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Introduction to
Composites

Dr. Abdul Shakoor

Classifications of Engg. Materials

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Why Composites ?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. 4

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COMPOSITE MATERIALS - Overview

• Technology and Classification of Composite

Materials
• Metal Matrix Composites
• Ceramic Matrix Composites
• Polymer Matrix Composites
• Guide to Processing Composite Materials

Composite Material-Defined

• A materials system composed of two or more physically

distinct phases whose combination produces aggregate
properties that are different from those of its
constituents
• A composite material is defined as a material which is
composed of two or more materials at a microscopic
scale and has chemically distinct phases.
• Examples:
– Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
– Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
– Rubber mixed with carbon black
– Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a
synthesized composite)

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Composite Material-Defined

Constituents & Reinforcements

• In a composite, typically, there are two
constituents. One of the constituent acts as a
reinforcement and other acts as a matrix.
Sometimes, the constituents are also referred
as phases.

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Composite Materials

• Thus, a composite material is heterogeneous at microscopic

scale but statistically Homogeneous at macroscopic scale.
• The materials which form the composite are also called as
constituents or constituent materials.
• The constituents materials should have significantly different
properties.
 The combination of materials should result in significant
property changes. One can see significant changes when one
of the constituent material is in platelet or fibrous from.
 The content of the constituents is generally more than 10% (by
volume).
 In general, property of one constituent is much greater (≥5 X)
than the corresponding property of the other constituent.

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Why Composites are Important

• Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very

light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-weight
and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater
than steel or aluminum
• Fatigue properties are generally better than for
common engineering metals
• Toughness is often greater too
• Composites can be designed that do not corrode
like steel
• Possible to achieve combinations of properties
not attainable with metals, ceramics, or polymers
alone

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Disadvantages and Limitations

• Properties of many important composites are

anisotropic - the properties differ depending on
the direction in which they are measured – this
may be an advantage or a disadvantage
• Many of the polymer-based composites are
subject to attack by chemicals or solvents, just as
the polymers themselves are susceptible to
attack
• Composite materials are generally expensive
• Manufacturing methods for shaping composite
materials are often slow and costly
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One Possible Classification

1. Traditional composites – composite materials

that occur in nature or have been produced by
civilizations for many years
– Examples: wood, concrete, asphalt
2. Synthetic composites - modern material systems
normally associated with the manufacturing
industries, in which the components are first
produced separately and then combined in a
controlled way to achieve the desired structure,
properties, and part geometry

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Components in a Composite Material

• Nearly all composite materials consist of two

phases:
1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which
the secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase sometimes
referred to as a reinforcing agent, because it
usually serves to strengthen the composites
• The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers,
particles, or various other geometries

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Our Classification Scheme

1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of

ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides
and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Al2O3 and
SiC imbedded with fibers to improve properties,
especially in high temperature applications
– The least common composite matrix
3. Polymer Matrix Composites
(PMCs) - thermosetting resins are widely used in
PMCs
– Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders

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Composites

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Functions of the Matrix Material

(Primary Phase)

• Provides the bulk form of the part or product

made of the composite material
• Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually
enclosing and often concealing it
• When a load is applied, the matrix shares the
load with the secondary phase, in some cases
deforming so that the stress is essentially born
by the reinforcing agent

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The Reinforcing Phase

(Secondary Phase)

• Function is to reinforce the primary phase

• Imbedded phase is most commonly one of the
following shapes:
– Fibers
– Particles
– Flakes

• In addition, the secondary phase can take the

form of an infiltrate phase in a skeletal or porous
matrix
– Example: a powder metallurgy part infiltrated with
polymer

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Figure 9.1 - Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in composite

materials: (a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c) flake

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Fibers

Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular

in cross-section
• Diameters range from less than 0.0025 mm to
about 0.13 mm, depending on material
• Filaments provide greatest opportunity for
strength enhancement of composites
– The filament form of most materials is significantly
stronger than the bulk form
– As diameter is reduced, the material becomes
oriented in the fiber axis direction and probability
of defects in the structure decreases significantly
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Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers

• Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they

offer a continuous path by which a load can be
carried by the composite part
• Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of
continuous fibers) - short lengths (L/D =
roughly 100)
– Important type of discontinuous fiber are
whiskers - hair-like single crystals with diameters
down to about 0.001 mm (0.00004 in.) with very
high strength
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Fiber Orientation – Three Cases

• One-dimensional reinforcement, in which

maximum strength and stiffness are obtained
in the direction of the fiber
• Planar reinforcement, in some cases in the
form of a two-dimensional woven fabric
• Random or three-dimensional in which the
composite material tends to possess isotropic
properties

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Figure 9.3 - Fiber orientation in composite materials:

(a) one-dimensional, continuous fibers; (b) planar, continuous fibers in the
form of a woven fabric; and (c) random, discontinuous fibers

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Materials for Fibers

• Fiber materials in fiber-reinforced composites:

– Glass – most widely used filament
– Carbon – high elastic modulus
– Boron – very high elastic modulus
– Polymers - Kevlar
– Ceramics – SiC and Al2O3
– Metals - steel
• The most important commercial use of fibers
is in polymer composites

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Particles and Flakes

• A second common shape of imbedded phase is

particulate, ranging in size from microscopic to
macroscopic
• Flakes are basically two-dimensional
particles - small flat platelets
• The distribution of particles in the composite
matrix is random, and therefore strength and
other properties of the composite material are
usually isotropic
• Strengthening mechanism depends on particle
size
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Summary
Composites Types based on Reinforcements Types

Classification of Fibres Composites Materials

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Summary

Classification of Particulate Composites

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The Interface
• There is always an interface between constituent
phases in a composite material
• For the composite to operate effectively, the phases
must bond where they join at the interface

Figure 9.4 - Interfaces between phases in a composite material:

(a) direct bonding between primary and secondary phases

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Interphase
• In some cases, a third ingredient must be added to
achieve bonding of primary and secondary phases
• Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be
thought of as an adhesive

Figure 9.4 - Interfaces between phases: (b) addition of a third

ingredient to bond the primary phases and form an interphase

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Another Interphase
Interphase consisting of a solution of primary and
secondary phases

Figure 9.4 - Interfaces and interphases between phases in a composite

material: (c) formation of an interphase by solution of the primary
and secondary phases at their boundary

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Properties of Composite Materials

• In selecting a composite material, an optimum
combination of properties is usually sought,
rather than one particular property
– Example: fuselage and wings of an aircraft must be
lightweight and be strong, stiff, and tough
• Several fiber-reinforced polymers possess this
combination of properties
– Example: natural rubber alone is relatively weak
• Adding significant amounts of carbon black to NR
increases its strength dramatically

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Properties are Determined by

Three Factors:
1. The materials used as component phases in
the composite
2. The geometric shapes of the constituents and
resulting structure of the composite system
3. The manner in which the phases interact with
one another

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Composites ?

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Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept. 37

Fibers Illustrate Importance of

Geometric Shape
• Most materials have tensile strengths several
times greater as fibers than in bulk
• By imbedding the fibers in a polymer matrix, a
composite material is obtained that avoids the
problems of fibers but utilizes their strengths
– The matrix provides the bulk shape to protect the
fiber surfaces and resist buckling
– When a load is applied, the low-strength matrix
deforms and distributes the stress to the
high-strength fibers
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Other Composite Structures

• Laminar composite structure – conventional
• Sandwich structure
• Honeycomb sandwich structure

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Laminar Composite Structure

Two or more layers bonded together in an integral
piece
• Example: plywood in which layers are the same
wood, but grains are oriented differently to increase
overall strength of the laminated piece

Figure 9.7 - Laminar composite

structures: (a) conventional laminar
structure

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Sandwich Structure – Foam Core

Consists of a relatively thick core of low density
foam bonded on both faces to thin sheets of a
different material

Figure 9.7 - Laminar

composite structures: (b)
sandwich structure using foam
core

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Sandwich Structure – Honeycomb Core

• An alternative to foam core
• Either foam or honeycomb achieves high
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios

Figure 9.7 - Laminar

composite structures: (c)
sandwich structure using
honeycomb core

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Other Laminar Composite Structures

• Automotive tires - consists of multiple layers
bonded together
• FRPs - multi-layered fiber-reinforced plastic panels
for aircraft, automobile body panels, boat hulls
• Printed circuit boards - layers of reinforced plastic
and copper for electrical conductivity and insulation
• Snow skis - composite structures consisting of layers
of metals, particle board, and phenolic plastic
• Windshield glass - two layers of glass on either side
of a sheet of tough plastic

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Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

A metal matrix reinforced by a second phase
• Reinforcing phases:
1. Particles of ceramic (these MMCs are commonly
called cermets)
2. Fibers of various materials: other metals,
ceramics, carbon, and boron

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Cermets
MMC with ceramic contained in a metallic matrix
• The ceramic often dominates the mixture,
sometimes up to 96% by volume
• Bonding can be enhanced by slight solubility
between phases at elevated temperatures used
in processing
• Cermets can be subdivided into
1. Cemented carbides – most common
2. Oxide-based cermets – less common
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Cemented Carbides
One or more carbide compounds bonded in a metallic
matrix
• The term cermet is not used for all of these
materials, even though it is technically correct
• Common cemented carbides are based on tungsten
carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), and chromium
carbide (Cr3C2)
• Tantalum carbide (TaC) and others are less common
• Metallic binders: usually cobalt (Co) or nickel (Ni)

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Figure 9.8 - Photomicrograph (about 1500X) of cemented carbide with

85% WC and 15% Co (photo courtesy of Kennametal Inc.)

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Figure 9.9 - Typical plot of hardness and transverse rupture strength as a

function of cobalt content

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Applications of Cemented Carbides

• Tungsten carbide cermets (Co binder) - cutting tools
are most common; other: wire drawing dies, rock
drilling bits and other mining tools, dies for powder
metallurgy, indenters for hardness testers
• Titanium carbide cermets (Ni binder) - high
temperature applications such as gas-turbine nozzle
vanes, valve seats, thermocouple protection tubes,
torch tips, cutting tools for steels
• Chromium carbides cermets (Ni binder) - gage blocks,
valve liners, spray nozzles, bearing seal rings

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Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

A ceramic primary phase imbedded with a
secondary phase, which usually consists of fibers
• Attractive properties of ceramics: high stiffness,
hardness, hot hardness, and compressive
strength; and relatively low density
• Weaknesses of ceramics: low toughness and bulk
tensile strength, susceptibility to thermal cracking
• CMCs represent an attempt to retain the
desirable properties of ceramics while
compensating for their weaknesses
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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

A polymer primary phase in which a secondary
phase is imbedded as fibers, particles, or flakes
• Commercially, PMCs are more important than
MMCs or CMCs
• Examples: most plastic molding compounds,
rubber reinforced with carbon black, and
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)
• FRPs are most closely identified with the term
composite
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Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)

A PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded
with high-strength fibers
• Polymer matrix materials:
– Usually a thermosetting (TS) plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or epoxy
– Can also be thermoplastic (TP), such as nylons
(polyamides), polycarbonate, polystyrene, and
polyvinylchloride
– Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as tires and conveyor belts
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Fibers in PMCs
• Various forms: discontinuous (chopped),
continuous, or woven as a fabric
• Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass,
carbon, and Kevlar 49
• Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and
Al2O3, and steel
• Glass (in particular E-glass) is the most
common fiber material in today's FRPs; its use
to reinforce plastics dates from around 1920

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Common FRP Structure

• Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar
structure, made by stacking and bonding thin
layers of fiber and polymer until desired thickness
is obtained
• By varying fiber orientation among layers, a
specified level of anisotropy in properties can be
achieved in the laminate
• Applications: parts of thin cross-section, such as
aircraft wing and fuselage sections, automobile
and truck body panels, and boat hulls
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FRP Properties
• High strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight
ratios
• Low specific gravity - a typical FRP weighs only
about 1/5 as much as steel; yet, strength and
modulus are comparable in fiber direction
• Good fatigue strength
• Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are
soluble in various chemicals
• Low thermal expansion - for many FRPs, leading to
good dimensional stability
• Significant anisotropy in properties

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FRP Applications
• Aerospace – much of the structural weight of
todays airplanes and helicopters consist of
advanced FRPs
• Automotive – somebody panels for cars and truck
cabs
– Continued use of low-carbon sheet steel in cars is
evidence of its low cost and ease of processing
• Sports and recreation
– Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for boat
hulls since the 1940s
– Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts, helmets,
skis, bows and arrows.

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Figure 9.11 - Composite materials in the Boeing 757

(courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplane Group)

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Other Polymer Matrix Composites

• In addition to FRPs, other PMCs contain
particles, flakes, and short fibers as the
secondary phase
• Called fillers when used in molding
compounds
• Two categories:
1. Reinforcing fillers – used to strengthen or
otherwise improve mechanical properties
• Examples: wood flour in phenolic and amino resins;
and carbon black in rubber
2. Extenders – used to increase bulk and reduce cost
per unit weight, but little or no effect on
mechanical properties

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Guide to Processing Composite

Materials
• The two phases are typically produced separately
before being combined into the composite part
• Processing techniques to fabricate MMC and
CMC components are similar to those used for
powdered metals and ceramics
• Molding processes are commonly used for PMCs
with particles and chopped fibers
• Specialized processes have been developed for
FRPs
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Figure 9.5 - (a) Model of a fiber-reinforced composite material showing

direction in which elastic modulus is being estimated by the rule of
mixtures (b) Stress-strain relationships for the composite material and
its constituents. The fiber is stiff but brittle, while the matrix
(commonly a polymer) is soft but ductile.

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Figure 9.6 - Variation in elastic modulus and tensile strength as a function

of direction of measurement relative to longitudinal axis of carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy composite

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