T 7.4.

2
Physical Principles
of Microwave
Technology
by Prof. H. J. Chaloupka

revised by Dipl.-Ing. Anton Oster

April 1998

LEYBOLD DIDACTIC GMBH . Leyboldstrasse 1 . D-50354 Hürth . Phone (02233) 604-0 . Fax (02233) 604-222 . e-mail: info@leybold-didactic.de

by Leybold Didactic GmbH Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany

Technical alterations reserved
“The sensitive electronics of the equipment contained in the present experiment litera-
ture can be impaired due to the discharge of static electricity. Consequently, electro-
static build up should be avoided (particularly by utilizing appropriate rooms) or
eliminated by discharging (e.g. at the panel frames or similar).”
 MTS 7.4.2 Contents

Table of contents

Equipment overview ................................................................................................................... 4

Symbols and abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 5
Preface .......................................................................................................................................... 7

List of experiments in this training unit

Ex1 Gunn oscillator ........................................................................................................................... 11

Ex2 E-field probe and AM of the Gunn oscillator .......................................................................... 17
Ex3 Selective measurement amplifier ............................................................................................. 21
Ex4 Polarization of the radiated field .............................................................................................. 25
Ex5 Field distribution in front of the horn antenna ........................................................................ 29
Ex6 Interference and standing waves .............................................................................................. 35
Ex7 Reflection and transmission ...................................................................................................... 39
Ex8 Absorption of microwaves ........................................................................................................ 43
Ex9 Diffraction of microwaves ........................................................................................................ 47
Ex10 Flexible waveguides .................................................................................................................. 51
Ex11 Demonstration of the Doppler effect ....................................................................................... 53

Solutions ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Index ........................................................................................................................................... 75

3
 MTS 7.4.2 Contents

Equipment overview

Ex2: E-field probe and AM of the Gunn oscillator

Ex5: Field distribution in front of a horn antenna

Ex11: Demonstration of the Doppler effect

MTS 7.4.2 Experiments

Ex3: Selective measurement amplifier

Ex6: Interference and standing waves

Ex4: Polarization of the radiated field

Ex7: Reflection and transmission

Ex8: Absorption of microwaves

Ex9: Diffraction of microwaves
Ex10: Flexible waveguides
Ex1: Gunn oscillator

Equipment
Gunn oscillator 737 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Gunn power supply with SWR meter 737 021 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Large horn antenna 737 21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Physics microwave accessories I 737 27 – – – – – 1 1 1 1 1 1
E-field probe 73735 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Accessories
Digitale storage osccilloscope 575 292 – 1 1 – – – – – – – 1
BNC Cable L = 2 m 501 022 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Stand base MF 301 21 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Support for waveguide components 737 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
L = 25 cm, ∅ = 10 mm 301 26 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
XY-recorder 575 663 (1) – – – – – – – – – (1)
Screened cable BNC/4-mm plug 575 24 (2) – – – – – – – – – (2)

( ) = recommended

4
 MTS 7.4.2 Contents

Symbols and abbreviations

a : Display value of the selective measurement amplifier

a’, s’ : Geometric dimensions of the resonator cavity
c : Light velocity
D : Antenna diameter
d→ : Thickness of the layer
E : Electrical field strength vector
Ex(t),Ey(t),Ez(t) : Time-dependent components of the electrical field strength
Êx, Êy, Êz : Amplitudes of the components of the electrical field strength
ETH, UTH : Threshold field strength and the Gunn voltage required to reach ETH
EJ : Components of the electrical field strength in the direction of the spherical
coordinate ϑ
Ê in : Amplitude of the field strength of the incidenting wave
Êr : Amplitude of the field strength of the reflected wave
Ê tr : Amplitude of the field strength of the transmitted wave
f : Frequency
f0 : Resonance frequency of the Gunn oscillator
fd : Doppler shift
f→r : Frequency of the modulating wanted signal
H
→ → →
: Magnetic field strength vector
H x, H y, H z : Amplitudes of the components of the magnetic field strength
H : Components of the magnetic field strength in the direction of the spherical
coordinate ϑ
Hx(t),Hy(t),Hz(t) : Time-dependent components of the magnetic field strength
HF : High frequency
i(t), u(t) : Current and voltage of a Schottky diode
IDetect : Direct current through the Schottky diode of the E-field probe
IG : Gunn current through the Gunn diode
IS : Saturation voltage of a Schottky diode
k, K, K’ : Constants
LF : Low frequency
P abs : Absorbed power
P in : Power of the incidenting wave
Pr : Power of the reflected wave
P tr : Power of the transmitted wave
r : Reflection coefficient
r, ϑ, ϕ : Spherical coordinates
s : Standing wave ratio
→
S, S : Radiation density, Poynting vector
T : Period
t : Transmission factor, response time
U0 : Threshold value of a voltage-dependent switch
U1(t), U2(t), UCL(t) : Voltages in the equivalent circuit diagram of a lock-in amplifier
UD : Demodulated signal at the output of the E-field probe (low frequency)
UG : Gunn voltage at the Gunn diode
UHF : High-frequency open-circuit voltage of the receiving dipole of the E-field
probe
uLF : Low-frequency signal component when evaluating the Doppler shift

5
 MTS 7.4.2 Contents

Umax, Umin, ∆U : maximum and minimum value of the demodulated receiving signal and the
resulting voltage range
Un(t) : Noise voltage
urec : High-frequency receiving signal
UT : Temperature voltage
u tr : High-frequency transmission signal
û : Amplitude of a voltage
u : Mean value of a voltage
v1, v2 : Drift velocities
vr : Radial velocity
x, x0, z, z0 : Locus coordinates
Z0 : Characteristic impedance in free space
zp : Distance of horn antenna to layered structure
ω : Angular frequency
Φ : Geometrical angle of the parallel wire grating
β : Geometrical angle between incidenting wave and surface normal
(∆z)n, ∆z : Differences between two sequential nodes of a standing wave,
arithmetic mean of these differences
ϕ, ϕx, ϕy, ϕz, ϕr : Phase shifts
λ0 : Wavelength in free space

6
 MTS 7.4.2
Preface
The experiments in the present training system
are intended to achieve various training objec-
tives in parallel:
(α) The understanding of the physical effects
which are of significance in microwave
technology (for example, diffraction and
interference of electromagnetic waves,
Gunn effect).
(β) Acquiring knowledge of the function of
important components and systems of mi-
crowave technology and the principles
behind the methods of realizing these
functions by exploiting physical phenom-
ena (such as the function of a waveguide
directional coupler in microwave circuits
in “black-box” representation and the re-
alization of the directional coupler using
effects in electromagnetic coupling
through holes).
(γ) Acquiring skills in measuring techniques
and principles to determine the properties
of microwave devices (example: measur-
ing the reflection coefficient using the
reflectometer principle).
(δ) Becoming familiar with the actual techni-
cal design of various components and us-
ing these in practical applications (exam-
ples: learning to correctly install a ferrite
waveguide isolator in a microwave circuit,
operation of a slide screw transformer for
matching of a load). The components for
carrying out experiments with the above
objectives are all designed in waveguide
technology. Dual-plate configurations
(unit MTS 7.4.3) are particularly suitable
because they can be easily disassembled
and are also extremely robust. One dis-
crepancy, however, had to be considered
when designing this training system: on
the one hand, waveguide technology is the
most suitable of all technologies for exper-
iment purposes; on the other hand, in the
field of radio-frequency circuit technolo-
Preface
gy, it is with few exceptions, being in-
creasingly overtaken by microwave inte-
grated circuits (MIC) utilizing microstrip
line or coplanar line technology.
The result of this discrepancy is the concept of
a teaching and training system based primarily
on waveguide technology, in which the physi-
cal phenomena and the fundamental principles
of technical elements and measuring methods
are given priority, independent of the particular
transmission line forms (waveguide, coaxial
line, microstrip line, etc.). Thus, for example,
the knowledge gained in experiments on Gunn
oscillators using waveguide technology will
enable students to understand an oscillator re-
alized using microstrip technology, as the fun-
damental principles of the interaction between
the various semiconductor elements and the
resonance circuit are the same. With the aid of
an extremely specialized waveguide element
such as the cross directional coupler, students
can become familiar with important effects in
electromagnetic fields, e.g. coupling through
small openings; in addition, the “black box”
behaviour of the cross directional coupler is
typical of a large class of different directional
couplers (hybrids in microstrip line technolo-
gy, coaxial-line couplers, etc.).
The target group of this teaching and training
system is students who have widely varying
levels of prior knowledge and/or experience.
Thus, the system is equally applicable in uni-
versity-level science instruction and in techni-
cal schools. One may assume that the manner
in which most of the experiments are presented
and carried out is suitable for the learning needs
of this broad target group, but that the contents
and the interpretation of the experiment results
within the framework of a “theoretical struc-
ture” must be treated differently in each case.
For this reason, this handbook contains some-
times even advanced material. This is in-
tended for university-level students, and may
7
 MTS 7.4.2
be omitted when working through the experi-
ments.
The theoretical principles of the experiments
which are of a general nature may be found in
standard textbooks on the subject. However,
the experiment descriptions also contain some
of the theoretical principles in order to facilitate
the students’ application of general representa-
tions found in textbooks to the specific knowl-
edge required for each experiment.
This manual is structured as follows:
In the descriptions of the individual experi-
ments, the necessary theoretical principles are
discussed first. This is followed by a list of the
equipment required and a detailed description
of the individual experiment steps (experiment
procedure). The experiments are evaluated us-
ing a list of questions. Each experiment section
includes its own bibliography or, where suffi-
cient, a reference to the bibliography of another
experiment.
In order to facilitate evaluation and to provide
ideas for evaluating the results, empty tables
and diagrams are included in the list of ques-
tions.
Introduction to MTS 7.4.2
The teaching objectives of the first experiments
in the training system MTS 7.4.2 are the gen-
eration of microwaves using a Gunn oscillator
and the detection of a microwave field using a
probe.
The rest of the experiments are intended to fa-
miliarize the student with the most important
physical properties of electromagnetic fields
(here: microwave fields). These are the polari-
zation of the field, the effects of interference
and reflection, absorption and the transmission
of waves, to name a few. Furthermore, the phe-
nomena of diffraction and guided propagation
through a flexible waveguide are verified in an
experiment.
Note: In the following experiments the Gunn
power supply with SWR meter is often referred
to as the basic unit.
8
Preface
Important!
Safety instructions
Read before putting into operation!
Due to the low power level of the Gunn oscilla-
tor (typically ≈ 10 mW) there is absolutely no
danger for persons conducting the experiment,
even for experiments with free space radiation.
Nevertheless, the following rules should be ob-
served especially in view of later experiments
using stronger RF-sources:
– It is imperative that any direct viewing into
the radiating aperture be avoided in all of the
experiments in which RF-power is radiated.
This applies to open waveguides, for exam-
ple, and especially all types of antennas.
– Disconnect the supply voltage whenever
modifications are made to experiment set-
ups in which waveguide components are in-
terchanged.
Active elements in microwave components can
be destroyed by electrostatic discharge. Detec-
tors and varactor components are especially
endangered! DO NOT TOUCH! Discharge any
long cables before connecting them to these
components. This is carried out by connecting
them to the power supply unit.
Components, which operate with strong per-
manent magnets, e.g. isolators or circulators
must be kept at a distance from magnetically
conductive materials. Avoid shaking or bump-
ing the equipment. The flange surfaces should
be treated with care.
From time to time mechanically movable parts
are to be carefully lubricated. Do not allow any
oil or grease on electrical contacts or in the
waveguide.
Despite the passivation of the surfaces the
aluminum surfaces are still subject to slight oxi-
dation. The quick fasteners of the Gunn oscilla-
tor are particularly prone to rusting. If you
notice any impairment to the operation, a disas-
sembly and reassembly of the components may
prove helpful. Furthermore, the loosening and
re-tightening of the Gunn diode element might
also help (see the corresponding instruction
sheets of the components).
 MTS 7.4.2 Preface

Fig. 0.1: Emitted spectrum for a Gunn voltage of Fig. 0.2: Emitted spectrum for a Gunn voltage of
UG = 4 V UG = 8 V

Design of the microwave source to the fact that all of the microwave compo-
A modulated microwave source is required to nents are designed for a frequency of 9.4 GHz,
perform some of the microwave experiments in and normally demonstrate a very narrow fre-
the MTS 7.4.1 training system. This source gen- quency bandwidth, the measurement results for
erates the microwave field needed for the load this case are frequently insufficient and require
connected downstream. Only through modula- explanation.
tion is it possible to perform frequency-selec- Fig. 0.1 and Fig. 0.2 provide examples of the
tive detection of the demodulated receiving emitted spectrum of the Gunn oscillator for
signal and thus carry out effective noise sup- Gunn voltages of 4 V and 8 V respectively.
pression. For the design of a modulated micro- The emitted spectrum varies for discontinuities.
wave source there are two options shown in A purer spectrum (TE101 mode at 9.4 GHz and
Fig. 0.3 and Fig. 0.5. TE202 mode at 18.8 GHz ) is generally obtained
1. Direct modulation of the Gunn oscillator starting at a Gunn voltage higher than 8 V.
2. Modulation with external PIN modulator On its own the emitted microwave power
changes only very slightly in the range of
1. Direct modulation of the Gunn higher Gunn voltages (7 V up to 10 V) when
oscillator the Gunn voltage is varied (flat characteristic).
Direct modulation of the Gunn oscillator is one
way of performing modulation without addi-
tional equipment but also without the best re-
sults. As is shown in Experiment 1 the emitted
microwave power (and the emitted spectrum) is
severely dependent on the Gunn voltage. Fur-
thermore, these variables are also subject to
considerable manufacturer tolerance involving
the Gunn diode. Due to its dependency on the
Gunn voltage, the emitted microwave power
demonstrates discontinuities or irregularities.
In Experiment 2 it is shown that in the case of
amplitude modulation of the Gunn voltage
where the operating point (supply voltage) is in
the proximity of a discontinuity, a slight varia-
tion in the Gunn voltage leads to a considerable
variation in the emitted power and thus to a
large demodulated signal.
However, if the working point is selected close
to a discontinuity (approx. 4 V), one conse-
quence is that the emitted spectrum contains Fig. 0.3: Connection sketch for direct modulation of the
many different frequency components. But due Gunn oscillator. Switch set to “GUNN INT”.

9
 MTS 7.4.2
This yields a demodulated signal which is very
small. This means that in the range where the
Gunn diode emits a pure spectrum (starting at
8 V) direct modulation is possible with only a
very dimunitive amplitude deviation.
Because there is no PIN modulator provided in
the basic microwave technology equipment set,
in these experiments the working point is set
around 4 V to generate a more strongly modu-
lated signal – in spite of the disadvantages this
entails. If you have a PIN modulator available,
then we highly recommend that you use it (see
also subpoint 2) as this normally yields better
measurement results.
For the internal direct modulation of the Gunn
oscillator
– connect the Gunn oscillator to the GUNN
socket in the GUNN POWER SUPPLY
section of the basic unit.
– set the toggle switch in the PIN MODU-
LATOR section of the basic unit to
“GUNN INT”.
– set the Gunn voltage to approx. 8 V (up to
10V) using the UG controller.
The Gunn voltage is then superimposed by a
square-wave signal with a frequency of 976 Hz
and an amplitude of 300 mV, see Fig. 0.4.
2. Modulation with an external PIN
modulator
The experiment setup is performed as depicted
in Fig. 0.5.
The Gunn oscillator generates a continuous
wave power, i.e. its power output is constant in
time. The modulation is performed by a PIN
Fig. 0.4: Principal characteristic of the Gunn voltage on
the basic unit (GUNN output socket) for Gunn-
internal modulation. UG constitutes the supply
voltage, which is set using the rotary potentiome-
ter UG.
10
Preface
modulator connected downstream. Depending
on the control voltage this can have a variably
high reflection and transmission coefficient. In
order to prevent any undesired reflections from
reflecting back to the Gunn oscillator, this is
isolated from the rest of the circuit by an isola-
tor. The unit consisting of the Gunn oscillator,
isolator and PIN modulator constitutes a typical
configuration frequently used in practical appli-
cations and is known for its easy handling.
Thus you avoid the disadvantages of direct
modulation performed along a Gunn diode's
characteristic (subject to discontinuity) which is
severely dependent on manufacturer's toler-
ance. The modulated signal is considerably bet-
ter than direct modulation because in this case
the amplitude range only depends on the con-
trol voltage of the PIN modulator. As the Gunn
diode can operate at a fixed working point, the
emitted microwave spectrum is not affected by
the modulation. Additional information can be
taken from the instruction sheet for the PIN
modulator.
If you have a PIN modulator at your disposal,
then we recommend using it for modulation to
obtain better measurement findings. The PIN
modulator can be modulated internally or ex-
ternally. For external modulation you need an
additional function generator.
Fig. 0.5: Connection sketch for modulation with external
PIN modulator and internal modulation signal.
Switch set to “PIN INT”
 MTS 7.4.2
Gunn oscillator
Fundamentals
Microwave power, i.e. electromagnetic power
in the GHz frequency range, may be generated
using quite different physical phenomena.
Some examples of this are vacuum-tube oscil-
lators such as the klystron and the magnetron,
or semiconductor oscillators such as the FET
oscillator, the Gunn oscillator and the impatt
oscillator. Some simple experiments for under-
standing Gunn oscillators are described below.
Gunn effect
In some semiconductor materials, such as Gal-
lium Arsenide (GaAs), the mobility of the elec-
trons (= the quotient of the drift velocity v and
the electrical field strength E) decreases above
a threshold value ETH of the electrical field
strength (see Fig. 1.1, left side). This is because,
as the field strength increases more and more
electrons “transfer” to a state in which their “ef-
fective mass” becomes greater, thus decreasing
their velocity. For field strengths where E > ETH
the electrons have a negative differential mobil-
ity, i.e. an increase in the field strength results
in a decrease in the drift velocity.
When the electrical field strength in a homoge-
neously doped GaAs block (no barrier layer!)
is greater than the threshold value ETH “space
charge instabilities” occur as a result of the
negative differential mobility.
While any random local surplus or deficiency
of electrons will disappear by itself when a
positive differential mobility is present, this sur-
plus or deficiency will increase under a nega-
tive differential mobility. In the upper right
section of Fig. 1.1, a random surplus of elec-
trons is assumed. The resulting increase in field
strength on the anode side leads to a decrease
in the drift velocity v2 on the anode side relative
to the drift velocity v1 on the cathode side (de-
crease in field strength). This causes “bunch-
ing” and yields a carrier enhancement layer.
The analogous effect occurs in the event of a
random deficiency of electrons, in which case
a depletion layer occurs (see Fig. 1.1, middle-
right section). When the enhanced and de-
Ex1
pleted layers approach each other, they attract
each other and jointly pass through the diode in
the form of a “domain” (see Fig. 1.1, lower
right section). The field in the interior of the
domain can be so high that the field outside it
falls below the threshold value ETH. Thus no
new domain can be formed until the existing
one has disappeared at the anode.
If the Gunn element were not connected to a
resonator (tuned circuit), the frequency of the
microwave power generated would be deter-
mined by the time it takes for the domains (ve-
locity approximately 107 cm/s) to pass through
the diode (transit frequency). If, however, the
Gunn diode is operated with a resonator, the
resonator frequency can be “imposed” upon
the Gunn diode. There are several operating
modes here (delayed mode, quenched mode,
LSA mode).
The delayed domain mode is briefly described
here as an example. It occurs when the resona-
tor frequency is lower than the transit fre-
quency. At the moment in which the domain
reaches the anode, the momentary value of the
diode voltage (= bias voltage + RF voltage) is
less than the threshold value. The formation of
Fig. 1.1 Principle of a Gunn diode
left: Drift velocity v of the electrons as a function
of the electrical field strength E for GaAs.
right: Formation of a domain (cathode (–) left
and anode (+) right)
11
 MTS 7.4.2
a new domain is delayed until the voltage ex-
ceeds the threshold value, thus “imposing” the
oscillator frequency of the resonator on the
Gunn element.
Design of the oscillator
One of the many possible resonator types in
microwave technology is the rectangular cavity
resonator. Fig. 1.2, left side, shows a rectangu-
lar cavity enclosed on all sides by metal walls.
Just as in a resonant circuit built of a lumped
inductance and capacitance, oscillations of the
electrical field variables with a certain fre-
quency (= resonance frequency f0) can also ex-
ist in a cavity resonator. In this case, the energy
is stored alternately in the electric and the mag-
netic field. While an (ideal) resonant circuit has
only one resonance frequency, the cavity reso-
nator has an infinite number of oscillation types
and resonance frequencies. Fig 1.2 (left) shows
the electrical and magnetic fields for the oscil-
lation type with the lowest resonance fre-
quency (TE101 resonance) at three different
points in time, at intervals of one quarter of the
period T = 1 / f0. A side view of the cavity reso-
nator and the variations of the electrical field
strength as a function of the coordinate z are
reproduced in the middle of Fig.1.2. The reso-
nance frequency of this oscillation type is cal-
culated (for air) according to the formula:
f0 1 1 (1.1)
= 15 ⋅ +
GHz ( a' /cm) 2 ( s' /cm) 2
More specific details on cavity resonators are
dealt with in MTS 7.4.4.
The electromagnetic oscillations of the cavity
resonator are attenuated due to losses occurring
in the metal walls. After installing the Gunn el-
ement, which transforms DC power into micro-
wave power, just enough microwave power is
fed into the resonator to compensate for the
wall losses and to achieve a continuous
unattenuated oscillation. To obtain a micro-
wave oscillator, the resonator must also have an
“opening” through which power can be fed to
a “load”. In this case, the Gunn element must
generate not only enough microwave power to
compensate for the wall losses, but also the
12
Ex1
Fig. 1.2: Basic design of the Gunn oscillator
left: TE101 oscillation in a rectangular cavity
resonator
middle: Dependency of the electrical field
strength E on the longitudinal coordinate z for
TE101 resonance
right: Two possible configuratios for the Gunn
oscillators. 1Gunn diode 2aperture.
Configuration B is used in these experiments
and configuration A in MTS 7.4.6.
greater amount of power generally required by
the load. Developing a Gunn oscillator from a
cavity resonator requires (I) that the Gunn ele-
ment be coupled to the resonator, and (II) that
the load be coupled to the resonator. Fig. 1.2,
right section, shows two possible configura-
tions.
In configuration (B), the Gunn element is cou-
pled to the resonator using a round metallic
post, and the load is coupled using an aperture
(hole or slot). From the sketch of the longitudi-
nal electrical field distribution in configuration
(B), we can see that the planes of the post axis
and the aperture may be regarded as short-cir-
cuit planes for the purpose of estimating the
resonance frequency.
In configuration (A) (Fig. 1.2, top right) the me-
tallic post fullfils both functions, i.e. the cou-
pling of the resonator to the Gunn element as
well as to the load.
In the present experiment, an oscillator con-
structed according to configuration (B) is used.
In contrast in experiments from MTS 7.4.6 a
mechanically adjustable oscillator according to
configuration (A) is assembled.
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex1

Required equipment using the stand rods and bases.

1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 2.4 Connect the basic unit (set the rotary knob
1 Basic unit 737 021 for the Gunn diode supply voltage UG to
1 Large horn antenna 737 21 “0”) to the Gunn oscillator using the co-
1 E-field probe 737 35 axial cable.
2.5 In accordance with Fig. 1.3 set up the E-
Additionally required equipment field probe at a distance of approx. 5 cm in
1 Oscilloscope 575 29 front of the antenna's aperture. The feed
1 XY recorder (optional) tube of the E-field probe should be ap-
1 Slide caliper proximately at a right angle to the
2 Stand bases 301 21 waveguide axis and the probe dipole
1 Support for waveguide should be aligned vertically to the surface
components 737 15 of the lab bench (= perpendicular to the
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26 lab bench ).
2 Coaxial cables BNC 2.6 Connect the oscilloscope to the E-field
male/male, 2 m 501 022 probe (not included in the measurement
station). Set the oscilloscope to DC and the
measurement range for the following
measurements to approx. 2 to 100 mV.
Experiment procedure 2.7 Switch on the Gunn power supply unit.
Increase the supply voltage UG from 0 to
1. Visually study the design of the disassem-
10 V in steps of 0.5 V. At the same time
bled Gunn oscillator (see also the instruc-
read off the Gunn element's DC current IG
tion sheet to the device).
and the receiving voltage UD proportional
1.1 Disassemble the Gunn oscillator by loo-
to the radiated microwave power and en-
sening the quick-release thumb screws.
ter the results in columns 2 and 3 of Table
(Disconnect the back panel of the hous-
1.1. Draw the findings in Diagram 1.1.
ing, diaphragm and waveguide terminat-
Connect the points representing the meas-
ing piece)
urements from Table 1.1 with straight
1.2 Consider the design of the Gunn element
lines.
and compare it to Fig. 1.2 (right). Deter-
Note:
mine the waveguide width a’ and the dis-
If an XY recorder is available, the function
tance s’ (see Fig. 1.2 right, configuration
IG = IG (UG) can also be recorded directly.
(B) of the post axis to the flange plane
In this case the appropriately designated
(= location of the diaphragm) using a slide
sockets X and Y of the Gunn power sup-
caliper.
ply of the basic unit are connected to the X
Note:
and Y inputs of the XY recorder.
Make sure that you DO NOT touch the
For the recording of the characteristic the
Gunn diode with the slide caliper.
Gunn voltage is to be increased slowly by
2. Determine the dependency of the DC cur- turning the 10-turn potentiometer. You
rent IG flowing through the Gunn element can also use an oscilloscope instead of the
and (in the case of oscillation) the micro- XY recorder. In this case an additional tri-
wave signal generated by the supply volt- angular function generator (0 to 10 V) is
age UG (when the diaphragm is attached). required for wobbling the characteristics.
2.1 Reassemble the Gunn oscillator disman- A very low wobble frequency must be
tled in part 1 of the experiment, i.e. reat- selected here, because the RECORDER
tach the back panel of the housing and the outputs X and Y have lowpass filters. The
waveguide to the Gunn element module. advantage of a continuous increase of UG
2.2 Screw the horn antenna onto the open end as opposed to a step-by-step increase
of the waveguide. (0.5 V steps) lies in the fact that the “steps”
2.3 Set up the Gunn oscillator including the (discontinuities) in the characteristics are
screwed on horn antenna on the lab bench easier to discern.

13
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex1

3. Repeat part 2 of the experiment but with-

out the diaphragm.
3.1 To remove the diaphragm loosen the 4
screws, take out the diaphragm and then
reassemble the waveguide connecting
piece (including the horn antenna).
3.2 Repeat the experiments in accordance
with point 2.7. Enter the results for IG and
UD in columns 4 and 5 of Table 1.1
4. Repeat part 2 of the experiment, but with-
out the rear panel.
4.1 Reinsert the diaphragm. Remove the rear
panel.
4.2 Repeat the experiment according to point Fig. 1.4: Experiment setup
2.7. Enter the results for IG and UD in col- 1 Gunn oscillator
2 E-Field probe
umns 6 and 7 of Table 1.1 3 Horn antenna
4 Gunn power supply unit
Table 1.1

with diaphragm without diaphragm with diaphragm

with rear panel with rear panel without rear panel
UG UD IG UD IG UD IG
V mV mA mV mA mV mA
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0

14
 MTS 7.4.2
Diagram 1.1 For the graphic representations of the measurement values from Table 1.1
Questions
1. Approximately calculate the oscillator fre-
quency according to the Equation (1.1)
specified above for the resonance fre-
quency of a rectangular cavity resonator.
For this use the geometrical data deter-
mined in experiment part 1.2. Here you
may assume a TE101 resonance with “ef-
fective short-circuit planes” at the location
of the post axis and the diaphragm
(see also Fig. 1.2, lower right).
2. Assuming that the active GaAs layer has a
thickness of 10 µm, determine from the
value for the threshold voltage UTH (= volt-
age above which the differential mobility
Ex1
becomes negative) the threshold value ETH
of the electrical field strength in kV/cm.
The voltage drop outside the active layer
may be ignored here, and you may assume
a homogenous spatial distribution of the
field strength.
7
3. Assuming a domain velocity of 10 cm/s,
determine the transit frequency of the
Gunn element.
4. Explain the different responses obtained in
experiment parts 2 (with diaphragm and
rear panel), 3 (without diaphragm, with
housing rear panel) and 4 (with dia-
phragm, but without rear panel).
15
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex1

Bibliography
Simple introductory works:
[1] S. Y. Liao: Microwave Devices and Circuits. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1980
[2] H. V. Shurmer: Microwave Semiconductor Devices. Oldenbourg, Munich, 1971
[3] B. G. Bosch, R. W. H. Engelmann: Gunn-Effect Electronics. Pitmann Publishing,
London, 1975
[4] K. Kurokawa: Microwave Solid State Oscillator Circuits. In: M. Howes, D. Morgan
(Eds.): Microwave Devices, Device Circuit Interactions, Wiley, London 1976
[5] J. E. Carroll: Hot Electron Microwave Generators. Edward Arnold, London 1970
[6] F. Sterzer: Transferred Electron (Gunn) Amplifiers and Oscillators for Microwave
Applications. Proceedings IEEE, 59, 1155-1163 (1971)
Original Monographs

Original monographs:
[7] C. P. Jethwa und R. L., Gunshor: An Analytical Equivalent Circuit Representation
for Waveguide-mounted Gunn Oscillators. IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech.,
MTT-20, 565- 572 (1972)
[8] J. F. White: Simplified Theory for Post Coupling Gunn Diodes to Waveguides.
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., MTT-20, 372-378 (1972)

16
 MTS 7.4.2
E-field probe and amplitude modulation of the Gunn
oscillator
Principles
The E-field probe is used to determine the local
electrical field strength of an electromagnetic
field (“microwave field”). A dipole antenna can
be used for this. This should be as short as pos-
sible so as not to disturb the electrical field be-
ing measured.
This dipole antenna supplies a RF voltage
which is proportional to the electrical field
strength being sought. In order to eliminate the
severe frequency dependency brought about
by the influence of the capacitance of the short-
length dipole antenna and the rest of the circuit,
the dipole antenna should be “damped” with
suitable resistive material. The voltage U(t) pro-
vided at the terminal of the dipole constitutes a
microwave signal (here approx. 9 GHz), which
cannot be directly displayed on a conventional
oscilloscope.
In order to obtain a low-frequency signal, a de-
tector diode is used. Schottky barrier diodes,
which basically consist of a junction between a
metal and a semiconductor, are especially suit-
able for this function.
In the case of a Schottky barrier diode, the fol-
lowing holds true for the relationship between
detector voltage u(t) and detector current i(t)
  u( t )  
i(t ) = IS ⋅ exp  − 1 (2.1)
  UT  
where UT is the temperature voltage (20 to 30 mV)
and IS is the saturation current.
For suitably small detector voltages | u(t) | <<
UT the above equation can be approximated
using the first two elements of the Taylor series
expansion:
2 nal is strongly dependent on the value of the
IS 1  u(t ) 
i(t ) = u(t ) + IS   (2.2)
UT 2  U T 
Ex2
Because of the square component in the Taylor
expansion of the characteristic curve, a micro-
wave voltage
u(t) = û · cos (ω · t) (2.3)
yields a DC current
1 IS
⋅ ( uˆ )
2
I Detect = ⋅
2 (2.4)
4 UT
Because û is proportional to the amplitude Ê of
the electrical field strength at the location of the
probe, the E-field probe consisting of a dipole
antenna and a detector diode supplies an output
signal UD, which for “sufficiently small” field
strengths is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the electrical field:
UD = k · Ê
2
(2.5)
m2
Here k is a constant with the dimension
V
The amplification and measurement of small
DC detector voltages is difficult due to, among
other things, drift phenomena etc. Therefore it is
advantageous to have a low frequency AC sig-
nal available at the output of the E-field probe
instead of the DC voltage signal. This is made
possible by amplitude modulation of the micro-
wave oscillator (here the Gunn oscillator).
An amplitude modulation of the Gunn oscilla-
tor can be carried out by modulating the supply
voltage. This becomes immediately clear from
the results of Experiment 1 (Diagram 1.1).
There are no microwave oscillations up to a
supply voltage of approx. 4 V. Above this
threshold the amplitude of the microwave sig-
supply voltage. Thus the amplitude of the mi-
crowave signal can be modulated as a function
of time by controlling the bias level UG of the
Gunn oscillator.
17
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex2

Fig. 2.1: Transverse shift of the E-field probe Fig. 2.2: Principle characteristic of the Gunn ovltage at the
1 Horn antenna basic unit (GUNN output socket) for Gunn-
2 E-field probe internal modulation. UG constitutes here the
supply voltage, which is set via the rotary
potentiometer UG.

Required equipment DC detector voltages of any radomly low

1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 value. As of what distance x0,max can the
1 Basic unit 737 021 microwave signal no longer be detected?
1 Large horn antenna 737 21 Note
1 E-field probe 737 35 For the determination of x0,max: the signal at
Additionally required equipment the oscilloscope may not be noticably al-
1 Oscilloscope 575 29 tered when the horn antenna's aperture is
2 Stand bases 301 21 completely covered with a hand.
1 Support for waveguide 2. Amplitude modulation of the Gunn oscilla-
components 737 15 tor
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26 2.1 In the “MODULATION” operating sec-
2 Coaxial cables BNC tion of the basic unit there is a switch set-
male/male, 2 m 501 022 ting (“GUNN INT”) for the internal
1 Pad of millimeter paper A3, linear modulation of the Gunn supply voltage.
The Gunn voltage is then superpositioned
with a square-wave signal with a frequency
Experiment procedure of 976 Hz. The amplitude of the signal has
1. Measurement of electrical field strength at a peak-to-peak value of 300 mVPP (see Fig.
different locations of the field probe. 2.2).
1.1 Experiment arrangement in accordance 2.2 Observe the receiving signal UD(t) of the
with Fig. 1.3 of Experiment 1. Position the E-field probe when the microwave signal
E-field probe approx. 10 cm in front of the is amplitude-modulated by varying the
aperture of the horn antenna. supply voltage UG.
Switch on the Gunn power supply unit and To do this first connect the Gunn oscillator
set the supply voltage to UG = 8 V. to the basic unit (GUNN sockets) and set
Connect the E-field probe to the oscillo- the toggle switch to “GUNN INT”. Posi-
scope (DC display mode). tion the E-field probe at a distance of
1.2 Transverse shift of the E-field probe in 4 approx. 10 cm in front of the horn anten-
cm steps (see Fig. 2.1). Enter the voltage na's aperture and connect the output of the
values UD / mV into Table 2.1 . E-field probe to the input of the oscillo-
1.3 Determining the sensitivity limits. Due to scope (first set the coupling mode to DC).
the noise voltage present at the same time 2.3 Slowly turn the controller for the Gunn
as the DC voltage to be measured on the voltage from left to right (increasing the
oscilloscope, it is not possible to measure supply voltage) and observe how the char-

18
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex2

acteristic of UD(t) changes (square-wave Table 2.1

signal with DC component).
2.4 Now reset the oscilloscope to AC coupling Transverse
and repeat point 2.3. schift
2.5 Set the value of UG, at which the receiving x0 UD U max − U min
signal is the strongest. Maintain this “opti- cm
mum operating point” for the following mV mV
measurements. 0 0 0
2.6 Shift the E-field probe along the transverse 4
plane in 4-cm steps (see Fig. 2.1). Enter the
magnitude of the voltage step change in 8
the receiveing signal Umax – Umin (peak-to- 12
peak value) in Table 2.1. 16
At which distance x0,max can the microwave
signal no longer be detected? 20

Questions
1. What can be observed in the subpoints 2.3
and 2.4? How do you explain these facts?
2. How large is the ratio of the electrical field
strength E at x0 = 8 cm with respect to the
field strength at x0 = 0 (see Fig. 2.1), if you
assume that UD (Table 2.1) is proportional
to the square of the magnitude of the elec-
trical field strength?

19
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex2

20
 MTS 7.4.2
Selective measurement amplifier
Principles
Figure 3.1 shows the dynamic characteristic
UD(t) of the output signal of the E-field probe.
It results from the superposition of the square-
wave shaped “wanted signal” of the frequency
fr (here fr = 976 Hz) and the noise signal Un(t). If
the rms value
u n,rms = U n2 ( t ) (3.1)
of the noise signal is larger than the amplitude
of the voltage step ∆U = Umax – Umin to be deter-
mined, this determination is made considerably
more complicated if not impossible should no
additional measures be taken on the signal
processing side. These considerations lead to
the sensitivity limits of the measurement
method.
In order to recognize which measures lead to an
increase in the sensitivity (lowering of the sen-
sitivity limits), it is advantageous to consider
the frequency spectrum of the signal UD(t). Fig-
ure 3.2 (above) depicts this frequency spec-
trum, which consists of spectral lines at the
frequencies fr, 3 fr, 5 fr etc. belonging to the
wanted periodic signal and a continuous noise
spectrum. The first spectral line at fr belongs to
the fundamental frequency components
U D ( t ) = uˆ ⋅ cos ( 2 π f r t ) (3.2)
Fig. 3.1: Dynamic characteristic of the output signal of the
E-field probe with superpositioned noise voltage
(fr = 976 Hz)
Ex3
whereby û is definitely related to ∆U via
û = 2 · ∆U/π (Fourier analysis).
If the received signal UD(t) is sent through a
narrow bandpass filter (see Fig. 3.2, middle)
with the center frequency of f0 ≈ fr, then the first
spectral line and thus the fundamental fre-
quency component UD(t) is almost completely
retained. However, only a “small” part of the
noise spectrum remains which is determined by
the effective bandwidth of the filter. The signal-
to-noise ratio is considerably increased by
means of this form of selective frequency filter-
ing. And this increase is even greater the nar-
rower the bandwidth of the filter. In the
corresponding dynamic signal characteristic
obtained downstream from the bandpass filter,
the fundamental frequency component remains
nearly the same in comparison to the input sig-
nal, but the rms value of the noise signal has
been reduced in proportion to the bandwidth of
the filter. Based on the principle expounded
upon until now you could replace the bandpass
Fig. 3.2: Frequency spectrum of the signals according to
Fig. 3.1 upsteam (above) and downstream
(below) from a narrow-band bandpass filter.
1 Wanted signal
2 Noise
3 Frequency response of the filter
21
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex3

Fig. 3.3 Design of the lock-in amplifier Fig. 3.4: Voltage-controlled switch as phase-sensitive
1 Clock generator rectifier (PSD). Switch in setting A, if voltage
2 Bandpass filter for suppressing harmonics UCl(t) of clock generator is smaller than the
3 Amplifier threshold value U0. Otherwise in setting B.
4 Phase-sensitive rectifier
(synchronous rectifier)
5 Lowpass filter

filter with a narrow-band low-noise amplifier
and supply its output signal to an AC voltme-
ter. Thus, a frequency selective measurement
amplifier is obtained; a principle often applied
in the measurement of small signals.
However, if a still greater increase in the sensi-
tivity is desired, then we must also make it clear
that there is a limit to the reduction of the filter’s
bandwidth using the principle dealt with up to
now. The narrower the bandwidth of the filter
is, the better its center frequency f0 must coin-
cide with the clock frequency fr, so that the
wanted signal is not significantly attenuated by
the filter. Due to drift phenomena in the filter,
e.g. of a thermal nature or due fluctuations in
the clock frequency, deviations between f0 and
fr must be tolerated to a certain extent.
Therefore, the bandwidth of the filter cannot be
reduced to arbitrarily low values.
A solution to this problem can be found when
the clock signal, on which the voltage UD(t) to
be measured is based, is available and can thus
be used for the “synchronization” (f0 joined
with fr) of the bandpass filter. This basic idea is
utilized in the so-called “lock-in” amplifiers,
the fundamental principle of which is ex-
plained in the following paragraphs. Fig. 3.3
shows their fundamental design.
First a simple bandpass filter 2 (with no extreme
demands on the bandwidth) is used to eliminate
from the received signal UD(t) harmonics of a
higher mode and spectral noise components
“remote” from fr, and the filtered signal can be
amplified in a low-noise, narrow-bandwidth
amplifier. The resulting signal U1(t) (down-
stream from the amplifier (3), see Fig. 3.3) is
supplied together with the signal UCL(t) of the
clock generator to a phase sensitive detector
(PSD), sometimes called a synchronous detec-
tor. Figure 3.4 shows a simple design for a
PSD. Here the signal of the clock generator
controls a switch so that the output signal is al-
ternatively identical to the input signal U1(t) or
the negative input signal –U1(t). The resulting
output voltage U2(t) for the case that U1(t) is in
phase with the clock signal UCL(t), is shown in
Fig. 3.5 (right). If a very narrow-band low-pass
filter (e.g. bandwidth 10 Hz) is arranged behind
the PSD, this filter supplies the mean value u 2
[DC voltage component, see Fig. 3.5 (right)] to
Fig. 3.5: Voltage characteristics of the simple phase-
sensitive rectifier
Clock generator voltage UCl(t) (top),
Input voltage U1(t) (bottom left),
Output voltage U2(t) (bottom right)

22
 MTS 7.4.2
its output, which is clearly in conjunction with
û1. In order to conduct a more exact analysis of
the lock-in amplifier features, you can observe
its “response” to an input signal of any given
frequency f and phase ϕ in accordance with the
equation
U D ( t ) = uˆ ( f ) ⋅ cos ( 2 π f t + ϕ ) (3.3)
Only if f equals fr or a multiple of fr in whole
numbers, is there a DC voltage value u 2 other
than zero at the output. A very high frequency
selectivity is achieved by selecting a very nar-
row bandwidth for the low-pass filter (= pro-
longed duration of the integration time). This
yields a considerable improvement in the sig-
nal-to-noise ratio (see above). Thus, extremely
weak signals can be detected in measurement
systems which are based on the lock-in ampli-
fier principle.
If it is true that f = fr, but ϕ ≠ 0 (phase-shift be-
tween the clock and receiving signal), then it is
true that
2 uˆ
u2 = π 1 ⋅ cos ϕ (3.4)
Thus, we obtain not only frequency- but also
phase-selectivity.
In the lock-in amplifier version considered up
until now the receiving signal UD(t) appears in its
baseband. Such systems are referred to as ho-
modyne and is the type of system integrated into
the basic unit of the existing training system. It is
designated here (equipment designation) as
“Power & SWR Meter”. The designation SWR
meter (“standing wave ratio”) comes from its
frequent use in determining the standing wave
ratio on transmission lines.
In improved systems of greater complexity the
received signal is first converted into a (fixed)
intermediate frequency (IF) and supplied to the
PSD (Heterodyne System).
Required equipment
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
1 Basic unit 737 021
1 Large horn antenna 737 21
1 E-field probe 737 35
Ex3
Additionally required equipment
1 Oscilloscope 575 29
2 Stand bases 301 21
1 Support for waveguide
components 737 15
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
2 Coaxial cables BNC
male/male, 2 m 501 022
1 Pad of millimeter paper A3, linear
Experiment procedure
1. Operation of the selective measurement
amplifier
1.1 Set up the experiment as specified in Fig.
1.3 of Experiment 1. Position the E-field
probe approx. 10 cm in front of the aper-
ture of the horn antenna. Connect the E-
field probe to the oscilloscope (DC
coupling mode). Set the toggle switch for
modulation to “GUN-INT”. Connect the
Gunn oscillator to the GUNN socket of the
basic unit.
1.2 Set the “optimum operating point” as per-
formed in item 2.5 of Experiment 2.
Set the Gunn voltage so that the receiving
voltage (AC component) is maximum.
1.3 Presetting of the selective measurement
amplifier:
Set the gain selection switch of the selec-
tive measurement amplifier (SWR-Meter)
to “0 dB”.
Turn the GAIN ZERO control knob to far
left limit. Connect the E-field probe to the
INPUT socket of the selective measure-
ment amplifier. Now vary the setting of the
gain selection switch until the display in-
dicates 0 to 5 dB range. Afterwards vary
the GAIN-ZERO control knob until
“0 dB” is indicated.
1.4 Verifying the set operating point:
Under item 1.2 the operating point was
selected so that the voltage step change of
the receiving signal is maximum on the
oscilloscope. To verify this operating point
you can now turn the control knob for the
Gunn voltage. If the set operating point is
optimum, each display of the selective
measurement amplifier should drop below
23
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex3

“0 dB”. After this experiment you again displayed on the selective measurement
select the optimum operating point (with amplifier when the antenna aperture is
the display “0 dB”, correct if necessary). covered and uncovered.
2. Transverse shift of the E-field probe in
4-cm steps as in Experiment 2. Questions
Read off the display of the selective meas- 1. Determine from Table 2.1 of Experiment 2
urement amplifier (in dB) and enter the re- (2nd column) the respective values of
sults in column 2 of Table 3.1.
During this measurement the gain factor of U (x ) (3.5)
10 ⋅ log D 0
the selective measurement amplifier needs UD (0)
to be set accordingly and taken into ac-
for the given transverse distances x0 and
count in the result (column 2 of Table 3.1).
enter these values in column 3 of Table
3. Demonstration of the sensitivity gain in 3.1.
comparison to the measurement without 2. Determine from Table 2.1 of Experiment 2
the selective measurement amplfier: (3rd column) the respective values of
It has been demonstrated in Experiment 2
that at a transverse distance of x0,max there U ( x ) − U min ( x 0 ) 
is no noticeable change to the display on 10 ⋅ log  max 0 
 U 
the oscilloscope, if you completely cover  max (0) − U min (0) 
the aperture of the horn antenna with your (3.6)
hand. Consequently the microwave signal
for the transverse distance x0,max could no for the given transverse distances x0 and
longer be detected. Now repeat this exper- enter these values in column 4 of Table
iment using the selective measurement 3.1.
amplifier. For this place the E-field probe 3. Compare the results in column 2 to 4 of
in the position x0,max. Compare the values Table 3.1.

Table 3.1

Experiment 2 Experiment 2
Display of the
(Table 2.1) (Table 2.1)
selective U
x0
measurement U (x ) ( x ) − U min ( x 0 ) 
cm 10 ⋅ log D 0 10 ⋅ log  max 0 
amplifier in dB UD (0)  U 
 max (0) − U min (0) 

0 0 0
4
8
12
16
20

24
 MTS 7.4.2
Polarization of the radiated field
Basic principles
The microwave field is an electromagnetic
→
field. It consists→ of an electrical field E and a
magnetic field H , which are inextricably linked
→ →
to each other by Maxwell's equations. E and H
are vectors, which in general vary with time
(pulse-shaped, time harmonic etc.) and locati-
on. Within the framework of this experiment
we will only be dealing with steady state sinus-
oidal fields. If you consider the time-harmonic
→
vector E at a frequency f at a fixed location,
then, in general, it possesses three components
Ex, Ey and Ez in the direction x, y and z of a Car-
tesian coordinate system:
Ex(t) = Êx · cos (2π f t + ϕx)
Ey(t) = Êy · cos (2π f t + ϕy) (4.1)
Ez(t) = Êz · cos (2π f t + ϕz)
These components thus differ with respect to
their amplitudes Êx etc. and their phases ϕx etc.
There is an analog representation of the H
field. If the direction of the electrical field
vector is identical at each point in time (with the
exception of the sign), then this is referred to as
a linearly polarized electrical field. Here the
point of the field vector moves in time back and
forth on a straight line (see Fig. 4.1, left).
If the point of the field vector of the electrical
Fig. 4.1: Various kinds of electrical field polarization
left: Linear polarization
center: Circular polarization
right: Elliptical polarization
Ex4
field moves in a circle this is called circular
polarization (Fig. 4.1, center) and if the vector
point moves in a curvature which is an ellipse
than this is called elliptical polarization (Fig. 4,
right).
For the special case of a plane wave where
Ez = 0, a linearly polarized field is generally
obtained when ϕx = ϕy and a circularly polari-
zed field when ϕy = ϕx ± 90° and Êx = Êy. In all
other cases the field is elliptically polarized.
If you wish to determine the components of an
electric field at a given location and direction
by means of measurement, then the E-field pro-
be is used. It consists of an electric dipole with
a short length whose RF voltage URF is propor-
tional to the component of the vector of the
electric field strength in the direction of the
dipole axis (see Fig. 4.2). If the probe dipole is
aligned, e.g. parallel to the x-axis, then
URF = K · Ex(t) = K ·Êx ·cos (2π f t + ϕx) (4.2)
where K is a constant with the dimension m.
Ideally the voltage URF would not be influenced
by the magnetic field H at the same location.
A Schottky diode is installed between the inner
ends of the dipole. This is where the square-law
rectification of the microwave signal is carried
out in this device. (See Experiment 2 equations
(2.1) to (2.5))
α
→
E (t)
URF = K ·cos α · E(t)
UD = K2 ·(Ê cos α)2
Fig. 4.2 On the principle of the E-field probe
25
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex4

Thus for the case where the probing dipole is gned parallel to the y-direction of the coor-
aligned for example parallel to the x-axis dinate system assumed to be fixed to the
antenna and thus the voltage UD is propor-
U D = K ' ⋅ Ê x2 , (4.3) tional to the square of the y component
where K’ is a constant with the dimension m2/V. (amplitude) of the electrical field. Adjust
The information on the phase of the electrical the display value of the selective measure-
field gets lost in this type of measurement. ment amplifier to “0 dB” (reference value)
The following holds true for the value a as in Experiment 3 using the gain switch
displayed in dB on the selective measurement and the GAIN ZERO control knob.
amplifier (SWR meter) 1.4 Rotate the Gunn oscillator and horn
antenna by 90°.
 U 
a (4.4) Now UD is proportional to the square of
= 10 ⋅ log  D 
dB U  the x-component (amplitude) of the elec-
 D,Ref  trical field.
Read off the display value a of the
Here UD,Ref is an adjustable reference value. Thus selective measurement amplifier.
the following applies for the above relationship Due to the calibration made under 1.3 it is
between the receiving voltage UD and the true that
electrical field strength
2
a Êx Êx
a  Ê  = 10 ⋅ log = 20 ⋅ log (4.6)
= 20 ⋅ log  x  (4.5) dB Êy
2
Êy
dB Ê 
 x,Ref 
2. Using a parallel wire grating as a
Required equipment polarization filter.
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 2.1 Again select the arrangement according to
1 Basic unit 737 021 Fig. 4.3, left, and repeat zero calibration of
1 Large scale horn antenna 737 21 the selective measurement amplifier.
1 E-field probe 737 35 2.2 Position the parallel wire grating between
1 Physics microwave accessories 737 27 the horn antenna and the E-field probe in
1 Parallel wire grating accordance with Fig. 4.4 (left). Determine
1 Plate holder UD for the case where the wires are initially
Additionally required equipment parallel to the y-direction (UD = Up) and
2 Stand bases 301 21 subsequently parallel to the x-direction
1 Support for waveguide (UD = Us).
components 737 15 2.3 Again align the parallel wire grating so
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26 that the wires are located parallel to the y-
2 Coaxial cables BNC direction. From this setting start rotating
male/male, 2 m 501 022 the grating around its axis in 15° steps in
the range 0 ≤ 90° (Fig. 4.4 (right)). Enter
Experiment procedure UD in Table 4.1.
2.4 Rotate the oscillator and horn antenna
1. Polarization of the electromagnetic field combination by 90° (as in Fig. 4.3 right).
in front of the horn antenna Turn the grating around its axis in steps of
1.1 Experiment setup as specified in Exper- 15° as in point 2.3. Enter the value of UD
iment 3. in Table 4.2.
1.2 Switch the Gunn power supply on. Set the
supply voltage for the Gunn element and
set the modulation voltage (PIN-
modulator) as in experiment 3 (optimum Questions
operating point). 1. Indicate the direction of the vector of the
1.3 First select the arrangement as shown in electrical field (at the location of the probe
Fig. 4.3, left. Here the probe dipole is ali- dipole) for experiment part 1.

26
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex4

Table 4.1 Table 4.2

Φ UD UD (Φ) Φ UD UD (Φ)
sin4(Φ) sin4(Φ)
° dB UD ( 0°) ° dB U D ( 45 ° )
0 0
15 15
30 30
45 45
60 60
75 75
90 90

Note:
Here it can be assumed that the field is Compare the results of this approximate
(approximately) linearly polarized. equation with the measurement results.
2. Based on the experiment results describe (see the last two columns in Table 4.1).
the function of the parallel wire grating in
qualitative terms. 4. For Experiment 2.4 the following holds
3. The following is approximately true for true approximately
Experiment 2.3
U D (Φ )
UD (Φ) = sin 2 ( 2 Φ ) (4.8)
= sin 4 ( Φ ) (4.7) U D ( 45 ° )
U D ( 0°)

Explain the relationship expressed in the Also explain this relationship. Compare
equation (4.7) by considering the com- the result of this approximation to the
ponents of the electrical field which are measurement results (refer to the last two
parallel and perpendicular to the wires. columns in Table 4.2).

Fig. 4.3: Varying alignments of the E-field probe to the Fig. 4.4 Experiments with the parallel wire grating
horn antenna
1 Horn antenna
2 E-field probe

27
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex4

Bibliography
More extensive works on electromagnetic fields:
[1] J. D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics. Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1975
[2] T. A. Johnk: Engineering Electromagnetic Fields and Waves.
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975
[3] J. A. Stratton: Electromagnetic Theory. Mc Graw Hill, New York 1941
[4] R. E. Collin: Field Theory of Guided Waves. Mc Graw Hill,
New York, 1960
[5] L. M. Magid: Electromagnetic Fields, Energy and Waves. John Wiley & Sons,
New York 1972

28
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex5

Field distribution in front of the horn antenna

Fundamentals value with respect to time can be calculated us-

The field distribution of an electromagnetic ing the equation
→
field,
→
i.e. the dependency of the vectors E and 2
H with respect to their position in space, is in- Êx (5.2)
fluenced by the form of excitation and by the S=
2 Z0
configuration (= arrangement of antennas and
objects, e.g. persons situated in front of the The dimension of S is W/m2.
horn antenna) of the space in which the field is The field of a Hertzian dipole may serve as an
formed. Here rather complicated field distribu- example of a wave travelling with curved
tion phenomena can result. phase fronts. At a distance of r0 >> λ from the
In order to understand the processes involved dipole, the following applies for spherical coor-
in the propagation of electromagnetic waves it dinates:
is important to first consider simple wave
fields, namely
  r
(I) propagating uniform plane waves, cos  2 π f t − 
(plane phase front)   c  
(II) propagating waves with curved Eϑ ( t , r , ϑ ) ≈ A ⋅ ⋅ sin ϑ
r
phase fronts, e.g. spherical waves
(III) far field of an antenna in free space Eϑ ( t , r , ϑ )
Hϑ ( t , r , ϑ ) ≈
as a special case of a wave field Z0
(IV) standing waves, which arise through
interference of waves travelling in (5.3)
opposite directions.
In this experiment we will investigate the field (A is a constant).
of a propagating wave in front of a horn an-
tenna. In the next experiment a standing wave The amplitude decrease with r and the radiation
is produced out of the propagating wave using density is directed radially. It amounts to
a metal plate to reflect it. A2
A uniform plane wave propagating in the z-di- S= ⋅ sin 2 ( ϑ ) (5.4)
rection and linearly polarized in the x-direction 2 Z0 r2
is given by the following equation: The next step is to investigate the electromag-
netic field of any (given) antenna in free space
(i.e. the influence of the environment on the
antenna field is negligible). Any point in space
(point P) can be described by providing its Car-
and (5.1) tesian coordinates x, y and z or spherical coor-
dinates r, ϑ und ϕ (see Fig. 5.1). In the “close”
vicinity to the antenna the electric and magnetic
field have a very “complicated” spatial de-
pendency (near, vicinity or short-range field of
where c represents the light velocity and the antenna near field).
Z0 = 377 Ω the characteristic impedance of free For any given point in space, whose distance r
space. The surfaces of constant phase are from the antenna exceeds a minimum value r0
planes and the amplitude remains constant dependent on the linear dimension D of the an-
along the propagation coordinate (here the z- tenna and the free-space wavelength λ0, the so-
coordinate). called “far field equation” applies. The field in
The wave transports active power in the z-di- the range r > r0 is called the “far field” of the
rection, whereby the radiation density's mean antenna (also referred to as distant field). The

29
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex5

distance r0 is calculated from the equation. The

value r0 can be calculated from
2 D2
r0 = (5.5)
λ0
The following general statements can be made
about the properties of the far field:
(α) The vectors
→ →
of the electric and magnetic
field E and H lie tangentially to the coor-
dinate surfaces (here a spherical surface)
r = const. (see Fig. 5.1). The field thus has Fig. 5.1: Describing an antenna's far field
no radial components (meaning compo-
nents in the direction
→
0 P ). The vector of
→
the magnetic field H is perpendicular to E Here Pin stands for the active power fed into the
and the direction 0P . The ratio of the am- antenna and G (ϑ, ϕ) is the gain function of the
→ →
plitudes of E and H is given by the field antenna. It indicates by what factor the radia-
characteristic impedance of free space tion density for a given direction differs from
Z0 = 377 Ω. that of the (ficticious) isotrope antenna (for the
same amount of feed power). The maximum
(ß) The fields can be described completely by value of G (ϑ, ϕ) is the antenna's gain. If G (ϑ,
two components, each tangential to the spher- ϕ) is normalized to this maximum value, then
ical coordinate surfaces, e.g. through the hor- we obtain the directional→ pattern→ of the antenna.
izontal components Eh and Hh and the verti- Using complex phasors E and H where
cal components Ev and Hv. It holds true that
→ →
Eh = Êh · cos (2 π f t + ϕEh) (5.6) E (t, →r ) = Re { E · exp (j ω t)} and
→ →
where H (t, →r ) = Re { H · exp (j ω t)} (5.9)
Êh = Êh (r, ϑ, ϕ) and ϕEh = ϕEh (r, ϑ, ϕ) the far field of an antenna can be expressed in
the form
and a similar depiction for the other field
components.  r
exp  − j 2π f c 
→
E ( r, ϑ , ϕ ) =   ⋅→
A(ϑ , ϕ ) (5.10)
(γ) The vector of the radiation density points
in the radial direction. For the mean value r
of the radiation density with respect to and
time the following applies
→ 1 → → 
Êh2 + Êv2 2 (5.7) H ( r, ϑ , ϕ ) = ⋅  u r × E ( r , ϑ , ϕ ) (5.11)
S= ~ E Z0  
2 Z0
→
(δ) The dependency of the radiation density S Here →u r is the unit vector in the radial direction.
on the distance r and the directional angles The following applies for the complex
ϑ and ϕ appears in the form of a product. Poynting vector (= vector of the radiation den-
The following applies sity)

1 1→ → E2 A2
⋅ G (ϑ , ϕ ) ⋅ Pin
→
S ( r ,ϑ ,ϕ ) = S= E× H * = = (5.12)
4π r 2 2 2 Z0 2 Z0 r 2
(5.8)
1 (The star means conjugated complex vari-
E ~
r ables).

30
 MTS 7.4.2
Required equipment
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
1 Basic unit 737 021
1 Large horn antenna 737 21
1 E-field probe 737 35
Additionally required equipment
2 Stand base 301 21
1 Support for waveguide
components 737 15
2 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
2 Coaxial cables with
BNC/BNC plugs, 2 m 501 022
Experiment procedure
1. Longitudinal decay of the field
1.1 Experiment setup as specified in Fig. 1.3.
Modulation and power supply of the Gunn
diode as in Experiment 3. Align the E-field
probe as shown in Fig. 4.3 (left). In this
experiment it is important to avoid reflec-
tions at objects (including the observer) in
the area in front of the antenna, as other-
wise the results will be distorted due to in-
terference phenomena. For that reason
there should be no other objects besides
the E-field probe in an angular range of
25° (to the sides and above and below) in
front of the antenna and covering a dis-
tance no less than approx. 3 m (see Fig.
5.2, shaded area). Furthermore avoid
pointing the axis of the antenna perpen-
dicularly at any large plane surface object
(e.g. wall) located at a distance less than 4
m away. A possible arrangement for the
avoidance of reflections from a table sur-
face is shown in Fig. 5.2, where the an-
tenna (including the basic unit) are
situated on a stationary table (the horn an-
tenna sticks out over the edge of the table)
and the E-field probe is located on a mo-
bile table (adjustable) in the proximity of
the table's edge. In this configuration there
is an area of space without distorting re-
flections arising between the horn antenna
and the E-field probe.
1.2 Move the probe dipole along the axis of
the horn antenna (x = y = 0, z = z0 vari-
able). Here the right angle between the E-
field probe and the axis of the horn
antenna is approximately maintained. Af-
Ex5
Fig. 5.2 Experiment arrangement
1 Horn antenna
2 E-field probe
3 Mobile table
4 Stationary table
ter carrying out the zero calibration for
z0 = 2 cm (see previous experiment) read
off UD for the different values of the dis-
tance z0 between the horn aperture and the
probe dipole in the range of 2 cm to
128 cm. Enter the measured values in Ta-
ble 5.1 and Diagram 5.1 (logarithmic
scale).
2. Transversal field decay
2.1 Move the probe dipole in the transverse
direction along a straight line z0 = 64 in 2
cm steps from x0 = 0 up to 26 cm. Read off
the UD (x0, z0) values and enter them into
Table 5.2 as well as Diagram 5.2.
Questions
1. Indicate how the function UD(z0)/UD (128 cm)
would look if far field equations were to
apply in the entire range. In order to sim-
plify matters, take the ideal case that the
UD is proportional to the square of the am-
plitude of the electric field strength. Draw
this characteristic as a curve in dashed
lines into Diagram 5.1.
2. What is the advantage of the logarithmic
representation in Diagram 5.1?
3. By roughly comparing the measured val-
ues with values from the curve drawn with
dashes, indicate from which distance
z0 = z0F the characteristic approximately
agrees with the far field equation. Com-
pare the result of this comparison with the
far field condition:
2 ⋅ D2
r0 > z0F =
λ0
31
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex5

where D is the largest transverse dimen- Table 5.1

sion of the antenna and λ0 is the wave-
length of free space (here: λ0 ≈ 3.2 cm). z0 UD ( z0 ) z0 UD ( z0 )
4. Determine the dependency [G(Θ)] of the cm cm
dB dB
radiation density S = G(Θ), where S ~ UD,
on the directional angle Θ in the far field 2 50
range based on the measurement results 8 65
for z = 64 cm and enter the results in Table
5.2 and Diagram 5.3. 16 100
Note: 32 128
The following applies for the far field
Table 5.2
S(r2 ,Θ )
2
S2  r  G(Θ )
= = 1 ⋅ (5.13) x0 UD ( z0 ) Θ G(Θ )
S(r1 ,0 ) S1  r2  G( 0 )
cm dB degree G ( 0 °)
where r1 = z 0 , r2 = + z 02 x 02
0 0 0 1
and tan Θ = x0 / z0 you thus obtain
2
4
G (Θ ) z 2 + x 02 S 2 6
= 0 ⋅ (5.14)
G(0) z 02 S1 8
10
  2
x0  12
= 1 +   
  z   14
 0 
16
U D [ x 0 = z 0 ⋅ tan ( Θ ) , z 0 ]
⋅ 18
U ∆ ( x 0 = 0, z 0 ) 20
22
5. Determine the so-called 3dB beamwidth 24
∆Θ of the antenna in degrees from Dia- 26
gram 5.3.
Note:
The following holds true in accordance
with the definition

 ∆Θ 
G⋅  = 0.5 ⋅ G ( 0 )
 2 

32
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex5

z0
cm

UD
dB

Diagram 5.1: Graphic representation of the measurement values from Table 5.1

x0
cm

UD
dB

Diagram 5.2: On the graphic representation of the measurement values from Table 5.2

33
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex5

G(Θ )
G ( 0 °)

Θ
degree
Diagram 5.3: On the graphic representation of the measurement values from Table 5.2

Bibliography

[1] L. M. Magid: Electromagnetic Fields, Energy and Waves. Wiley & Sons,
New York 1972
[2] J. D. Kraus: Electromagnetics, Mc Graw Hill, New York, 1973
[3] T. A. Johnk: Engineering Electromagnetics, Fields and Waves. Wiley & Sons,
New York 1975

34
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex6

Interference and standing waves

1. Standing waves in front of a metal

plate aligned perpendiculary to the
propagation direction
Principles
In the section titled “Principles” in the previous
experiment we studied a plane uniform wave
propagating in the z-direction with the field Fig. 6.1: Propagating and standing wave as “instantane-
ous recordings”,
spatial characteristic of the electric and magnetic
  z field strength
E x ( t , z ) = Ê x cos  2 π f t −  left: propagating wave
  c   right: standing wave
(5.1)


Êx  z
⋅ cos 2π f  t −  
Hy ( t , z ) =
Z0   c 
Fig. 6.1 (left) shows instantaneous recordings The equations demonstrate two separate de-
of the spatial distributions of the electric and pendencies, one factor only time-dependent the
magnetic field for two time points in brief suc- other only location-dependent. Fig. 6.1 (right)
cessive intervals. The wavelength λ is defined shows instantaneous recordings of the spatial
by the spatial periods and amounts to characteristic of the field distribution for two
c time points in brief successive intervals. A so-
λ= . (6.1) called standing wave arises from the
f superpositioning (interference) of the two
If the wave travelling in the +z-direction con- propagating waves. They possess locations, in
sidered above is superimposed by a wave of the which the electric field is zero for every point
same amplitude travelling in the opposite -z-di- in time (“nodes” of the electric field) and analo-
rection, you obtain gous locations with nodes of the magnetic field.
The distance between two adjacent nodes of
the electric field is λ/2. No active power is
   z 
Ex(t , z ) = Êx ⋅ cos 2π f  t −   transported in a standing wave. A standing
   c  wave is only capable of a continuous exchange
of stored electric and magnetic field energy (re-
  z  active power).
− cos2π f  t +    =
  c   If a plane uniform wave incidents a metal plate
(infinite conductivity in the ideal case), then a
 z
2 Êx ⋅ sin(2 π f t ) ⋅ sin  2 π  (6.2) wave is reflected with the same amplitude for
 λ the electric field but with opposite signs (reflec-
Êx    z  tion coefficient = –1). That is why we obtain the
Hy(t , z ) = ⋅ cos 2π f  t −   standing wave described above.
Z0    c 

  z  
+⋅ cos 2π f  t −   
  c  

Êx  z
= 2 cos(2π f t ) cos 2π 
Z0  λ

35
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex6

2. Interference in the case of a metal Additionally required equipment

plate positioned obliquely to the 2 Stand bases 301 21
propagating wave 1 Support for waveguide
components
Principles 1 Stand rods 0.25 m 301 26
Now we shall deal with the case where a wave 2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC
incidents the metal plate at an oblique angle plugs, 2 m 501 022
(less than 90°) (see Fig.6.2). Here the angle be-
tween the incident direction and the surface
normal is denoted β. The field now results from
Experiment procedure
the interference of the incident wave with the
electrical field (see Fig. 6.3) 1 Interference when the metal plate is ar-
ranged perpendicularly to the propaga-
  z cos ß + y sin ß   (6.3) tion direction.
Exi = Êx ⋅ cos 2 π f t − 
  c  Determination of the wavelength
and the reflected wave with the electrical field 1.1 Supplement the experiment setup speci-
fied in Fig. 1.3 by positioning the metal
  − z cos ß + y sin ß
Exr = − Êx ⋅ cos 2 π f t −  plate at a distance of 20 cm in front of the
  c  horn antenna (see Fig. 6.2). Initially select
(6.4) an angle ß ( = angle between the wave's
propagation direction and the surface nor-
Required equipment mal of the plate) of approximately zero.
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 1.2 Switch on the Gunn power supply. Set the
1 Basic unit 737 021 Gunn power and modulation to the same
1 Large horn antenna 737 21 levels as in Experiment 3.
1 E-field probe 737 35 1.3 Slowly move the position of the probe di-
1 Physics microwave accessories 737 27 pole z0 in the range from z0 = 2 to 18 cm
1 Metal platte and at the same time observe the qualita-
1 Plate holder tive characteristic of UD as a function of z0.

UD

2
ß 2

1 z0

3 1

≈ 20 cm

Fig. 6.2 Experiment setup Fig. 6.3: Coordinate system for Equations (6.3) and (6.4)
1 Horn antenna 1 Horn antenna
2 E-field probe 2 Metal plate
3 Metal plate

36
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex6

1.4 In the range from z0 = 7 to 14 cm deter- Table 6.1

mine the z0-coordinates z0,n of 4 successive
nodes in the electric field. Enter your find- Z0,n (∆ z)n z 0 ,n +1 z 0,n
ings in Table 6.1. n = −
mm mm mm mm
1.5 Determine the distances (∆z)n of succes-
sive nodes (see Table 6.1) and calculate 1
the arithmetic mean ∆z of these distances.
2
Questions 3
1. Name several reasons why the voltage UD 4
does not exactly become zero when the
sensor is moved along the z-coordinates.
2. From the results in Table 6.1 calculate the
wavelength λ. ∆z =
[( ∆ z ) 1
+ ( ∆ z )2 + ( ∆ z )3 ] = _______
3
Experiment procedure (6.5)
Table 6.2
2. Interference when the metal plate is set
up at an oblique angle to the direction of
incidence Z0,n (∆ z)n z 0 ,n +1 z 0,n
n = −
2.1 Set angle β to almost 30° and repeat ex- mm mm mm mm
periment steps 1.3 and 1.4. 1
Determine a mean node interval ∆z as in 1.5.
Enter the results in Table 6.2. 2
3
Question 4
3. Using Equations (6.3) and (6.4) presented
in the “Principles” section for the case
where the wave impinges on the oblique ∆z = ___________
metal plate, theoretically determine the
position of the front at which the electrical
field strength becomes zero at all times.
Specify an equation for ∆z as a function of
ß and compare your findings with the
measurement results obtained in 1.1.

Bibliography
See literature list from Experiment 5

37
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex6

38
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex7

Reflection and transmission

Principles the range z > zP + d (see Fig. 7.1) is a single uni-

If a plane uniform wave (amplitude Êin) verti- form plane wave propagating in the +z - direc-
cally incidents any given layered structure (see tion, whose amplitude Êtr is related to the
Fig. 7.1), generally only “part” of the wave is amplitude Êin of the incident wave via the trans-
reflected. The amplitude Êr and phase ϕr of the mission factor | t |:
reflected wave is related to the corresponding
Ê tr
parameters of the incident wave by the reflec- t = (7.5)
tion coefficient. The magnitude of the reflection Ê in
coefficient |r| gives the ratio of the reflected and The phase ϕt of the transmission coefficient
incident wave amplitudes. This results in specifies the phase shift between the transmit-
ted field at the location z = zP + d with respect to
Êr the incidenting field at the location z = zP. This
r = (7.1)
Ê in yields
and the ratio of the power of the reflected wave z > zp + d
Pr to the power of the incidenting wave Pin is

 z  d
given by Ê x(t , z ) = t Êin cos 2π
f  t −  +  ϕ t + 2π f c  
 c 
 
Pr 2 (7.6)
= r (7.2)
Pin As the following holds true for the transmitted
power
The phase ϕr of the reflection coefficient indi-
Pt r
cates the phase shift of the reflected wave com- = t 2
(7.7)
pared to the incident wave. The reference plane Pin
for this phase shift is the coincident coordinate
zP at the surface of the layered structure (see the relative absorbed power is calculated at
Fig. 7.1). The complex reflection coefficient
Pabs Pin − Pt r − Pr
r = | r | · exp (j ϕr) (7.3) = = 1− t 2 − r 2
Pin Pin
combines amplitude and phase information. (7.8)
For the extraordinary case of a metal plate con-
sidered in the previous experiment (virtually
ideal conductivity) it is true that | r | = 1 and
ϕr = π, i.e. r = –1.

  z
Ex ( t , z ) = Êin cos 2π f  t −   + r Êin ⋅
  c 

  z  zp  
cos 2π f  t +  +  ϕ r − 4π f c  
  c  
(7.4)
In general, a portion of the microwave power
Pin – Pr penetrating the layer structure is par-
Fig. 7.1: Incidence of a plane uniform wave at a plane
tially absorbed by it, i.e. converted into thermal layer.
power (Pabs), and partially passes through it Characteristic of the amplitude Êx of the electrical
(transmitted power Ptr). The transmitted field in field in front of and behind the layer

39
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex7

The reflection factor r can be determined from Required equipment

the spatial dependency of the field in front of 1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
the layered structured. If you form the spatial 1 Basic unit 737 021
dependency of the amplitude of the total field 1 Large horn antenna 737 21
in front of the layered structure according to 1 E-field probe 737 35
Ex(t, z) = Êx(z) · cos[2 π f t + ϕ(z)] 1 Physics microwave accessories 737 27
1 Dielectric plate
then you obtain 1 Plate holder

 z − zP  Additionally required equipment

2
Ê x ( z ) = Ê in 1 + r + 2 r cos  4 π
 λ 
The spatial dependency is characterized by
maxima and minima, which follow in intervals
of λ/4 one after the other (see Fig. 7.1).
The locations of the minima are given by
[cos() = –1]
ϕ r  λ
( z p − z ) min =  + ( 2 n − 1)  ⋅
 4
 π
The standing-wave-ratio (SWR) s gives the ra-
tio of the maximum field strength to the mini-
mum field strength:
Ê max 1+ r
s= = with Fig. 7.2 in the area between the horn
Ê min 1− r
If you measure this standing wave ratio, you
can use this to calculate the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient | r |. Only the distance zP
– z is inserted into the above equation for the
amplitude's spatial characteristic. You can also
use this to determine the standing wave ratio by
— instead of moving the field probe with the
layered structure at a fixed position zP —
changing the position zP of the layered structure
with the field probe kept at a fixed position.
The transmission coefficient | t | can be deter-
mined by means of comparative measurement
of the amplitude of the transmitted field with
that of the incident field (arrangement without
layered structure). For all of the points behind
the layered structure it is true that
Êx(z) = Êin ·| t |
regardless of the position zP of the layered
structure.
+ϕ r  2 Stand bases 301 21
1 Support for waveguide
(7.9) components 737 15
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC
plugs, 2 m 501 022
Experiment procedure
Transmission and reflection for a low-loss di-
electric plate
1.1 Set up the equipment in accordance with
Fig. 1.3. Switch on the Gunn power supply
(7.10) unit. Set the supply voltage and modulation
of the Gunn diode as in Experiment 3.
1.2 Arrange the E-field probe at a distance of
approx. 28 cm as shown in Fig. 7.2 (at first
without the dielectric plate).
1.3 Position the dielectric plate in accordance
(7.11)
antenna and the E-field probe.
Note:
In order to simplify the precise positioning of
the dielectric plate you can tape a DIN A4
sheet of milimeter paper on the area of the
lab bench where you then position the plate.
1.4 Vary the longitudinal position zP of the
plate (see Fig. 7.2) in the area from 16 to
20 cm. Determine the locations zP,n, at
which UD takes on extreme values (local
maxima and minima). Enter zP,n and the
corresponding values for UD (zP,n) in Table
7.1 .
1.5 Position the E-field probe at a new posi-
tion approx. 8 cm in front of the horn anten-
na to determine the reflection coefficient
(see Fig. 7.2).
Alter the longitudinal position zP of the plate
in the area from 16 to 20 cm. Determine the
(7.12) locations zP,n, at which UD assumes extreme
values (local maxima and minima). Enter the
values for zP,n and the corresponding values
of UD (zP,n) in Table 7.2.

40
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex7

Table 7.1 UD UD
Results of the transmission measurements for 5
unlayered dielectrical plate 4
≈ 28 cm
z p ,n
≈ 8 cm
cm

(
U D z p ,n ) 1
3
dB
2
zP = 16 - 20 cm
Table 7.2
Results for reflection measurements for layered
dielectric plate Fig. 7.2 Experiment setup
1 Horn antenna
2 Dielectric plate
z p ,n 3 Supports for dielectric plate
4 E-field probe in position for
cm transmission measurements
5 E-field probe in position for
(
U D z p ,n ) reflection measurements

dB

41
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex7

42
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex8

Absorption of microwaves

Principles the top edge of the dielectric plate using

The principles here are identical to the ones strips of adhesive tape. Position the dielec-
elaborated on in Experiment 7 and can be re- tric plate in the area between the horn an-
ferred to there. tenna and the E-field probe in accordance
with Fig. 7.2.
Required equipment 2.2 Vary the longitudinal position zP of the
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 plate (see Fig. 7.2) in the 16 to 20 cm
1 Basic unit 737 021 range. Determine the locations zP,n, at
1 Large horn antenna 737 21 which UD assumes extreme values (local
1 E-field probe 737 35 maxima and minima). Enter the zP,n values
1 Physics microwave accessories 737 27 and the corresponding UD (zP,n) values in
1 Dielectric plate Table 8.1 (part a).
1 Foam rubber mat Subsequently place the E-field probe in a
1 Plate holder new position approx. 8 cm in front of the
horn antenna aperture (see Fig. 7.2) to de-
Additionally required equipment
termine the reflection coefficient. In both
2 Stand bases 301 21
cases the foam rubber mat should be on
1 Support for waveguide
the side of the plate which the horn an-
components 737 15
tenna is pointed at. Enter the results of the
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
transmission measurement in part a) of
2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC
Table 8.1 and the reflection measurement
plugs, 2 m 501 022
in part a) of Table 8.2.
2.3 Remove the foam rubber mat covering
Experiment procedure from the dielectric plate for the experiment
setup. Then spray water onto the form rub-
1. Transmission and reflexion with a low-
ber mats until they are relatively wet.
loss dielectric plate
Here be very careful that none of the
1.1 Equipment set up as specified in Fig. 1.3.
other experiment equipment gets wet.
Switch on the Gunn power supply unit.
Then reintegrate the wet foam rubber mats
Set the supply and modulation of the Gunn
into the experiment setup by placing them
diode as in Experiment 3.
on the side of the plate which the horn an-
1.2 Arrange the E-field probe at a distance of
tenna is facing.
approx. 28 cm as indicated in Fig. 7.1 (first
2.4 Repeat the measurements carried out in
without the dielectric plate).
point 2.2 using the damp foam mats on the
Note: In order to simplify the precise po-
dielectric plate. Enter the results of the
sitioning of the dielectric plate you can
transmission measurement in part b) of
tape a DIN A4 sheet of milimeter paper on
Table 8.1 and the reflection measurement
the area of the lab bench where you then
in part b) of Table 8.2.
position the plate.
2.5 Again place the E-field probe in position
2. Determine transmission and reflection in for the transmission measurement (see
the case of a strongly absorbing layered Fig. 7.2). Dry out the foam rubber mat us-
structure (damp foam rubber mats) ing a hair dryer. During the drying process
2.1 Cover the dielectric plate with foam rub- intermittently remove the hair dryer and
ber matting. Attach the foam rubber mat at have a look at the changes occuring to UD.

43
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex8

Table 8.1 b) Layer with damp foam mat

a) Layer with dried foam mat
z p ,n
cm
z p ,n
cm (
U D z p ,n )
(
U D z p ,n ) dB

dB
U D ,max
s= = ________
2 Ptr U D ,min
t = =
________
Pin 2 Pr
r = = ________
Pin
b) Layer with damp foam mat

z p ,n
Questions
1. In the section titled “Principles” the trans-
cm mission of plane waves through a plate
(
U D z p ,n ) yielded a value for the transmitted field
independent of the plate position zP. Give
dB some reasons why this does not exactly
apply for this experiment.
Ptr 2. Determine the ratio of the transmitted pow-
2
t = = er Ptr to the power of the incident wave Pin
________
Pin for the following cases – (a) only the die-
lectric plate is used (Experiment 7), (b) the
dielectric plate with dry foam rubber mat,
Table 8.2
and (c) the dielectric plate with wet foam
a) Layer with dried foam mat rubber mat – by forming the arithmetic
mean of the values from UD (zP,n) / UD,0 (see
Table 7.1 and Table 8.1)
z p ,n
cm
t 2
=
Ptr
=
1
∑
Ν (
U D z p ,n ) (8.7)
(
U D z p ,n ) Pin N 1 UD,0

dB Discuss your findings.

3. Determine the respective standing wave
ratios (SWR) obtained in the reflection
U D ,max measurements (see Table 7.2 and Table
s= = ________
U D ,min 8.2)

2 Pr Ê max U D ,max
r = = ________ s= = (8.11)
Pin Ê min U D ,min

44
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex8

and from this determine the ratio of the re- 4. Estimate the relative absorbed power Pabs
flected power Pr to the power of the inci- in cases a) and b) with the Equation
dent wave Pin
Pabs
2 =1− t 2
− r 2 (8.8)
Pr  s − 1 Pin
r 2
= =  (8.2)
Pin  s + 1  5. Think about an application for the obser-
Discuss the results. vations you've made in this experiment.

45
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex8

46
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex9

Diffraction of microwaves

Principles wavefront z = zP , y > 0 can be regarded as the

In this experiment we will be investigating the origin of a new, cylindrical “elementary wave”.
diffraction of electromagnetic waves at a metal The field in the range z > zP is obtained through
edge. Fig. 9.1 (left) shows the equipment con- interference of the fields of all elementary
figuration. A uniform plane wave with phase waves (see Fig. 9.1, right). Unlike the descrip-
fronts z = const. propagates in +z direction and tion of a wave in geometric optics, this method
impinges on a metal screen at the z = zP plane does not yield a field-free zone (“shadow”) be-
(edge at y = 0 and z = zP). Here we are inter- hind the screen. However, if you observe
ested in the electromagnetic field resulting be- points at a fixed distance r from the screen, you
hind the screen, i.e. in the area z > zP. may note that the field decreases as the angle ϑ
If we describe this phenomenon with the aid of increases (see Fig. 9.1) as is true for interfer-
so-called geometric optics, we obtain an ence in elementary waves where destructive in-
“undistorted” uniform plane wave in the upper terference becomes greater as ϑ increases.
region (y > 0), out of the shadow of the screen,
Required equipment
whereas in the area y < 0 you have a “com-
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
pletely shadowed” wave, e.g. a field-free zone
1 Basic unit 737 021
(see Fig. 9.1, center). However, this finding
1 Large horn antenna 737 21
based on geometric optics only provides us
1 E-field probe 737 35
with an inadequate view of the actual field dis-
1 Physics micorwave accessories 737 27
tribution, as it ignores the phenomenon of dif-
1 Metal plate
fraction.
1 Plate holder
Diffraction can be understood in terms of
Huygen’s principle (the assumption that every Additionally required equipment
element of a wavefront acts as a source of so- 2 Stand bases 301 21
called secondary waves). In the case under 1 Support for waveguide
consideration here, every point on the components 737 15
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC
plugs, 2 m 501 022
y

zP
Experiment procedure
0 ϑ z
rr 1. Experiment setup and reference measure-
ment procedure
1.1 The equipment is setup as specified in Fig.
1.3. Position the E-field probe (in contrast
to Fig. 1.3) at a distance of approx. 24 cm
Fig. 9.1: Diffraction at a screen as shown in Fig. 9.2 (at first without the
left: Configuration considered, metal plate).
center: Description using geometric optics 1.2 Switch on the Gunn power supply unit, set
(diffraction disregarded)
right: Description using elementary waves the supply voltage and modulation of the
(Huygens' principle) Gunn diode as in Experiment 3.

47
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex9

Set the display of the SWR meter to indicate UD

≈ 24 cm
0 dB. 3
2. Measurement of the diffraction field as a
function of the metal plate's transverse h
position
2.1 In accordance with Fig. 9.2 position the
plate at a distance zP = 10 cm in front of zP ≈ 10 cm
the horn aperture in an area between the 1
horn antenna and the E-field probe. 2
Note:
Again positioning can be simplified using
a DIN A4 sheet of millimeter paper. Fig. 9.2 Experiment setup
2.2 Vary the transverse position h (see Fig. 9.2) 1 Horn antenna
in the range from –7 to +14 cm in 1 cm 2 Metal platte
steps. At the same time record UD (h) and 3 E-field probe
enter the measured values into Table 9.1.
Normalize the values of UD (h) to UD,0 Table 9.1
(= measured value without the plate, see Without plate:
1.2). UD, 0 = 0 dB zP = 10 cm
3. Measurement of the diffraction field as a
function of the longitudinal position of the h U D ( h) h U D ( h)
metal plate cm dB cm dB
3.1 Select transverse position of h = hP = 3 cm.
3.2 Vary zP (distance of the plate to the horn –7 4
aperture, see Fig. 9.2) in the range from –6 5
zP = 10 to 22 cm in 2 cm steps. At the same –5 6
time keep the setting hP = h = 3 cm.
Record UD (zP) and enter the values into –4 7
Table 9.2. Normalize the values of UD (zP) –3 8
to UD,0 (= 0 dB). –2 9
–1 10
Questions 0 11
1. Using the values in Table 9.1 plot UD/UD,0 1 12
versus h and versus zP according to Table
9.2 in a graph. 2 13
3 14
2. Discuss the findings obtained in question
1 qualitatively. Table 9.2
Without plate UD, 0 = 0 dB h = 3 cm

zp UD ( zp)
cm dB
10
12
14
16
18
20
22

48
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex9

h
cm

UD
dB

Diagramm 9.1 Graphic representation of the measurement values from Table 9.1

zp
cm

UD
dB

Diagramm 9.2 On the graphic representation of the measurement values from Table 9.2

49
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex9

50
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex10

Flexible waveguides

Principles
Spatially “focussed” electromagnetic fields UD
(e.g. the “beam” of a directional antenna) ex-
pand in the transverse direction in free space.
This results in an undesired drop (attenuation) 2
in the electric and magnetic field strength along
≈ 30 cm
the axis of propagation. In order to avoid this
disadvantage, and also to guide the wave along
curved routes to “any” given point, transmis-
sion lines are used – to the extent that this is
permitted by the particular application.
In general transmission lines are structures de- 1 3
signed to guide electromagnetic waves. While
only multi-conductor lines can be used for Fig. 10.1 Experiment setup
transverse electromagnetic waves (TEM 1 Horn antenna
waves) in the low-frequency range, a variety of 2 E-field probe
3 Flexible waveguide
other line types are used in microwave technol-
ogy in addition to TEM lines (e.g. coaxial
lines). These include waveguides, dielectric
guides, etc. These types of lines cannot be
practically implemented at low frequencies, as
they require transverse dimensions which are
on the order of magnitude of the wavelength. Experiment procedure
They are discussed in detail in the MTS 7.4.3
1. Set the experiment up as specified in
unit. The purpose of this experiment is to dem- Fig. 1.3. Switch the basic unit on. Set the
onstrate how a waveguide functions. Special supply voltage and modulation of the
experiments in the MTS 7.4.4 training unit are Gunn diode as in Experiment 3.
intended to provide insight into wave propaga- 2. As shown in Fig. 10.1 place the E-field
tion in a waveguide. probe at a location next to the horn an-
Required equipment tenna, at which the receiving signal UD
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01 tends toward approximately zero. Position
1 Basic unit 737 021 the flexible waveguide between the horn
1 Large horn antenna 737 21 antenna and the E-field probe as specified
1 E-field probe 737 35 in Fig. 10.1.
1 Microwave physics accessories 737 27 Read off UD in dB.
1 Flexible waveguide
Additionally required equipment Questions
2 Stand bases 301 21 1. Explain the results of your experiment.
1 Support for waveguide
components 737 15 2. Name applications in microwave technol-
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26 ogy where the guidance of an electromag-
2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC netic wave using a transmission line
plugs, 2 m 501 022 makes no sense.

51
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex10

52
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex11

Demonstration of the Doppler effect

Principles
The top part of Fig. 11.1 illustrates a transmis- In the lower part of Fig. 11.1 we can see an ex-
sion link consisting of two antennas at a given ample of how the Doppler effect comes about
distance r. If the signal at the point of transmis- in radar technology.
sion (e.g. at the location of the antenna on the Here the transmission signal runs from the an-
left) takes the form tenna to the radar target (= reflecting or back
scattering object) and back again, where as an
ut r(t) = ût r · cos (2 π f0 t +ϕt r) (11.1) echo signal it now represents the receiving sig-
(f0 : operating frequency), the signal at the re- nal.
ceiving location is shifted in time by transit time If you apply the considerations above to this
r/c and its amplitude is attenuated: case, you have to replace r with 2 r in order to
obtain the following for the Doppler shift
  r  vr 2v
u rec ( t ) = û rec ⋅ cos  2 π f 0  t −  + ϕ tr  fd = 2 ⋅ ⋅ f0 = r (11.5)
 c c λ0
 
(11.2) From this you obtain the equation with numeri-
If the transmission and receiving antennas are cal values
moving with respect to each other with the ra- vr
dial velocity vr (see Fig. 11.1), the distance r in fd m /s
the above equation becomes a linear function = 0.2 ⋅ (11.6)
λ0
of time: kHz
cm
r = r0 – vr ·t (11.3)
Thus the Doppler shift typically lies in the kHz
If you insert this expression into the equation range (and below), while the operating fre-
above, you obtain quency is in the GHz range.

  v  v
u rec ( t ) = û rec ⋅ cos  2 π  f 0 + r f 0  t
  c  1 1

2π f0  vr
+ ϕ tr − r0  r
c 

[ ( ~
)
= û rec ⋅ cos 2 π f 0 + f d t + ϕ rec ] 1
v
2
(11.4)
vr
The frequency at the receiving site is thus r
shifted with respect to the transmission fre-
quency signal by the value
Fig. 11.1: Above: Doppler effect for transmission links
~ v where there is relative motion between
fd = r ⋅ f0 . the transmission and receiving antennas
c below: Doppler effect in radar.
Relative motion between the radar target
This “Doppler shift” can be positive (increasing (e.g. aircraft) and antenna
with distance) or negative (decreasing with dis- 1 Antenna
tance). 2 Radar target

53
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex11

u tr(t) tion of fd all of these frequencies lie in the high

u 1(t) u 2(t) ULF(t) frequency range so that the low-frequency
u2= Ku12 fd
component
u rec(t)
1 2 3 4 K
U LF ( t ) =
2
[
⋅ û tr2 ( t ) + û rec
2 (t ) + 2 ⋅ û û
tr rec ⋅

Fig. 11.2: Principle used to evaluate the Doppler shift
utr(t) : Voltage proportional to the transmission
signal
urec(t): Receiving signal
1 Linear superpositioning of the transmission
and receiving signal
2 Non-linear component (e.g. with quadratic
response)
3 Lowpass filter (cutoff frequency ≈ highest
Doppler shift)
4 Frequency counter
5 Spectrum analyzer
Technically the measurement problem in-
volved in determining the Doppler shift lies in
discovering small frequency deviations relative
to the operating frequency. To do this the basic
circuit (= mixer + filter) shown in Fig. 11.2 is
very well suited.
At first the receiving signal shifted in terms of
frequency by fd
urec(t) = ûrec · cos[2π (f0 + fd)t + ϕrec]
is linearly superpositioned on a signal
utr(t) = ûtr · cos(2π f0 t + ϕrec)
[
cos 2 π f d t + (ϕ rec − ϕ tr ) ]]
(11.9)
5 can easily be separated from the high-fre-
quency component using a lowpass filter.
The AC voltage component of ULF(t) has the
frequency corresponding to the Doppler shift fd.
This frequency is easy to measure and from this
the radial velocity of the reflected object can be
determined. If only one object is located in the
space illuminated by the radar antenna, then
uLF(t) also only contains one AC voltage com-
ponent, and its frequency can be determined
e.g. with a frequency counter (number of the
zero crossovers in a known time interval). This
measurement method fails as soon as more than
one object with varying radial velocities are si-
multaneously detected. Included in these mul-
tiple echos are AC voltage components with
various frequencies. These multiple echos re-
sult in corresponding AC voltage components
with different frequencies. In such a case, the
frequency counter will produce a falsified re-
sult and a spectrum analyzer must be used in-
stead. This kind of Doppler radar is said to
(11.7)
have “multi-target capability”. In preparation
for the experiment, Fig. 11.3 again shows how
the AC voltage signal with frequency fd is
(12.1) formed.

which is proportional to the transmission sig- ULF(r) ULF(r)

nal, and is thus not frequency-shifted.
The result of the superpositioning
u1(t) = urec(t) + utr(t) is supplied to a non-linear
component, e.g. a diode with quadratic re-
sponse: ULF(r)
r
λ0
r(t) r0 ULF(t)
u 2 ( t ) = K ⋅ u12 ( t ) = K ⋅ [ u rec
2 (t ) + 2 ⋅u 2
rec ( t ) ⋅ ∆r
λ0 1
∆t = =T
u tr ( t ) + u tr2 (t ) ] 2vr f d
∆r
(11.8) vr =
∆t
Here, besides the DC component, there are t t
additional signal components at the frequen- Fig. 11.3: Graphic depiction for deriving the Doppler
cies fd, 2 f0, 2 f0 + 2fd, 2 f0 + fd. With the excep- shift fd

54
 MTS 7.4.2
From the diagram on the top left side you can
see how the low-frequency signal (superposi-
tioning and mixing) changes as a function of
the distance r. This result is independent of the
radial velocity vr. Due to interference between
the outgoing and the incoming waves (see also
experiments Ex6 and Ex7), every second zero
point of the function uLF = uLF (r) is separated
by an interval of one half the free-space wave-
length (λ0 / 2). As shown in Fig. 11.3 (bottom
left), a linear relationship between r and t re-
sults for a uniform motion with vr.
The Doppler effect is used in a variety of ways
in radar technology. Fig. 11.4 demonstrates
velocity control using a Doppler radar system.
In radar systems used to monitor air space the
Doppler effect can easily be exploited to distin-
guish between moving and stationary radar tar-
gets (coherent moving target indicator (MTI))
or to measure radial velocities (Pulse Doppler
Radar). Although the Doppler effect is prima-
rily used to determine speeds, it can also be
used to determine positions. If the radial veloc-
ity is continually measured and integrated with
respect to time, the radial change of location
(dimension: length) of the object is obtained.
When this radial component is measured con-
tinually in three non-parallel directions, it is
even possible to determine changes of position
in three dimensions. This principle is utilized in
certain navigation systems.
And finally we should also remark on the hard-
ware realization of the mixing process (non-lin-
ear component in Fig. 11.2). In conventional
Doppler radar systems a separate mixer is used.
However, in systems that are not intended to
fulfil particularly high requirements, and which
should be particularly inexpensive (e.g. motion
sensors), the same semiconductor element used
to generate the oscillation (in this case the Gunn
element) can also be employed as the non-
linear mixing component.
In the following experiments both possibilities
are demonstrated, whereby the “separate mix-
er” is realized using the E-field probe.
Required equipment
1 Gunn oscillator 737 01
1 Basic unit 737 021
1 Large horn antenna 737 21
1 E-field probe 737 35
Ex11
Fig. 11.4: Speed traffic control using Doppler radar
Additionally required equipment
1 Oscilloscope 575 29
YT recorder (optional) 501 022
2 Stand bases 301 21
1 Support for waveguide
components 737 15
1 Stand rod 0.25 m 301 26
2 Coaxial cables with BNC/BNC
plugs, 2 m 501 022
An object with moving parts
(e.g. a ventilator,
or model train set, etc.)
Experiment procedure
1 Recording of the LF voltage ULF at the
“mixer output” as a function of the posi-
tion of the back scattering object.
1.1 Set up the experiment as specified in Fig.
11.5.
Connect the Gunn oscillator to the basic
unit. Set the supply voltage to UG = 8 V.
There is no amplitude modulation (i.e. do
not set the modulation selection switch to
Gunn-Int). The E-field probe is used here
as a “separate mixer” and positioned for
this purpose approx. 3 cm in front of the
horn antenna aperture (approx. 3 cm next
to the middle axis) and connected to the
oscilloscope (DC display mode).
This position in space is not critical for the
E-field probe.
Move the metal plate functioning as the
“radar target” (= back scattering object) in
the range from approx. z = 20 cm up to
23 cm in steps of 2 mm. Read the voltage
55
 MTS 7.4.2 Ex11

the load exerted by the mechanical oscil-

lations of the metal plate.
3 Considering the Doppler signal in the
case of a complicated, irregular motion
3.1 Set up the experiment as specified in Fig.
11.5 but instead of the metal plate this time
use an object with moveable parts (e.g.
tabletop fan, toy train set etc.).
Observe ULF(t) on the oscilloscope.

Questions
1. Draw the relationships you have estab-
lished between ULF and r.
Compare your findings with the top left
part of Fig. 11.3.
Fig. 11.5: Experiment diagram for part 1.1
1 Basic unit
From the information contained in Fig. 11.3
2 Oscilloscope mathematically determine the value of the
3 E-field probe Doppler shift (in Hz) which would take
place if the plate were moved at vr = 1 m/s.
2. Determine the speed of the X-drive for
from the oscilloscope and enter the values experiment point 2.
into Table 11.1. 3. How can you tell from the graph whether
Note: the object is approaching or moving
Since the receiving signal urec,1 depends on away?
the plate's alignment with respect to the
axis, make sure before taking the voltage Table 11.1
reading that the signal is at its maximum
for the given distance (rotate the plate by z U LF
hand).
mm mV
2 Recording the time dependency of the LF
voltage uLF for regular motion of the radar 200
target (object). For this you can use a YT 202
recorder (not contained in the training 204
system).
2.1 Attach the metal plate (e.g. using strips of 206
tape) to the X-drive of the YT recorder. 208
2.2 Connect the DOPPLER output (or the E- 210
field probe) to the Y-channel of the re-
corder. 212
2.3 Calibrate the t-axis by comparing the set- 214
ting to an external measuring instrument, 216
e.g. oscilloscope.
218
2.4 Record ULF(t) for different speeds of the
YT recorder. 220
Note: 222
When using the DOPPLER output it is to
224
your advantage to attach the Gunn oscilla-
tor to the X-drive and to have the metal 226
plate in a stationary position (relative mo- 228
tion). This avoids subjecting the X-drive to
230

56
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Solutions

Sample solution for Experiment 1

1.3 Waveguide width: a’ = 23 mm
s’ = 21.8 mm
2.7 See Table 12.1.1 and following dia-
grams
3.1-4.2 See Table 12.1.1

Table 12.1.1

with diaphragm without diaphragm with diaphragm

with rear panel with rear panel without rear panel
UG UD IG UD IG UD IG
V mV mA mV mA mV mA
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.5 0.0 50.1 0.0 47.6 0.0 45.8
1.0 0.0 92.4 0.0 93.0 0.0 92.6
1.5 0.0 130.5 0.0 132.0 0.0 129.8
2.0 0.0 160.1 0.0 160.8 0.0 160.8
2.5 0.0 180.5 0.0 181.4 0.0 180.5
3.0 0.0 191.0 0.0 191.3 0.0 191.6
3.5 0.0 193.7 0.0 193.4 0.0 192.9
4.0 38.5 181.7 0.0 189.0 0.0 185.6
4.5 71.5 179.0 9.5 179.4 0.0 180.5
5.0 104.0 173.9 5.9 174.6 0.0 177.6
5.5 128.5 170.4 0.0 174.2 0.0 175.1
6.0 138.5 168.2 0.0 174.3 0.0 174.2
6.5 201.5 163.5 0.0 170.4 0.0 170.3
7.0 225.0 159.9 0.0 167.1 15.2 167.3
7.5 244.0 156.9 0.0 164.4 93.8 165.3
8.0 262.0 153.6 0.0 162.0 89.4 163.2
8.5 273.5 151.2 0.0 158.9 93.6 161.1
9.0 284.0 149.0 0.0 156.8 240.0 149.0
9.5 290.0 147.0 0.0 155.0 244.5 146.3
10.0 293.0 144.8 0.0 152.6 247.1 143.7

57
 MTS 7.4.2
Diagram 12.1.1
Gunn current and receiving voltage of the E-field probe as a
function of the Gunn voltage for the case with diaphragm
and with rear panel.
An electronic component which produces pow-
er can be perceived as a negative resistance in
the equivalent circuit diagram. This can also be
observed in the characteristic. As of the voltage
at which power begins to be emitted, the char-
acteristic of the Gunn current shows a negative
differential resistance (negative slope).
Diagram 12.1.2
Gunn current and receiving voltage of the E-field probe
as a function of the Gunn voltage for the case without
diaphragm and with rear panel.
58
Solutions
Diagram 12.1.3
Gunn current and receiving voltage of the E-field probe as a
function of the Gunn voltage for the case with diagphram
but without rear panel
Comments:
The characteristics are subject to severe com-
ponent tolerances (primarily the Gunn diode).
Consequently, the characteristics shown here
are for the purpose of orientation only.
Abrupt changes can arise in the receiving volt-
age UD. These abrupt changes cause the spec-
trum emitted by the oscillator to vary. For low
voltages a broad spectrum of frequencies is
emitted, higher voltages normally only bring
about two frequencies [a dominant mode at
approx. 9.4 GHz (TE101) and a mode at approx.
18.8 GHz (TE202) whose amplitude is damp-
ened by normally 20 dB]. (For more on this
also refer to “Design of the Microwave Source”
from the preface).
Frequently differences are recognizable as to
whether the characteristic is recorded in the
sweep (rising Gunn voltage) or flyback (falling
UG) direction. The above-mentioned jumps
only occur at lower Gunn voltages when the
characteristic is flying back (“Hysteresis ef-
fect”). This can be attributed to the fact that a
greater amount of energy (higher UG) is re-
quired to generate mode distribution than to
sustain it.
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Answers Tabelle 12.2.1

f0 1 1 Transverse
1. = 15 + = 9 . 48 GHz schift
GHz ( a' /cm) 2 ( s' /cm) 2
x0 UD U max − U min
2. UTH = 4 V
cm mV mV
⇒ ETH = 4 · 10–3kV/10–3 cm = 4 kV/cm
0 95 33
10 7 cm / s 1 4 65 21
3. f = −3
= 1010 = 10 GHz
10 cm s
8 15 4
4. In the present experiment configuration 12 4 1
(B) from Fig. 1.2 is used for the resonator 16 Noise Noise
operation of the Gunn element. The reso-
nance field is located here mainly between 20 Noise Noise
the stud for the Gunn element (see Fig.
1.2) and the diaphragm. Thus, if only the
rear housing wall is removed, the at-
tributes do not vary all that much from the
case with rear panel and diaphragm. The static characteristic UD(UG) from Experi-
situation is different when the diaphragm ment 1, Diagram 1.1 (i.e. Table 12.1.1).
is removed because then there is no longer If the characteristic has discontinuities, a
a cavity resonator coupled to the Gunn el- small change in UG brings about a huge
ement. change in emitted microwave power. This
In the configuration without diaphragm can be observed in points 2.3 and 2.4 (for
(experiment part 3) only relatively small this also see “Design of the Microwave
jumps exist in the falling segment of the Source” from the preface).
IG (UG) curve and the amount of micro- Normally the maximum receiving signal
wave power being radiated is also relative- lies at a supply voltage of approx. 4 V, i.e.
ly low. In the case with diaphragm the voltage at which the Gunn diode starts
(experiment parts 2 and 4) a cavity resona- to emit microwave power and the static
tor exists. As such the amount of micro- characteristic shows the greatest disconti-
wave power radiated is considerably nuity.
higher than in experiment part 3. The start Note:
of oscillation becomes evident with a At a voltage of 4 V the Gunn diode emits a
powerful and abrupt drop (step change) in whole series of frequencies (see preface).
the IG (UG) characteristic at UG ≈ 4 V. In the following experiments spectral pu-
rity is not absolutely necessary to work
with this operating point setting. However,
Sample solution for Experiment 2 if the spectral purity is necessary, the op-
1.2 see Table 12.2.1 erating point must be set to approx. 8 V for
internal Gunn modulation. At this setting
1.3 x 0,max ≈ 16 cm the static characteristic is very flat and con-
sequently the modulated signal (AC com-
2.5 see Table 12.2.1 ponent) only small. In this case,
x 0,max ≈ 16 cm modulation using a PIN modulator is con-
siderably more effective.
Answers
1. When modulating the Gunn diode di- E ( x 0 = 8 cm ) 15
2. ≈ ≈ 0 . 397
rectly, modulation is carried out along the E( x0 = 0) 95

59
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Sample solution for Experiment 3

2.
Table 12.3.1

Experiment 2 Experiment 2
Display of the
(Table 2.1) (Table 2.1)
selective U
x0 U (x ) ( x ) − U min ( x 0 ) 
cm measurement 10 ⋅ log D 0 10 ⋅ log  max 0 
amplifier in dB  U 
max (0) − U min (0) 
UD (0)

0 0 0 0
4 –1.8 –1.65 –1.96
8 –9 –8 –9.16
12 –15 –13.8 –15.2
16 –24 — —
20 –37.5 — —

Answers 2.3 see Table 12.4.1

1. See column 3 from Table 12.3.1
2. See column 4 from Table 12.3.1 2.4 siehe Table 12.4.2
3. A comparison of columns 2 and 4 shows
Table 12.4.1
very good agreement. This demonstrates
that in the present level range the display a Φ UD UD (Φ)
of the measurement amplifier can be well sin4(Φ)
described by the expression
° dB UD ( 0°)
90 0 1 1
 U  75 –0.5 0.87 0.89
max − U min
a = 10 ⋅ log  .
 (U max − U min ) ref  60 –3.0 0.56 0.5
45 –7.5 0.25 0.18
30 –13.0 0.06 0.05
Sample solution for Experiment 4 15 –24.0 0.004 0.004
1.4 y-component: 0 –31.0 0 0.0008
a1 = 0 dB for a gain of V1 = 20 dB

x-component: Table 12.4.2

a2 = – 3 dB for a gain of V2= 30 dB
Φ UD UD (Φ)
∆a = a2 – a1 – (V2 – V1) sin4(Φ)
° dB U D ( 45 ° )

−13 0 –20.0 0 0.03

Êx
∆ a = −13 dB ⇒ = 10 20 ≈ 0 . 22 15 –9.0 0.25 0.4
Êy 30 –6.0 0.75 0.8
45 –5.0 1 1
2.1 Experiment setup as described 60 –7.0 0.75 0.63
75 –10.0 0.25 0.32
2.2 Θ = 0° ⇒ UP = – 31 dB
Θ = 90° ⇒ US = 0.0 dB 90 –35.0 0 0.001

60
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Answers Sample solution to Experiment 5

1. The field is linearly polarized in the direc- 1.2 see Table 12.5.1 and Diagram 12.5.1
tion of the y-axis. 2.1 see Table 12.5.2 and Diagram 12.5.2
2. The component of the electrical field run-
ning parallel to the wire grating is almost Table 12.5.1
totally reflected, while the component run-
ning perpendicular to the wires is transmit- z0 UD ( z0 ) z0 UD ( z0 )
ted virtually unchanged by the parallel cm cm
dB dB
wire grating.
3. 2 0 50 –10.5
Transmission direction 8 –1.5 65 –12.5
Êy 16 –4.0 100 –17.0
φ
32 –7.0 128 –18.5
Êy · sin 2φ Table 12.5.2
Êy · sin φ ng
g rati
of
the x0 UD ( z0 ) Θ G(Θ )
φ m ent cm G ( 0 °)
gne dB degree
Ali
0 0 0 1
UD (φ) ~ Êy2· sin4φ
2 0 1.8 1
Fig. 12.4.1 Vector representation to subpoint 2.3 4 –0.3 3.6 0.94
6 0 5.4 1.01
4. 8 –0.3 7.1 0.95
Transmission direction
10 –0.8 8.9 0.85
ting 12 –0.8 10.6 0.86
gra
the
of 14 –2 12.3 0.66
nt
e me
gn
Ali 16 –3 14 0.53
Êy cos φ
φ 18 –3.5 15.7 0.48
φ
20 –4.1 17 0.43
Êy
Êy· cos φ · sin φ 22 –4.5 19 0.4
24 –5.5 20.6 0.32
26 –6.5 22 0.26
E y2
UD ~ Ê y2 ⋅ sin 2 φ ⋅ cos 2 φ= sin 2 ( 2φ )
4
 x 0  G(Θ )   x 0   UD
2

Fig. 12.4.2 Vector representation to the subpoint 2.4 Θ = arctan   , = 1 +    10

10 dB

 z0  
G(0 )   z 0  

61
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

z0 x0
cm cm

UD UD
dB dB

Diagram 12.5.1 Diagram 12.5.2

1 Measurement value curve
2 Limits of the far-field approximation
3 Function of the field strength when assuming farfield
approximation

G(Θ )
G ( 0 °)
4. Good agreement is found between the
continuous and the dashed curve up to
z0 = 40 cm.

2 ⋅ D2 (10 cm ) 2
r0 = r0 F = = 2⋅ ≈ 62 cm
λ0 3. 2 cm

Θ 5. See Diagram 12.5.3 and Table 12.5.3

degree 6. ∆Θ ≈ 31°
Diagram 12.5.3 Sample solution for Exeriment 6
1.3 Observation of the intensity maxima and
Answers minima
1. The following applies in the farfield: 1.4 See Table 12.6.1
E ( z0 ) z UD ( z0 ) z 
1.5 See Table 12.6.1
= ⇒ = const.−20 ⋅ log 0 
E( z )  cm 
z0 dB Answers
const. = –18.5 dB + 20 log(128)dB = 23.64 1. In the plate's range the incidenting wave
dB, thus the zero of the straight line lies at deviates from a uniform plane wave be-
z0 = 15 cm. cause its phase fronts are bent. Since the
2. Due to the logarithmic z-axis the straight plate does not “extend into infinite space”,
line drops with 6 dB by doubling the dis- the wave fronts are distorted through re-
tance. (see dashed curve (3) in the Dia- flection (diffraction) at the edges of the
gram). plate.
3. The farfield approximation can be dis-
played by a straight line (see under 1) 2. λ0 = 2 ·∆z = 3.46 cm

62
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Table 12.6.1 Condition: Etot = 0 for all values of t

Z0,n (∆ z)n z 0 ,n +1 z 0,n

n = − ⇒ sin [ 2 π f ξ 1 ] = 0 ⇒ 2 π f ξ 1 = n ⋅ π
mm mm mm mm
1 80 — z n c λ0
⇒2 f cos ß = n ⇒ z n = n ⋅ = n⋅
2 98 18 c 2 f cos ß 2 cos ß
3 115 17 λ0
4 132 17 ∆ z = z n +1 − z n =
2 cos ß

2.1 See Table 12.6.2 mm

11
3 ⋅ 10
Table 12.6.2 s
with λ 0 = = 32 mm and ß = 30 °
1
9 . 4 ⋅ 10 9
Z0,n (∆ z)n z 0 ,n +1 z 0,n s
n = −
mm mm mm mm it follows that
1 141 — 32 mm
∆z = = 18. 5 mm
2 121 20 2 ⋅ cos 30 °
3 103 18
4 84 19
This is in very good agreement with the meas-
urement results from 1.1.

Answers
3. Sample solution for Experiment 7
1.4 See Table 12.7.1
Exi + Exr = Êx { [
cos 2 π f (t − ξ 1 − ξ 2 )] 1.5 See Table 12.7.2

− cos[2 π f (t + ξ 1 − ξ 2 )]} Table 12.7.1

Results of the transmission measurements
z y
where ξ 1 = cos ß and ξ 2 = sin ß
c c z p ,n
in combination with 16.1 17.1 17.8 18.7 19.6
cm
α ' + ß' α ' − ß'
cos α ' − cos ß' = −2 sin ⋅ sin
2 2 (
U D z p ,n ) 0 –1.4 0 –1.5 0
there follows
dB
[ ]
E tot = E xi + E xr = 2 Ê x sin 2 π f ( t − ξ 2 ) sin [ 2 π f ξ 1 ]

Table 12.7.2
Results of the reflection measurements

z p ,n
16.5 17.2 17.9 18.7 19.4
cm

(
U D z p ,n ) 0 –5.5 –0.2 –5 –0.4
dB

63
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Sample solution for Experiment 8 b) Layering with damp foam rubber mat
2.2 See Table 12.8.1a and Table 12.8.2a
2.4 See Table 12.8.1b and Table 12.8.2b z p ,n
2.5 Transmission increases as dampness de- 16,3 17,0 17,9 18,7 19,5
cm
creases.
Udry – Uwet ≈ 4 dB
(
U D z p ,n ) 0 –5 –0,1 –5 0
Table 12.8.1
dB
a) Layering with dry foam rubber mat

z p ,n Answers
16.2 17.2 17.9 18.6 19.5 1. Deviations in the phase fronts of
cm
incidenting waves on planes and diffrac-
(
U D z p ,n ) 0 –1.9 0 –1.9 –0.3
tion at the edges of a dielectric plate due to
the fact that the plate does not extend into
dB infinite space.
2. Only dielectric plate. From Table 7.1
2 Ptr
t = = 0,84
( ) = 10
UD
Pin U D z p,n dB
10
b) Layering with damp rubber mat U D,0
1
z p ,n t 2
= ⋅ (1 + 10 0 .14 + 1 + 10 −0 .15 + 1) ≈ 0 . 89
16.2 17.3 17.9 18.6 19.5 5
cm
Observation:
(
U D z p ,n ) –3.2 –6 –3.0 –6.5 –3.5
Approx. 90% of the incident power is
transmitted.
dB Dielectric plate with dry foam rubber
mat
Ptr
t 2
= = 0 . 38 From Table 8.1 a:
Pin 1
t 2= ⋅ (1 + 10 −0 .19 + 1 + 10 −0 .19 + 10 −0 . 03 ) ≈ 0 .84
Table 12.8.2 5
Observation:
a) Layering with dry foam rubber mat Slight drop in comparison to the case
without the foam mat.
z p ,n Dielectric plate with wet foam mat
16.2 17.0 17.9 18.7 19.5 From Table 8.2 b:
cm
1
⋅ ( 10 −0 . 32 + 10 −0 . 6
( )
2
t =
U D z p ,n
–0.1 –5.5 –0.3 –5 –0.4 5
+10 −0 . 3 + 10 −0 . 65 + 10 −0 . 35 ) ≈ 0 . 38
dB
Observation:
Strong decrease of transmitted power
U D ,max
s= = 1. 88 due to dampness.
U D ,min 3. Only dielectric plate

Pr s = 3. 5 = 1. 88 (from Table 12.7.2)

2
r = = 0 . 09
2
Pin 2  s − 1
r =  = 0 . 09
 s + 1

64
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

Dielectric plate with dried foam rubber Sample solution for Experiment 9
mat 2.2 See Table 12.9.1
3.2 See Table 12.9.2
s = 3. 5 = 1. 88 (from Table 12.8.2)
2 Table 12.9.1
 s − 1
2
= Without plate UD, 0 = 0 dB zP = 10 cm
r  = 0 . 09
 s + 1
Damp foam rubber mat h U D ( h) h U D ( h)
cm cm
s = 3.16 = 1. 78 (from Table 12.8.2) dB dB
2 –7 +1.5 4 –23.0
2  s − 1
r =  = 0 . 08 –6 +2.0 5 –24.0
 s + 1
–5 +1.0 6 –23.0
Observation: –4 –1.5 7 –23.0
Somewhat lower reflection than for –3 –5.0 8 –26.0
dried foam rubber mat.
4. Only dielectric plate –2 –9.0 9 –21.0
Pabs –1 –15.0 10 –19.0*
≈ 0 . 02
Pin 0 –24.0 11 –24.0*
Dried foam rubber mat 1 –17.0 12 –26.0*
Pabs 2 –15.5 13 –17.0*
≈ 0 . 07
Pin 3 –18 14 –13.0*
Damp foam rubber mat * Diffraction around the second edge of the metal plate
Pabs
≈ 0 . 54
Pin Table 12.9.2
Without plate UD, 0 = 0 dB h = 3 cm
Observation:
The dampness of the foam rubber mat
zp UD ( zp)
becomes evident as a result of the strong
increase in absorption. cm dB
5. Using microwaves for continuous and re-
mote measurement of dampness in sand 10 –18
used for building purposes, coal dust, 12 –18
tabacco, etc. 14 –13
Naturally calibration is critical for these
16 –20
activities because in addition to the damp-
ness (gram H2O per unit of volume) other 18 –21
variables are involved in the attenuation 20 –19
like particle size (sand, coal dust) and the
22 –23
density of the base substance.

65
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

h zp
cm cm

UD zP = 10 cm UD h = 3 cm
dB dB
Diagram 12.9.1 Diagram 12.9.2
Graphic representation of the measured values from Table Graphic display of the measured values from Table 12.9.2
12.9.1

Answers Answers
1. See Diagram 12.9.1 and Diagram 12.9.2 2. Mobile radio, communications between
terrestrial stations and satellites, radar
2. a) Dependency of the diffraction field technology.
strength on h:
In accordance with geometrical optics
(see Fig. 9.1, middle) the field must re- Sample solution for Experiment 11
main unchanged until h = 0 is reached 1.
and then fall abruptly to zero.
Due to the diffraction the field
strength already drops off as of z U LF
h = –4 cm (where the edge cuts into mm mV
the antenna's major lobe) and rather
200 139
than dropping to zero, it falls to a
medium value of –20 dB between 202 60
h = 0 up to 12 cm (shadow zone). 204 50
This means that the electrical field 206 64
strength drops to about one tenth of
its value during propagation in free 208 130
space (without shadowing by the 210 162
plate). 212 150
b) Dependency of the field on the longi-
214 122
tudinal distance to the edge
(h = 3 cm, zP variable): 216 83
You can see that the “shadow ef- 218 50
fect” (attenuation of the field) is
220 54
greater, the closer the measurement
point is to the back of the edge. 222 100
224 143
Sample solution for Experiment 10 226 156
1. Experiment setup
228 144
2. without waveguide : –46 dB
with waveguide : –12 dB 230 120

66
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

2. 3. Due to the superimposition of different

echos for parts with distinct and time-vari-
U LF able radial velocity we obtain the compli-
V cated characteristic of ULF(t).
Frequency analysis of the characteristic of
ULF(t) would yield specific characteristics
for the object in motion (object recogni-
tion).
U LF
V

Diagram 12.11.3
Characteristic of ULF(t) for a metal plate with a relative
velocity of v1. Measurement at Doppler-Out

U LF
V
Diagram 12.11.5
Characteristic of ULF(t) for reflection at an active table top
fan. Measurement at Doppler-Out

Answers
1.
U LF
V

Diagram 12.11.4
Characteristic of ULF(t) for a metal plate with relative
velocity of v2. Measurement at Doppler-Out

T1 = 0 . 32 s 
 V1 = 5 cm / s
T2 = 0 .16 s 
 V2 = 10 cm / s
λ 0 = 3. 2 cm 
z
Diagram 12.11.1 cm
Relationship between ULF and z.

λ0
1. 6 cm 1
T= 2 = =
vr 100 cm fd
s
f d = 62 . 5 Hz

67
 MTS 7.4.2 Solutions

2. From the diagrams you can discern the 3. If the object (metal plate) approaches the
duration of 10 oscillations and thus calcu- antenna, the amplitude of the receiving
late the period. Using the Equation (11.10) signal increases and decreases when the
you can compute the velocity. object gets farther away. In the cases dem-
onstrated here (Diagram 12.11.2 und
T1 = 0 . 32 s  12.11.3), the metal plate moves toward the
 V1 = 5 cm / s Gunn oscillator (or viceversa (relative mo-
T2 = 0 .16 s  tion)).
 V2 = 10 cm / s
λ 0 = 3. 2 cm 

68
 MTS 7.4.2 Index

Index

A L
Absorption ......................................................... 43 Law of induction ............................................... 25
Amplitude modulation ....................................... 17 Lock-in amplifier ............................................... 22
Antenna near field ............................................ 29
M
C Maxwell’s equations ......................................... 25
Cavity resonator ............................................... 12 Metal-semiconductor junction ........................... 17
Coaxial line ........................................................ 51 Motion sensor ................................................... 55
Coherent moving target indicator ..................... 55 Multi-target capability ....................................... 54
Multi-wire lines ................................................. 51
D
Delayed domain mode ...................................... 11 N
Depletion layer .................................................. 11 Negative differential resistance ........................ 58
Dielectric guides ............................................... 51 Nodes ................................................................ 35
Differential mobility .......................................... 11 Noise signal ....................................................... 21
Diffraction ......................................................... 47
Dipole antenna .................................................. 17 P
Directional characteristic .................................. 30 Phase-selective ................................................. 23
Domain .............................................................. 11 Polarization ........................................................ 25
Doppler shift ..................................................... 53 Propagating uniform
Dopplereffekt ................................................... 53 plane wave ........................................................ 29
Drift velocity ..................................................... 11
Q
E Quadratic or square-law rectification ............... 26
Echo signal ........................................................ 53
Effective mass .................................................. 11 R
E-field probe ..................................................... 17 Radar target ...................................................... 53
Elementary waves ............................................ 47 Radial velocity .................................................. 55
Enhancement layer ........................................... 11 Radiation density ............................................... 30
Reflection coefficient ....................................... 39
F Reflection .......................................................... 39
Far field equation .............................................. 29
Far field ............................................................. 29 S
Field characteristic impedance ......................... 29 Schottky diodes ................................................. 17
Frequency selectivity ........................................ 23 Short-circuit planes ........................................... 12
Frequency-selective filtering ............................. 21 Signal-to-noise ratio .......................................... 21
Frequency-selective measurement amplifier ......... 21 Space charge instabilities .................................. 11
Standing waves ................................................. 29
G Synchronous rectifier ........................................ 22
Geometrical optics ............................................ 47
Gunn effect ....................................................... 11 T
Temperature voltage ....................................... 17
H Transit frequency ............................................. 11
Homogenous waves ......................................... 29 Transmission factor .......................................... 39
Horn antenna .................................................... 29 Transmission ..................................................... 39
Huygens’ principle ............................................ 47
W
I Wall losses ........................................................ 12
Interference ...................................................... 36 Wanted signal ................................................... 21
Isotrope antenna ............................................... 30 Waveguide ........................................................ 51

69