a proving ring.
Presentation of results

In this test the minor principal stress is zero. The major principal stress is equal to the deviator stress.
The Mohr circle can be drawn for stress conditions at failure.

The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is the load per unit area at which the cylindrical
specimen of a cohesive soil falls in compression.
qu = P/A

Where P= axial load at failure, A= corrected area = , where is the initial area of the
specimen, = axial strain = change in length/original length.

The undrained shear strength (s) of the soil is equal to the one half of the unconfined
compressive strength,

Equipment for the Test

1. Unconfined compression apparatus, proving ring type

2. Proving ring, capacity 1 kN, accuracy 1N.
 3. Dial gauge, accuracy 0.01 mm.
4. Weighing balance
5. Oven
6. Stop watch
7. Sampling tube
8. Split mould, 38mm diameter, 76mm long.
9. Sample extractor
10. Knife.
11. Vernier calipers
12. Large mould.
Procedure of Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
1. Place the sampling soil specimen at the desired water content and density in the large
mould.
2. Push the sampling tube into the large mould and remove the sampling tube filled with the
soil. For undisturbed samples, push the sampling tube into the clay sample.
3. Saturate the soil sample in the sampling tube by a suitable method.
4. Coat the split mould lightly with a thin layer of grease. Weigh the mould.
5. Extrude the sample out of the sampling tube into the split mould, using the sample
extractor and the knife.
6. Trim the two ends of the specimen in the split mould. Weigh the mould with the
specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from the split mould by splitting the mould into two parts.
8. Measure the length and diameter of the specimen with vernier calipers.
9. Place the specimen on the bottom plate of the compression machine. Adjust the upper
plate to make contact with the specimen.
10. Adjust the dial gauge and the proving ring gauge to zero.
11. Apply the compression load to cause an axial strain at the rate of ½ to 2% per minute.
12. Record the dial gauge reading, and the proving ring reading every thirty seconds up to a
strain of 6%. The reading may be taken after every 60 seconds for a strain between 6%,
12% and every 2minutes or so beyond 12%.
13. Continue the test until failure surfaces have clearly developed or until an axial strain of
20% is reached.
14. Measure the angle between the failure surface and the horizontal, if possible.
15. Take the sample from the failure zone of the specimen for the water content
determination.
 Fig: Unconfined Compression Testing Machine (Spring Type)

Fig: Unconfined Compression Testing Machine (Proving Ring Type)

Data Sheet for Unconfined Compression Test
Initial length of the specimen =

Initial diameter of the specimen, =

Initial area of the specimen, =

Initial volume of the specimen, =

Mass of empty split mould =

Mass of split mould + specimen =

Mass of the specimen M =

Bulk density, =

Water content =

Dry density =

Specific gravity of solids, G=

Void ratio,

Degree of saturation,

Plot a curve between the compressive stress as ordinate, and axial strain as abscissa.
 Fig: Mohr’s Circle for Unconfined Compression Test
Results of the Test:
From the plot, unconfined compressive strength, =

Shear strength, =

Merits
1. The test is convenient, simple and quick
2. It is ideally suited for measuring the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of intact saturated
clays
3. The sensitivity of the soil can be easily determined

Demerits
1. The test cannot be conducted on fissured clays
2. The test may be misleading for soils of which the angle of shearing resistance is not zero.
.
Vane Shear Test:

In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is difficult to obtain, the un drained
shear strength is measured using a shear vane test. This test is used for the in-situ determination
of the undrained strength of intact, fully saturated clays; the test is not suitable for other types of
soil. In particular, this test is very suitable for soft clays, the shear strength of which may be
significantly altered by the sampling process and subsequent handling. Generally, this test is
only used in clays having undrained strengths less than 100 kN/m2. This test may not give
reliable results if the clay contains sand or silt laminations

Fairly reliable results for the un drained shear strength, c, (S : 0 concept), of very soft to medium
cohesive soils may be obtained directly from vane shear tests. The shear vane usually consists of
four thin, equal-sized steel plates welded to a steel torque rod. A diagrammatic view of the shear
vane apparatus is shown in below. It consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally
(90degree) to a rod where the height H is twice the diameter D .Commonly used diameters are
38, 50 and 75 mm.

The vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at the bottom of a borehole until
totally embedded in the soil (at least 0.5 m). A torque T is applied by a torque head device
(located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod) ;‘and the vane is rotated at a
slow rate of 60 per minute. As a result, shear stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a
cylindrical volume of the soil generated by the rotation. The maximum torque is measured by a
suitable instrument and equals to the moment of the mobilized shear stress about the central axis
of the apparatus.
If T is the maximum torque applied at the head of the torque rod to cause failure, it should be
equal to the sum of the resisting moment of the shear force along the side surface of the soil
cylinder (Ms) and the resisting moment of the shear force at each end (Me)

For the calculation of Me, investigators have assumed several types of distribution of shear
strength mobilization at the ends of the soil cylinder:
1. Triangular. Shear strength .mobilization is cu at the periphery of the soil cylinder and
decreases linearly to zero at the center.
2. Uniform. Shear strength mobilization is constant (that is, cu) from the periphery to the center
of the soil cylinder
3. Parabolic”Shear strength mobilization is cu at the periphery of the soil cylinder and decreases
parabolically to zero at the center.

These variations in shear strength mobilization are shown in Figure above. In general, the torque,
T, at failure can be expressed as
Shear Strength of Soil by Vane Shear Test
Apparatus
Apparatus required for vane shear test are:

1. Vane shear apparatus

2. Soil specimen container
3. Vernier callipers

Fig : Vane Shear Apparatus

Vane shear apparatus consists high tensile steel rod to which four steel blades (vanes) are fixed at
right angles to each other at the bottom of rod.
 Fig : Steel Rod with Vanes

Procedure of Vane Shear Test

Test procedure of vane shear test contains following steps:

1. Clean the vane shear apparatus and apply grease to the lead screw for better movement of
handles.
2. Take the soil specimen in container which is generally 75 mm in height and 37.5 mm in diameter.
3. Level the soil surface on the top and mount the container on the base of vane shear test apparatus
using screws provided.
4. Lower the vane gradually into the soil specimen until the top of vane is at a depth of 10 to 20 mm
below the top of soil specimen.
 Fig : Lowering Vane into the Soil Specimen

5. Note down the reading of pointer on circular graduated scale which is initial reading.
6. Rotate the vane inside the soil specimen using torque applying handle at a rate of 0.1o per second.
7. When the specimen fails, the strain indicator pointer will move backwards on the circular
graduated scale and at this point stop the test and note down the final reading of pointer.
8. The difference between Initial and final readings is nothing but the angle of torque.
9. Repeat the procedure on two more soil specimens and calculate the average shear strength value.
10. Measure the diameter and height of vane using Vernier callipers.

Shear strength of given soil sample is calculated from below observations.

 Diameter of vane, D = ___ cm

 Height of vane, H = ____ cm
 Torque, T = (Spring constant /180)*(initial reading-final reading)

Shear strength of soil (S) is calculated from below formula.

 Initial Final (Initial Reading – Shear strength
S.No Torque (T)
Reading Reading final reading) (S)

Result of Vane Shear Test

Shear strength of soil specimen = ________ kg/cm2.

Advantages of Vane Shear Test

Advantages of vane shear test are as follows:

 Vane shear test is easy and quick.

 This test can be performed either in laboratory or in the field directly on the ground.
 In-situ vane shear test ideal for the determination of undrained shear strength of non-fissured,
fully saturated clay.
 Shear strength of soft clays at greater depths can also be found by vane shear test.
 Sensitivity of soil can also be determined using vane shear test results of undisturbed and
remolded soil samples.

Drawbacks of Vane Shear Test

Drawbacks of vane shear test are as follows:

 Vane shear test is not suitable for clays which contain sand or silt laminations in it.
 It cannot be conducted on the fissured clay.
 If the failure envelope is not horizontal, vane shear test does not give accurate results.

Sensitivity of Clay
For many naturally deposited clay soils, the unconfined compression strength is reduced greatly
when the soils are tested after remolding without any change in the moisture content, as shown in
Figure. This property of clay soils is called sensitivity. The degree of sensitivity may be defined
as the ratio of the unconfined compression strength in an undisturbed state to that in a remolded
state,
Stress Path
When we have many soil samples, it is difficult to study the change of stresses in the soil. Thus,
the results of triaxial tests can be represented by diagrams called stress paths. In this diagram, the
results for one Mohr‘s circle (state of stress) will transform to a point.

A stress path is a line or curve that connects a series of points, each of which represents a
successive stress state experienced by a soil specimen during the progress of a test.
 Fig: Stress Path

Liquefaction of sand

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which loose saturated sand loses a large percentage of its shear
strength and develops characteristics similar to those of a liquid. It is usually induced by cyclic
loading of relatively high frequency, resulting in undrained conditions in the sand. Cyclic
loading may be caused, for example, by vibrations from machinery and, more seriously, by earth
tremors.

Loose sand tends to compact under cyclic loading. The decrease in volume causes an increase in
pore water pressure which cannot dissipate under undrained conditions. Indeed, there may be a
cumulative increase in pore water pressure under successive cycles of loading. If the pore water
pressure becomes equal to the maximum total stress component, normally the overburden
pressure, the value of effective stress will be zero, i.e. inter particle forces will be zero, and the
sand will exist in a liquid state with negligible shear strength. Even if the effective stress does not
fall to zero the reduction in shear strength may be sufficient to cause failure.

Liquefaction may develop at any depth in a sand deposit where a critical combination of in-situ
density and cyclic deformation occurs. The higher the void ratio of the sand and the lower the
confining pressure the more readily liquefaction will occur. The larger the strains produced by
the cyclic loading the lower the number of cycles required for liquefaction.

Shear strength of unsaturated cohesive soils

The equation relating total stress, effective stress, and pore water pressure for unsaturated soils,
can be expressed as
’
1 = - Ua + X(Ua - Uw)
Where, ‗= effective stress
= total stress

u a = pore air pressure

Uw = pore water pressure

X =the effective stress parameter, varies between 0(dry soils) and 1 (saturated soils)

The measurement of shear strength of unsaturated soils is fundamentally important to understand

the strength behavior theoretically. Thus, the conventional shear tests have been modified to suit
the need for testing the unsaturated soils.

Stress- Strain Behavior of Sands

Sands are usually sheared under drained conditions as they have relatively higher permeability.
This behaviour can be investigated in direct shear or triaxial tests. The two most important
parameters governing their behaviour are the relative density (ID) and the magnitude of the
effective stress (σ‘). The relative density is usually defined in percentage as

where ,emax and emin are the maximum and minimum void ratios that can be determined from
standard tests in the laboratory, and e is the current void ratio.
This expression can be re-written in terms of dry density as:

where ,γdmax and γdmin are the maximum and minimum dry densities, and γd is the current dry density.
Sand is generally referred to as dense if ID > 65% and loose if < 35%.
The influence of relative density on the behaviour of saturated sand can be seen from the plots of CD
tests performed at the same effective confining stress. There would be no induced pore water
pressures existing in the samples.

For the dense sand sample, the deviator stress reaches a peak at a low value of axial strain and then
drops down, whereas for the loose sand sample, the deviator stress builds up gradually with axial
strain. The behaviour of the medium sample is in between. The following observations can be made

 All samples approach the same ultimate conditions of shear stress and void ratio, irrespective
of the initial density. The denser sample attains higher peak angle of shearing resistance in
between.
• Initially dense samples expand or dilate when sheared and initially loose samples compress