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Vibration analysis fundamentals

Study of vibration
By Alfonso Fernandez

Introduction to maintenance

Vibration analysis fundamentals

Vibration analysis basic concepts

Industrial machinery vibration

Study of vibration

Vibration sensors and measurement devices

Vibration standards

Imbalance and phase measurement

Low frequency fault diagnosis

Plain bearings

Gears

Rolling element bearings

AC induction motors

Resonance

Fourier transform
So far we have only seen vibrations in the time domain, which are signals captured
directly from the machine. As we said before, these signals contain all information
about the behavior of each machine component. However, there is a problem when
making fault diagnosis: these signals are loaded with a lot of information in a very
complex form, including the characteristic signals of each individual machine
component, so it is practically impossible to distinguish with the naked eye its
characteristic behavior.

There are other ways to perform a study of vibrations, among which is to analyze the
signals in the frequency domain. For this, the amplitude vs frequency plot is used,
which is known as the spectrum. This is the best tool currently available for
machinery analysis. It was precisely the French mathematician Jean Baptiste Fourier
(1768 - 1830) who found a way to represent a complex signal in the time domain by
means of series of sinusoidal curves with specific amplitude and frequency values.

So what a spectrum analyzer, working with the fast Fourier transform, is doing is to
capture a signal from a machine, calculate all the series of sinusoidal signals
contained in the complex signal and finally display them individually in a spectrum
plot.

Figure 2.9 clearly shows a three-dimensional representation of the complex vibration

signal acquired at a certain point in a machine. For this signal all the time domain
sinusoidal signals that compose it are calculated, and finally each one of them is
shown in the frequency domain.
Figure 2.9: FFT processing of a complex vibration signal

Therefore, by using the Fourier transform, we can retrieve the sum of simple
vibrations from Figure 2.5 and represent exactly the same operation in the frequency
domain as shown in Figure 2.10, with the particularity that in this case it is
straightforward to obtain from the resulting spectrum the frequencies and
amplitudes for the two original components.

Figure 2.10: Frequency domain sum of simple vibration

As already mentioned, the time domain plot is called the waveform, and the
frequency domain plot is called the spectrum. Spectrum analysis is equivalent to
transforming the time domain signal information into the frequency domain. A clear
example of equivalence in both domains is a time table, where we can say that a train
leaves at 6:00, 6:20, 6:40, 7:00, 7:20, or we can say that a train leaves every 20
minutes beginning at 6:00 (this last figure representing the phase). The first option
would be the time domain representation and the second one the frequency domain
representation. The frequency domain representation brings, in comparison with the
time domain, a reduction in the amount of data. The information is exactly the same
in both domains, but in the frequency domain is displayed in a more compact and
practical way.

Displacement, velocity and

acceleration
So far, we have considered only displacement as a measurement of an object
vibration amplitude. The displacement is simply the distance to the object from a
reference position or equilibrium point. Apart from a variable displacement, a
vibrating object has a variable velocity and a variable acceleration. Velocity is defined
as the rate of change in displacement and is usually measured in in/s (inches per
second) or mm/s. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity and is
measured in g (the average acceleration due to gravity at the earth's surface) or
mm/s². As we have seen, the displacement of a body that is subjected to a simple
harmonic motion is a sinusoidal wave. Also both the velocity and acceleration curves
of this motion are sinusoidal waves.

Figure 2.11: Phase shift amongst displacement, velocity and

acceleration

When the displacement reaches its maximum value, then the velocity is zero,
because that is the location where the movement direction is reversed. When the
displacement is zero (at the rest position), the velocity will reach its maximum value.
This means that the velocity wave phase is shifted to the left by 90 degrees,
compared to the displacement waveform. In other words, velocity is advanced 90
degrees with respect to displacement. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
When the velocity reaches its maximum, then the acceleration is zero because the
velocity does not change at that moment. When the velocity is zero, then the
acceleration is at its maximum since at that moment is when velocity changes the
fastest. The sinusoidal curve of the acceleration as a function of time can thus be
considered as to be shifted in phase to the left relative to the velocity curve and
therefore acceleration has a 90 degree advance with respect to velocity and 180
degrees with respect to displacement.

The amplitude units selected to express each measurement have a great influence on
the clarity with which the vibration phenomena is manifested. Thus, as can be seen in
Figure 2.12, the displacement shows its greatest amplitudes at low frequencies
(typically below 10 Hz), the velocity does it at an intermediate range of frequencies
(between 10 and 1,000 Hz), and acceleration is best expressed at high frequencies
(above 1,000 Hz).

Figure 2.12: Magnitude of interest as a function of frequency

To illustrate these relationships, let us consider how easy it is to move one hand the
distance of a palm at a cycle per second or 1 Hz. It would probably be possible to
achieve a similar movement of the hand at 5 or 6 Hz. But think about the velocity at
which you should move your hand to achieve the same displacement of a palm at
100 Hz or 1,000 Hz. This is why you never see high frequency levels combined with
high displacement values. The enormous forces that would be needed simply do not
occur in practice.
Figure 2.13 contains several plots showing an example of the behavior of the
different amplitude units throughout the frequency range. The three spectra provide
the same information, but their emphasis has changed. The displacement curve is
more difficult to read at higher frequencies. The speed curve is the most uniform
across the frequency range.

Figure 2.13: Spectral behavior for each vibration physical quantity

This is the typical behavior for most rotary machines, but in some cases the
displacement and acceleration curves will be the most uniform. It is a good idea to
select the units in such a way that you get the flattest curve. That provides the most
visual information to the observer. The vibration parameter that is most commonly
used in machinery diagnosis is velocity.

Finally, we illustrate what has been said so far with the practical case of the following
figure where the same spectrum is shown in unit of displacement and acceleration.
Both plots correspond to a deteriorated bearing. In the velocity spectrum the problem
is not observed, whereas in the acceleration spectrum it is clearly observed.
Figure 2.14: Bearing issue in displacement and acceleration

Spectral analysis
When measuring the vibration of a machine, a lot of valuable information is produced
that needs to be analyzed. The success of this analysis depends on the correct
interpretation of the measured spectra with respect to the machine operating
conditions. Typical steps in vibration analysis are:

Identification of vibration spectrum peaks: the first step is to identify the first
order peak (1X), corresponding to the rotation speed of the machine shaft. In
machines with multiple shafts, each shaft will have its characteristic rotational
1X frequency. In many cases, the peaks at 1X of the shaft are accompanied by a
series of harmonics or integers multiples of 1X. There are harmonics of special
interest, for example, in a six-vane pump, there will usually be a strong spectral
peak at 6X.

Machine diagnosis: determination of the severity of the machine diagnosed

issues based on the amplitudes and the relationship between the vibration peaks.

Appropriate recommendations for repairs, based on the severity of the machine

issues.

Let us consider the example of the mechanical system of Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Example of mechanical system

From the machine data provided it is possible to calculate the main frequencies of
interest:

Motor turning frequency = 1,800 rpm = 30 Hz

 100 teeth
Pump turning frequency = × 1,800 rpm = 600 rpm = 10 Hz
300 teeth

Gear mesh frequency = 100 teeth × 1.800 rpm = 300 teeth × 600 rpm

= 1.800.000 rpm = 3.000 Hz

IN THIS PAGE:
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Vane pass frequency = 8 vanes × 600 rpm = 4.800 rpm = 80 Hz
Fourier
Power-MI
transform in it
In thisDisplacement,
machine we have two axles (motor and pump). In the case of the motor, the
value velocity
1X is 30and
Hz, in addition we will probably find a frequency peak in the spectrum
harmonic 100X, which corresponds to the frequencyfree
in the acceleration of gearwheel between
pinion and crown. For the pump, the value 1X is 10 Hz, and its main harmonic of
Spectral
interest is 8X, which corresponds to the pitch frequency. Obviously, other frequencies,
analysis
such as side bands on the frequency of the gear, bearing frequencies, and harmonics
of the calculated frequencies may appear.

In the spectrum plot of Figure 2.16 is shown the vibration signature of our
mechanical system example.

Figure 2.16: Example mechanical system vibration spectrum

Once we have identified the frequencies of interest, the next question is whether the
amplitude values are acceptable or unacceptable. An acceptable vibration value is
one that does not cause a reduction in the useful life of the machine or cause
damage to nearby equipment. Some machines are designed to tolerate extremely
high vibration levels (eg mils) and other equipment are very sensitive even at the
slightest level of vibration (eg optical systems). There are four ways to determine
which vibration level is appropriate for a given machine. The best way is to keep a
record of data over time for the critical machine points, and from this data establish
benchmarks for acceptable levels. If there are several identical machines in the plant
a second method can be used. If three machines show similar spectrum amplitudes
and the fourth machine shows much higher levels working under the same
conditions, it is easy to conclude which machine is having problems. Another method
is to collect vibration data and send it to the manufacturer for evaluation. It must be
taken into account that the vibration varies according to the working conditions and
the installation of the machine. The fourth method is to choose a standard based on
the experience of others and if necessary to adapt it based on your experience.

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