QUANTUM COMPUTING & NANOTECHNOLOGY

D. P. Singh
 QUANTUM COMPUTING & NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nano-materials
Nano-scale: it is generally refers to the size of 1 – 100 nm in
atleast one dimension.
1 nm = 10-9 m

Nano-material: Refers to the matter whose length scale, in any

dimension, is approximately 1 – 100 nano-meters.
1 D ---- Film Graphene
2 D ------ Nano wire, nanotube
3 D ----- Nano particles

Nano materials are approximate 200 times stronger than steel

of same diameter. Nanomaterials can be metals, ceramics,
polymeric material or composite materials.
 QUANTUM COMPUTING & NANOTECHNOLOGY

 A ceramic is a solid material comprising an

inorganic compound of metal, non-metal or
metalloid atoms primarily held in an ionic and
covalent bonds.

 A polymer is a large molecule, composed of

millions of repeated link units.

 A composite material is a material made from two

or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical and/or chemical properties.
 Application of nano-materials
 Next era laptop chips.
 Better insulation material.
 Kinetic power penetrator with more advantageous lethality.
 Low cost flat panel displays.
 Phosphors for excessive-definition TV.
 Advanced cutting tools.
 Eliminator of pollution.
 Excessive strength density, batteries, excessive power magnets.
 High sensitive sensors.
 Motors with greater gas efficiency.
 Aerospace additives with superior performance characteristics.
 Higher density weapons platform.
 Long lasting satellites.
 Long lasting medical implants.
 Ductile, machinable ceramics.
 Huge electro-chromic show devices.
 QUANTUM COMPUTER

What is a quantum computer?

A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations
based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior
of particles at the sub-atomic level.
 1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating machines based
on the laws of quantum mechanics instead of the laws of
classical physics.
 1985 - David Deutsch developed the quantum machine,
showing that quantum circuits are universal.
 1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor
very large numbers in polynomial time.
 1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with
O(√N) complexity.
 Classical Physics Quantum Physics

Predictable outcomes! Violate classical laws at a small scale

(~h, Plank’s Constant)

Variables are continuous Variables are discrete |0> or |1>

Take on finite known values Can be in a superposition of values

(representing all states
simultaneously)

  0   1

Always has a known state State is indeterminate until

Binary numbers in the form of measured.
switches that are on or off!
 Classical bits (C-bits)
 The two states of a Classical bit by a pair of ortho-normal
vectors denoted by the symbols|0> and |1>.

 It is convenient to represent the four states of two Cbits

|0>|0>, |0>|1>, |1>|0> and |1>|1> or more readably
|00> |01> |10> |11>

 Most compactly of all, using the decimal representation of 2bit

number represented by the pair of C-bits
|0>2, |1>2, |2>2, |3>2
 One represents the states of ‘n’ as the 2n orthonormal vectors in
2n dimensions.

 Thus for example |19>6 = |010011>= |0>|1>|0>|0> |1>

|1>
 Quantum bits
 A major part of quantum mechanics consists of an analogous
expansion of the notion of the state of a Cbit, called in this
extended setting a quantum bit or Q bit.

 In general state of a single Qubit is a superposition of the

two classical basis states
  0   1

 Where the amplitudes α and β are complex numbers

constrained only by the normalization condition.
2 2
    1

The general state of n Qubits has the form

   x x n
 Quantum bits

 With complex amplitudes constrained only by the

normalization condition
2
 x 1

 Most general possible state of two Qubit has the form

  3 3 2
 2 2 2
 1 1 2
 0 0 2

 3 11 2
 2 01 2
  1 10
2
 0 00 2
Information: 1 Bit Example; (Coin tossing experiment)

• Classical Information:
– A bit is in state 0 or state 1

state1=|1> state2=|0>

• Classical Information with

Uncertainty
– State (p0, p1)

state1=|1> state1=|0>
with prob p0 with prob p1
• Quantum Information
– State is simultaneously both
0(tail) and 1 (head)
a0 + a1
– State is (a0, a1) where a0, a1 are
complex.
Quantum Computing
 Computing Generations
3

 First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

 Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

 Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

 Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

 History of Computing
 1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of simulation of quantum-mechanical objects by other quantum
systems
 Developing machines based on the laws of quantum mechanics instead of the laws of classical
physics.
– Can we Simulate Physics on a Computer??
– Can we Simulate Time?
– Can we simulate the Probability aspect of Quantum Mechanics?
 1985 - David Deutsch, of the University of Oxford published a crucial theoretical paper in which he
described a universal quantum computer and developed the Quantum Turing Machine, presenting
that quantum circuits are universal.
 1994 - Peter Shor, from AT&T's Bell Laboratories in New Jersey devised the first quantum
algorithm and came up with a quantum algorithm to factorize very large numbers in polynomial
time.
 1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with O(√N) complexity.
 In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shor’s algorithm to successfully factor
15.
 Conventional Computing
• Computational problems requires Time, memory and space (Physical Parameters)
• Easy problems – Polynomial Efficient-Time and memory
• Hard problems – Exponential-Intractable-Space
• No problems are never hard for Classical computers

…101101001… “Black Box” or

Output
Computer
Input …000111010…

Generation of an output number (string of bits) based on an input number.

How does the computer achieve this?
• Modern Computing – Classical Physics & Mathematical logic
• Classical Computer – Transistors & ICs – based on Quantum Mechanics
• Working on Electronic components-Quantum principles-classical logic

A A A B A B
A
A A 0 0 0
NOT gate 0 AND gate
1
A B 0 1 0
B 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

A B AB A A B A B
A
NAND gate 0 0 1
OR gate 0 0 0
0 1 1
AB 0 1 1 A B
B 1 0 1 B 1
1
0
1
1
0
1 1 1
 Classical Physics Quantum Physics
• Predictable outcomes! • Violate classical laws at a small scale
• Variables are continuous (~h, Plank’s Constant)
• Variables are discrete |0> or |1>

• Take on finite known values • Can be in a superposition of values

(representing all states simultaneously)

• State is indeterminate until measured.

• Always has a known state   0   1
• Binary numbers in the form of
switches that are on or off!
 Classical bits (Cbits)
“Bit” is the Basic unit of classical information – Elementary Classical System
(can be in one of the twos states)
• The two states of a Classical bit by a pair of orthonormal vectors denoted by the symbols
|0> and |1>.
• It is convenient to represent the four states of two Cbits
|0>|0>, |0>|1>, |1>|0> and |1>|1> or more readably |00> |01> |10> |11>

Most compactly of all, using the decimal representation of 2bit number represented by the pair
of C-bits
|0>2, |1>2, |2>2, |3>2
One represents the states of ‘n’ as the 2n orthonormal vectors in 2n dimensions.
Thus for example |19>6 = |010011>= |0>|1>|0>|0> |1> |1>
 conventional memory: quantum memory:
Tossed coin Spinning coin

Result is either 0 or 1 Result is 0 and 1 (both)

sequence of 11 bits: sequence of 11 quantum bits:

11111011011 (0+1)(0+1)(0+1)(0+1)(0+1)(1+0)
(0+1)(0+1)(1+0)(0+1)(0+1)

stores only one number: stores all numbers from 1 to

2011 2048 (All possibilities !!)
• Classical Optics - Light – X
Electromagnetic Wave-
Oscillation of Electric and Polarising filter
Magnetic Fields
• Polarisation –Electric field
Oscillates
• Linear, Elliptical or circularly
Polarised light (Right/ left)
Y
• Electric field Oscillating – X
direction - 
• Malus’s Law – Intensity

• Quantum Theory- Polarization-

Observable

9
 Quantum bits
“Quantum Bit” – “Qubit” – Simplest Quantum System
Photon is a Qubit – State of Polarisation (Expalined at Implementation)
• Associated with Infinite set of noncommuting two valued observables that can’t all have
definite values simultaneously.
• A major part of quantum mechanics consists of an analogous expansion of the notion of the
state of a Cbit, called in this extended setting a quantum bit or Q bit.
• In general state of a single Qubit is a superposition of the two classical basis states

  0   1
Where the amplitudes α and β are complex numbers constrained
only by the normalization condition
 
2 2
 1

The general state of n Qubits has the form    x x n

With complex amplitudes constrained only by the normalization condition

x 1
2

Most general possible state of two Qubit has the form

  3 3  2 2  1 1  0 0
2 2 2 2

  3 11   2 01   1 10   0 00
2 2 2 2
 Implementations of a “Qubit”
• Polarization of a photon.

• Spin orientation of an electron

• Energy level of an atom

• NMR, Ion traps,…

 Photon polarization experiment (using-unpolarized light)
Case 1 Case 2

Vertical polarizer ‘C’

Horizontal polarizer ‘A’
Horizontal polarizer ‘A’

source of un-polarized light source of un-polarized light

Two orthogonal polaroid

Single polaroid attenuates block all photons
unpolarized by 50 percent

13
 Inserting a third polaroid allows some
photons to pass
case3
How do we understand these results?
Malus’s law !
What about, if source is very dim !! (with very few photons!!)
Rules of Quantum Physics!!!
Represent the light polarization by a unit vector: a vector of length ‘1’,
Quantum Mechanics
pointing appropriate direction.

Example: horizontally polarized light vertically polarized light

symbol: |0ñ
symbol: |1ñ
H V
14
 Qubits from Electron spin
Classical Bits Quantum bits: Superposition state

spin up

spin down

It’s an error! It’s a superposition!

When you measure the spin, it can be in spin up or spin down
state. But before you measure It, it can be in a quantum super
position state; where these coefficients C1&C2 indicate the
relative probability of finding the electron in one state or other.
 What is Quantum Computing?
• Not a traditional subject of Physics & Computer Science
(understanding Quantum mechanics for computer scientists)
• A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the laws of
quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic level.
• processor that can perform multiple operations basing on multiple inputs simultaneously.
• A theoretical model is the QuantumTuring machine – Universal Quantum Computer.
(1985 - David Deutsch )
• Quantum computing is a beautiful combination of quantum physics, computer science,
and information theory.
• Quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of Qubits,
Minimal Unit of Quantum Information
• Quantum Computers use quantum mechanical phenomena-
 Entanglement of Qubits (quantum bits)
 Superposition of states
 Why Quantum Computing
• Transistors will be so small and it will generate so much heat that standard silicon
technology may eventually collapse.
• If scale becomes too small, Electrons tunnel through micro-thin barriers between
wires corrupting signals.
• At current rate transistors will be as small as an atom.

• The number of transistors incorporated in a chip will approximately double every

24 months -- Gordon Moore, Intel Co- Founder

• Already Intel has implemented 32nm silicon technology

 Nanotechnology in computer: Nano-computing
“Simulating Physics with Computers”
Richard Feynman – Keynote Talk, 1st Conference on Physics and Computation, MIT, 1981

“There is plenty of room at the bottom”

Computers in the 20th century showed a miniaturization of

microprocessors and are in a process of being nano-metre
scale.

1 nm= 2 times the size of hydrogen atom

5nm= 50times the dimension of one hydrogen atom

Quantum effects!!
MOORE’S LAW
What Is Moore's Law?
Moore's Law refers to Moore's perception that the number of transistors on a microchip
doubles every two years, though the cost of computers is halved. Moore's Law states that we
can expect the speed and capability of our computers to increase every couple of years, and we
will pay less for them. Another tenet of Moore's Law asserts that this growth is exponential.

Understanding Moore's Law

In 1965, Gordon E. Moore—co-founder of Intel (NASDAQ: INTC)—postulated that the number of
transistors that can be packed into a given unit of space will double about every two years.
Today, however, the doubling of installed transistors on silicon chips occurs closer to every 18
months instead of every two years.
 Quantum Computers
• Our society runs on classical computers:
memory-locations have specific value (0 or 1), processor acts on specific location, . . .
• But our world is not classical, so let's study quantum-mechanical computers
• Why?
1. Enable further miniaturization (Moore's law)
2. Enable large speed-up for some important problems
3. The goal of computer science is to study the power of the best computing machines that
nature allows us
 Quantum effects

Superposition Quantum Tunneling Entanglement

Ref : D-Waves Systems INC

 Quantum Bits
• A classical bit is 0 or 1
• Quantum mechanics allows superposition of |0> or |1> each with its own amplitude". This
is a qubit
• A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and
|1>.
• A single bit of this form is known as a qubit.
• A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An
excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.
• We can use any physical system with two distinguishable basis
states to build a qubit: electron spin, photon polarization,
• 2 qubits: superposition of 4 possible basis states (00,01,10,11)
• 3 qubits: superposition of 8 possible basis states
• ... n qubits: superposition of 2n possible basis states
• Described by a “wavefunction”: vector of all 2n amplitudes
• A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states denoted by the addition
of the state vectors:
|Ψ> = α|0> + β|1>
• Where α and β are complex numbers and | α |² + | β |²= 1
• Mathematically Q bit is a unitary vector in the 2-dimensional Hilbert’s space.
 Superposition
• Probabilty represented by superposition of states.

• Quantum Computing
– superposition and Interference
• Initiate with simple Q bits
• Circuits of elementary gates that produces
right interference with final states has most of its
weight in the solution.

27
 Representation of Qubits
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by
|0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom.
An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

Light pulse of
frequency ν for time
interval t

State |0> State |1>

State |1> Bloch sphere

visualize the state of a single qubit

 Qubit Implementation-Superposition
A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states denoted by the
addition of the state vectors:
|> = |0> + 2 |1>
 Where  and  are complex numbers and
 
2 2
 1

State |0> State |0> + |1>

 Quantum Gates
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

• The destruction of information in a gate can cause heat that can destroy the superposition of q bits,
due to which the Quantum gates to be used.
• Similar to classical gates that don’t have degenerate output
• The original input state can be derived from their output state- Reversible.
• Computation can be done on a quantum computer if this is reversible only.
• Charles Bennet (1973) - Deterministic computation can be made reversible.
• The standard quantum circuit model that was defined, which led to an understanding of quantum
complexity in terms of a set of basic quantum transformations called quantum gates. These gates
are theoretical constructs that may or may not have direct analogs in the physical components of an
actual quantum computer.
 Hadamard Gate
• The gate that involves one Qubit is called a Hadamard gate.
• Also called as Square root Not gate
• Two Hadamard gates used in succession can be called as a NOT gate

H H
State |0> State |0> + State |1> State |1>
 Quantum gates- Controlled NOT gate

Gate that operates on two Q bits is called Controlled Not (CN) gate
CNOT is a quantum conditional NOT operator

A B A’ B’

0 INPUT 0 0OUTPUT 0
A-Target
+ A’
0 1 1 1

B-Target 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1
33
 Quantum computing – Future Prospects

Health Finance Computing Space

Ref : D-Waves Systems INC

Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner