ASHIQ'S KROK-1 TUTORIAL

MAKE OUR PARENTS PROUD, OUR ENEMIES JEALOUS & OURSELF HAPPY

KROK HACKS 1
1.) HELMINTHS

a) Opisthorchis: The helminth with the smallest egg

b) Enterobias vermicularis: Perianal swab/fold or worm in underwear.

c) Echinococcus granulosus: Main carrier is a DOG.

d) Diphyllobothrium Latum: Main carrier is a FISH.

e) Toxoplasma gondii: Main carrier is a CAT.

f) Filarial worm: Causes Elephantiasis and eye infection(eye worm)

g) Ascaris Lumbricoides: Eosinophiles will be in the question. It causes Ascariasis.

h) Trichinella and Taenias: Found in PORK.

i) Schistosoma: You will see Australia and egg with characteristic sharp point. It will cause
urogenital or vaginal infection.

2.) PROTOZOAS AND BACTERIA

a.) Balantidum Coli: Cilia all around or four nucleus or two nuclei two vacuoles.

b.) Giardia Lamblia: Two nucleus and four pairs of flagella.

c.) Dysenteric amoeba: Four nucleus cyst in feces.

d.) Trichomonia: Causes Urogenital and vaginal infection.

e.) Leishmania: It causes both cutaneous and visceral(organs) diseases.

f.) Leptospira: (Spirochete) C&S shape causes nose bleeding

g.) Diphtheria: Chinese letters

h.) Treponema pallidum: Spiral shape(Spirochetes)

3.) ARTHROPODS

a) Wohlfahrt Fly: It causes MYIASIS

b) Karakurt Spider: Roundish black abdomen with two rows of red spots on it dorsal surface.

c) Sarcoptes Scabies: Causative agent of Scabies.

d) Demodicosis or Demodex: Causative agent of Acne etc.

CELLS IN PATHMORPHOLOGY

a.) Langhans cells: Tuberculosis

b.) Aschoffs bodies: Acute verrucous Endocarditis

c.) Councilman’s bodies: Viral Hepatits

d.) Virchow’s cells: Leprosy

e.) Mikulich Cell: Rhinoscleroma

f.) Reed-Sternberg cell: Hodgkin disease,lymphogranulomatosis

g.) Beresovsky-sternberg: Lymphogranulomatosis

h.) Warthin-Finkeldey cells: Measles

ETIOLOGIC FACTORS AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES

a.) Typhoid fever: Salmonella typhi; affects small intestine and causes ulceration.

b.) Dysentry:Shigella dysentery; Occurs usually colon. Stages are: Catarrhal,fibrinous, ulcerative
colitis and repair.

c.) Appendicitis: Inflammation of the appendix; Incision is done at Mc burney’s point(From

ant.sup
iliac spine to the umbilicus, junction between lat. 1/3 and middle 1/3)…Stages are: Catarrhal,
phlegmonous, Ulcerophlegmonous, gangrenous and apostematous)

d.) Coccal bacterial: These agents cause purulent processes….So if you see pus in your question
check for any cocci bacterial in the option.

e.) Cirrhosis: Pseudolobules

GENERAL SIGNS OF SOME PATHOLOGIES.

a.) Anthracosis: Miner and black deposits in the lung tissue.

b.) Croupous/Lobar pneumonia: Neutophil, fibrin and grey or red hepatization.

c.) Amyloidosis: Congo red, lardaceous kidney

d.) Sago Spleen: Mahogany with enlarged follicles

e.) Scarlet Fever: Crimson tongue

f.) Infuenza: Panbronchitis or larngotracheobronchitis(Severe form).

g.) Lipoma: movable soft tissue mass of lipocyte obscuring psoas muscle.

h.) Fibroma: movable soft fibrous tissue.

i.) Infectious endocarditis: Sepsis that affect edges of valves.

j.) Rheumatic endocarditis: Deformation of valves due to rheumatic diseases

k.) Spotted fever: Spots and specks.

l.) Epidemic typhus: Lice

m.) Brills disease: Relapse of epidermic typhus after some years.

n.) Hypospadia: Opening of the urethra below the penis.

o.) Epispadia: Opening of the urethra above the penis.

p.) Diffuse cardiosclerosis: Multiple whitish layers in myocardium.

q.) Baccilus Anthrax: On the cattle farm. Ascolis test.

r.) Actinomycosis: Fungal infection associated with pus

s.) Spore checking: Oil immersion and ozhensko method.

t.) Capsule: Burri-Gins technique

u.) Chronic or choriosepsis: Intoxication usually from wound.

v.) Chorioepithelioma:Sponge with cyncytiotrophoblast.

w.) Syphilis: Caused by treponema pallidum(Spirochetes) perivasculitis endovasculitis.

x.) Tuberculoma: Secondary form of tuberculosis with a capsule formation.

y.) Fibro-cavernous tuberculosis: Secondary form with cavities and walls.

z.) Caseous necrosis: Tuberculosis aa.) Fibro-sarcoma: Meat of fish bb.) Sub-acute

glomerulonephritis: Crescent, demilume, semilunar.

cc.) Systemic Lupus Erythematous: Antinuclear antibodies, wire loops, autoimmune.

dd.) Chronic glomerulonephritis: Decrease of active nephrons. ee.) Acute

glomerulonephritis: due to shock, immunecomplex. ff.) Osteomyelities: Sequester

formation.
gg.) Cholera: Rice water stool hh.)

Tuberculosis: Horseshoe shape

VITAMINS AND CO-FACTORS.

a.) Vitamin B1: Thiamin(Thiamin pyrophosphate) deficiency: Beri-beri

b.) Vitamin B2: Riboflavin(FAD,FMN) Deficiency: Ariboflavinosis

c.) Vitamin B3: Niacin(NAD) Dificency: Pellagra and D-triad..Diarrhea, dermatitis and
dementia….It is gotten from tryptophan…Maize excess causes it as well.

d.) Vitamin B6: Pyridoxal phosphate, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine…Responsible for

transamination and decarboxylation reactions. Isoniazid is an antivitamin B6 so this vitamin
should be taken along with this drug.

e.) Vitamin B9: Folic acid(Tetrahydrofolate) Responsible for DNA synthesis. Co-trimoxazole
blocks pathway of its synthesis….Methotrexate blocks the formation of THF(active form of
B9).

f.) Vitamin B12: Cyanocobalamin: absorbed in the stomach by intrinsic factor also called castle
or glycomucoproteins. Its deficiency leads to absence of the synthesis of THFA(active form of
B9) leading to formation of MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA AND ATROPHY OF THE TONGUE.

g.) Vitamin C: Ascorbic acid..Responsible for connective tissue strengthening(Collagen) and

blood vessel. It is also an anti-oxidant. (Oxyproline, lysyl oxidase,proline,hydroxyproline)
Deficiency:Scurvy

h.) Vitamin A: Retinol(Trans retinoic acid)..Responsible for night vision and maintenance of skin.)
Deficiency leads to Night blindness and excess leads to hyperkeratosis

i.) Vitamin D3: Cholecalciferol…For calcium absorption and bone strengthening.

j.) Vitamin E: Tocopherol…It is an antioxidant

k.) Vitamin K: Vicasolum(Synthetic form)…For post translational modification of coagulation

factor 2,7,9 and 10.

ENZYMATIC BIO-MAKERS

a.) LDH1,2: Heart pathology(Myocardial infarction)

b.) LDH &CPK: Early stage of myocardial infaction.

c.) CPK: Muscular dystrophy

d.) ALT: Liver

e.) AST: Heart

f.) GAG: Bones

g.) Ceruloplasmin: For copper transport(Wilson’s disease)

h.) C-reactive: Acute phase protein for inflammation.

i.) UDP-Glucoronyltransferase: For glucorination.

j.) G6PD: It synthesizes NADPH which protects cell membrane from lysis.

k.) Uroporphyrinogen 1: Its accumulation under the skin leads to photosensitivity.

l.) Uroporphyringen 1 co-synthase: Its deficiency leads to accumulation of uroporphyrinogen 1

which causes photosensitivity.

m.) Phenylketonuria: Greenish urine

n.) Alcaptonuria:Black urine…Acummunlation of homogentisic acid.

o.) Bence jones protein: Paraproteinemia(In plasmocytoma) These are abnormal proteins.

p.) Xanthine oxidase: Allupurinol and colchicine in purine degredation pathway.

q.) Carbamoyl phosphate: Ornithine –urea cycle.

r.) Glutamic acid: Removal of ammonia from the brain.

s.) Hippuric acid: It is used to check th detoxification function of liver.

t.) Galactosemia: Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, cataract.

u.) Maple syrup: Accumulation of branch chain aminoacids in urine.

v.) Tay-sachs: Gangliosidase or sphingomyelin(Lipid) insufficiency.

w.) Contrycal: Acute pancreatitis

x.) Bromine poison: Use sodium chloride

y.) Lecithin(Phosphatidylcholine): Lipotropic factor

z.) Methionine: For methylation reaction.

CARYOTYPES OF DIFFERENT CHROMOSOMAL PATHOLOGIES.

a.) Down syndrome: 47.21+

b.) Patau syndrome:47.13+

c.) Turner’s syndrome:45XO(Monosomy)

d.) Klinefelter’s syndrome:47XXY

e.) Edward’s syndrome:47.18+

f.) Super female:XXX(Trisomy or triple X)

g.) Cru-d-Chat:47.5+

h.) Holandric trait: Y-Linked…E.g Hypertrichosis

i.) Daltonism :Colour blindness….Recessive sex-linked

j.) Hemophilia: Recessive sex-linked

ALLERGY, TYPES AND EXAMPLE.

a.) Type 1: Anaphylaxis,atopy,reagine or immediate example bronchial asthma

b.) Type ii: Blood transfusion incompatibility

c.) Type iii: Immune complex e.g Serum sickness, Arthus disease

d.) Type iv: Cellular toxicity, In mantu’s test(Tuberculosis)

DRUGS FOR DIFFERENT PATHOLOGIES

a.) Metronidazole: Amebiasis, giardiasis, lambiasis

b.) Aethimizole: For asphyxia of new born

c.) Lobeline hydrochloride: For restoration of respiration after shock etc.

d.) Unithiol: Metal poisoning e.g mercury

e.) Atropine: For organophosphate poisoning.

f.) Neostigmine or proserin: Antidote for Atropine poison.

g.) Calcium chloride: Used as antidote for magnesium sulphate

h.) Acetylcysteine: Used as antidote for paracetamol

i.) Dithylinium: It’s a myorelaxant which causes short term spasm of facial muscles.

j.) Pseudocholinesterase or butyrylcholinesterase: For metabolism of dithylium after its used..Its

insufficiency causes prolongation of dithylinium effect.

k.) Morphine: Naloxone

l.) Carbenicillin sodium: For pseudomonas aeruginosa(blue-pus baccilus).

m.) Ketotifen: Seasonal coryza

n.) Ketamin: Dissocative analgesia which side effect is hallucination.

o.) Digoxin: Chronic cardiac insufficiency

p.) Corglycon: Acute cardiac insufficiency

q.) Tetracycline: Affect teeth

r.) Loratadine: Anti-histamine…Donot cross BBB

DIFFERENT MEDIA/TESTS IN MICROBIOLOGY

a.) Leffler: For diphtheria

b.) Tellurite agar: For Diphtheria

c.) Bordet-gengou: Bordetella Pertusis

d.) Red colonies: E.Coli

e.) Colourless colonies: Salmonella typhi

f.) Zeel-neelsen: For acid resistant bacilli

g.) CFT(Reiter’s test): For Gonorrhea and syphilis

h.) Immunoflourescence: For influenza

DIFFERENT VACCINES AND THEIR CLINICAL USE.

a.) BCG: For tuberculosis

b.) STI: Anthrax

c.) Antidiphteric antitoxic serum: Diphtheria

d.) DPT: Diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus

OTHERS

a) Phage conversion: To make bacteria toxic

b) Phagetyping: To know source of infection

c) 1;20: To repeat test after 10 days

d) 1;40: Confirms diagnosis

e) 1:80: Carrier of disease

f) Neutrophilic leukocytosis: 500 radiation exposure

g) Lymphopenia:200-300 radiation exposure

h) After appendectomy: Intensification of leukopoeisis.

i) After Shock and accident: Redistribution of leucocyte from the marginal pool.

j) Sinoatrial node: 60-80bpm

k) Atrioventricular node: 40-60bpm

l) Bundle of His:20-40bpm

m) Purkinje fibers:10-20bpm

n) Ammonia in the brain usually leads to convulsion,brain edema etc.

o) Evaporation: High humidity with normal or moderate room temperature…e.g 80% humidity
and 36oc temperature.

p) Convection: A man putting on clothing in a room.

q) Radiation: A man putting on light clothing and in a closed room.

r.) Conduction: A woman in the water or swimming pool.

Compiled by: KOMI LEESI S. (President, Greatness Club International) Remember: If you want to
be ahead, you must load your head…Greatness…It’s in you
BIOLOGY:
● Klinefelter’s syndrome: 47 (XXY); 1 barr body; 1
drumstick; affects only males; tall gynecomastia
● Turner’s syndrome: 45 (XO); No barr body;
affects only females; webbed neck, ‘sphinx’ neck
● Trisomy X: 47 (XXX); 2 barr bodies;
X-chromosome polysomia; super female
● Down’s syndrome: trisomy 21
● Edward’s syndrome: trisomy 18
● Patau’s syndrome: trisomy 13
● DiGeorge syndrome: chromosome 22 (22q11)
● Cri du Chat: chromosome 5p
● Mosaicism: 46 (XY); 47 (XXY)
● Recessive epistasis: woman O ​​, child A ,
​B​
husband​ blood group
A​
● 0%: Phenylketonuria recessive gene
● 100%: Hypertrychosis of auricles; Y-chromosome
● Dominant X linked: 5 children, 3 girls and 2 boys;
all girls inherited their father’s disease
● True Hermaphroditism: both male and female
gonads are revealed
● Pleiotropy: Marfan’s syndrome and Hartnup
disease
● Phenocopy: hirsutism resembling adrenal
syndrome; Rubella
● Metaphase: equatorial plane; fully condensed
chromosomes; in this phase we study the cell’s
karyotype
● Metaphase of second division: haploid number
of chromosomes
● Nucleosoma: 8 histone proteins and a part of
DNA molecule
● Karakurt spider: 4 pairs of segmented
extremities; two rows of red dots
● Anopheles: malaria
● Bug’s bites: sleeping sickness
● Epidemic typhus: lice
● Inversion: turned 180 degree
HISTOLOGY:
● Desmosome: electron dense substance
● Periosteum: regeneration of bone tissue
● Basal: regeneration of bronchial epithelium
● Satellite, Myosatellite cells: regeneration (muscle
regeneration)
● Schwann cells: regeneration of nerve cells
● Liver: central vein; portal triad (artery, vein and
excretory duct)
● Spleen: central artery
● Nonmuscular vein or vein of non-muscular type:
no tunica media (doesn’t have tunica media)
● Muscular type of artery: middle coat is enriched
with smooth myocytes (i.e. tunica media is
present)
● Sinusoidal capillaries: red bone marrow
● Fenestrated capillaries: renal corpuscles
● Papillae vellatae: papillae on the border of the
median and posterior third of the back of tongue
● Embryonal: major calyces are absent
● Primary: follicular epithelium consists of 1​ -2
of cubic cells
layers​
● Cells of sebaceous glands: seborrhea
● Unformed dense connective tissue: provides
skin strength
● Dermis: mesoderm segmentation and somite
formation
● Smooth muscle cells: mesenchyma cells
● Cortex of cerebrum: stellate, fusiform,
horizontal, pyramidal
● Macula densa: a part of distal tubule between
afferent and efferent arteriole
ANATOMY:
● Bursa omentalis: posterior wall of stomach
● Bursa pregastrica or Antegastrial bursa: anterior
wall of stomach
● Stapedius muscle: hearing impairment
● Digitus minimus: common synovial sheath of
flexor muscles
● M. triceps brachii (triceps brachial): elbow
extension; posterior surface of shoulder in its
middle third
● Long peroneal: limited elevation of the lateral
foot edge
● Cruciate ligaments: drawer sign; anterior and
posterior displacement of tibia
● Nasal limen: boundary between vestibule and
nasal cavity proper
● Colon descendens: left lateral abdomen (left
lateral region of abdomen)
● Colon ascendens: right lateral abdomen
● Pars descendens duodeni (descending part of
duodenum): single longitudinal fold among the
circular folds
● Duodenojejunal flexure: mesenteric root
● Inferior left lung lobe bronchopulmonary
segments: 5; supplied by tertiary bronchus
● Tr. Cortico-nuclearis (corticonuclear tract): genu
of internal capsule
● Tr. Pyramidalis: frontal part of posterior crus of
internal capsule
● Axillary nerve: passes quadrilateral foramen;
supplies deltoid muscle; deltoid muscle abducts
the arm into horizontal position
● N. medianus (median nerve): impaired skin
sensitivity of 1 – 3 fingers
● Trigeminal nerve: frontal or anterior 2/3 of
tongue
● N. ulnaris (ulnar nerve): posterior surface of
medial condyle of humerus
● Abducent nerve: medial strabismus; convergent
strabismus
● Anterior/Ventral/Motor root: axons of motor
neuron from anterior horn and lateral horn
● Yellow (flaval): diagnostic puncture between the
arches of lumbar vertebrae
● S2 – S4: urinary incontinence
● Hypospadia: urethral hiatus opens on
the u​ /inferior surface of penis
ndersite​
● Epispadia: urethral opens on the superior
surface of penis/urethral was split
● Large lips of pudendum: bartholinitis; bartholin’s
gland
● Vena jugularis externa (external jugular vein):
edge of sternocleidomastoid muscle
● V. emissariae mastoideae: area of mammiform
process during shaving
● V. cordis magna: anterior interventricular sulcus
of heart
● V. umbilicalis: bougienage (lumen dilatation)
● A. brachialis (brachial artery): anteromedial
region of shoulder
● Medial membranous artery: epidural hematoma
● Mental artery: frontal third of mandible
● A. facialis (facial artery): edge of mandible;
anteriad the mandibular angle (i.e. anterior to
the mandibular angle)
● Obturator artery: ligament of head of femur
● Round foramen: second branch of trigeminal
passes through
● Crystalline lens: biconvex structure, Zinn’s
zonule
● Common hepatic duct can be found or located
in hepatoduodenal ligament
● Ligamentum hepatogastricum (hepatogastric
ligament): lesser curvature of stomach
● In the region of aortic hiatus: disruption of
thoracic lymphatic duct as a result of weight
lifting
MICROBIOLOGY:
● Phagotyping: find out source of causative agent
● Phage conversion: microorganism become
toxigenic
● (R) CFT – Reiter’s complement fixation test:
toxoplasmosis and chronic gonorrhoea
● Mantoux test: inject tuberculin; Tuberculosis
vaccine – BCG
● Ziehl Nielsen: Tuberculosis (bacillus tubercle);
acid fast
● Acute, IgM: primary or recent infection; ARVI
–acute respiratory viral infection
● Colienteritis: 0-111
● 4 and 250: coli index and coli titer
● 1:20: to repeat the examination with serum
taken 10 days later
● 1:40: confirms diagnosis
● 1:80: being a potential carrier of typhoid bacilli
● 1:100 to 1:400: patient has typhoid fever
● Previous hepatitis B: Anti-HBs antibodies were
revealed; check for antigens of Hepatitis B in
blood transfusion
● Precipitin lines: a strip of filter paper
impregnanted with antitoxic diphtheria serum
● Precipitation test: homemade pork sausages
● Dry heat sterilization: petri dishes and pipettes
● Salmonella: gram-negative movable bacillus;
colourless colonies; “​salmon fish – swims (movable)”
● Gonorrhea: gram-negative bacteria; coffee
beans
● Giardia lamblia: 4 pairs of flagella/filaments; 2
axostyles; 2 nuclei
● Dysenteric amoeba: 4 nuclei cyst
● Demodicosis, demodex: 4 pairs of short legs
● Diphtheria (corynebacterium diphtheria): leffler;
blood tellurite agar; wide spread fingers/spread
wide apart
● Antidiphtheric antitoxic serum: diphtheria
● Anthrax (bacillus anthracis): STI live vaccine;
ascoli test, “scarlet hat”; cattle; old burial ground
for animal refuse
● Opisthorchosis: smallest eggs among all
helminths
● Trichinosis; trichina: pork, f​
acial edemata,​Polessye
regions
● Pseudomonas: yellow-green pigment; meat
peptone
● Trichomonas vaginalis: pear-shaped organism;
big nucleus and undulating membrane
● Taeniarhynchus saginatus (taenia saginata):
17-35 lateral branches
● Cytomegalovirus: owl’s eye
● Coxsackie A: “enterovirus infection”; mouse
sucklings died
● Rotavirus: small spoke wheels
● Paschen’s bodies: variola
● HIV infection: gp41; gp120; CD4
● Streptococcus pneumonia: suspected
pneumonia; gram positive diplococcic; pointed
opposite ends
● Streptococcus mutans: enamel demineralization
● Staphylococcus aureus: oxidase and catalase
positive; synthesizes plasmocoagulase
● Leptospira: C and S letters
● C. perfringens: food poisoning; anaerobic
gram-positive spore-forming bacteria
● Spores: ozheshko
● Capsules: Burri gins technique
● Blood, sugar broth: septicemia
● Homogenization: processing of sputum only
with solution of c​austic soda
● Gram’s stain: gentian violet, Lugol’s solution, 96%
alcohol
● Phase-contrast microscopy: “hanging drop”
● Agglutination reaction: specific antibodies in the
presence of an electrolyte
● Bordet Gengou agar: bordetella
● Bacilli and Clostridia: temperature in autoclave
reach 1000C instead of 1200C
● Actinomycosis: abscess; fungal infection
● Candidiasis: dark-violet gemmating cells
● Ancylostomiasis: ovoscopic probes revealed
eggs with 4-8 germinal cells
● Ascariasis: eosinophilic infiltrates
● Filariasis: elongated filiform body; underneath
the eye conjunctiva
● Diphyllobothriasis: freshly-salted caviar; fish
● Balantidiasis: pig farm; oval unicellular
organisms with c​ ; 2 nuclei; 2 short vacuoles
ilia​
● Enterobiasis (enterobium vermicularis): scrape
from her ​ perianal folds.
● Echinococcosis: d​ og​ and sheep
● Tetanus: limited mouth opening (trismus)
● Scabies: itch between finger, inguinal creases,
on the lower abdomen
● Direct and Indirect immunofluorescence test;
viruses containing hemagglutinins: provisional
diagnosis of “influenza”
● Wohlfarht fly: myiasis
● Favus: mycelium of fungus, spores, air bubbles
and fat drops
● Visceral leishmaniasis: sallow skin, loss of
appetite, laxity, enlarged liver, spleen, peripheral
lymph nodes; Asian countries
PHYSIOLOGY:
● Na+: increase in nerve conduction velocity;
depolarization
● Waved/Partial tetanus: period of relaxation
● Holotetanus: period of shortening (i.e. period of
contraction)
● Muscle spindles: myotatic reflex in frogs
● Aschner’s reflex: press on eyeball –
parasympathetic effects like decrease in heart
rate
● Goltz reflex: blow to upper region of anterior
abdominal wall produces parasympathetic
unconditioned reflexes
● Heat radiation: naked person; light clothing
● Heat evaporation: relative humidity
● Convection: exposed skin
● Conduction: in water
● Tractus rubrospinalis: ‘torso muscle tone’
● Inspiratory reserve volume: sternocleidomastoid
muscle
● From the cells to the intercellular fluid: G
​lucose
● From the intercellular fluid to the
capillaries: ​
Albumin
● Carbohydrates: 1000ml; 1
● 7.5cmHg: Quiet inspiration
● 25cmHg: Forced inspiration
● Brown bread: weakened peristaltic activity of
the bowels
● Posterior central gyrus: craniocerebral injury
leads to decreased skin sensitivity
● Cerebellum: asthenia, muscular dystonia,
balance disorder, adiadicokinesis, ataxia,
dysarthria, intension tremor, staccato speech
● Midbrain: red nucleus
● Reticular formation: deep prolonged sleep
● Quadritubercular/Quadrigeminal bodies:
orientation reflexes
● Anterior tubercles of quadritubercular bodies:
orientative reflexes in response to strong photic
stimuli
● ecerebrate rigidity: D
D​ estruction of vestibular
​​
nuclei of D eiters (​
​​ s)
3D’​
● Beta rhythm: eyes closed, EEG
● Middle part of helix: medium frequency
● Corti’s organ closer to helicotrema: low
frequency
● Corti’s organ close to oval window: high
frequency
● Left ventricle: 0mmHg up to 120mmHg
● 5L: blood minute volume 5L/m
● 10L/min: blood minute volume 10L/m
● Calcitonin: stimulates tooth mineralization and
inhibits tissue resorption
● Repolarization: T wave
● Vagi of an experimental animal cut on both
sides: ​
deep and infrequent
● Transverse disruption of spinal cord below IV
thoracic segment: r​ espiration will stay unchanged
BIOCHEMISTRY:
● Collagen: oxyproline; hydroxyproline
● Muscular dystrophy (Duchene’s): creatine;
creatinephosphokinase
● Ochronosis (alkaptonuria): Homogentisates;
Homogentisic acid oxidase; Tyrosine
● LDL: hereditary familial hypercholesterolemia
● HDL: remove cholesterol from tissues;
anti-atherogenic lipoprotein
● Fatty liver infiltration (Hepatic steatosis):
phosphatidylcholine; choline; methionine
(methylating agents; methylation reactions)
● Vitamin A ​​(Retinol acetate): Trans-retinoic acid;
Rod cells; Rhodopsin; treats ​ radiation
deficiency – twilight vision; night blindness
ulcer;​
● Vitamin B ​1​(thiamine): in thiamine
pyrophosphate; a cofactor for several
dehydrogenase enzyme – Pyruvate
dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase. Deficiency – increase in
pyruvate
● Vitamin B ​2​(riboflavin): flavin coenzymes (FMN,
FAD)
● Vitamin B ​3​(Niacin): derived from Tryptophan;
Maize contains less Tryptophan; Nicotinamide,
NAD+, Pellagra Preventing
● Vitamin B ​6​(pyridoxine): catalyzes transamination
and decarboxylation reactions; should be taken
with Isoniazid during TB treatment
● Vitamin B ​9​(folate): converted to tetrahydrofolic
acid; Deficiency – macrocytic, megaloblastic
anemia. Folate antagonist: methotrexate,
trimethoprim
● Vitamin B ​12​(cobalamin): involved in myelin
​

synthesis; Deficiency – macrocytic,

megaloblastic anemia, funicular myelosis,
atrophic gastritis
● Vitamin ​ C​ (ascorbic acid): necessary for
hydroxylation of proline and lysine in collagen
synthesis. Deficiency – Scurvy, bruising, p​ etechiae
● Vitamin D ​​: 1 α-hydroxylase from kidney
catalyzes the formation of active form
–C ​alcitriol​[1,25-(OH)2D3]. Deficiency – Rickets in
children, osteomalacia
● Vitamin E​ ​ (Tocopherol acetate): radioprotective
action
● Vitamin K ​​: Vicasol; gamma-carboxyglutamate;
ɣ-carboxylation
● Glucose 6-phosphatase: Gierke’s disease
● UDP glucose: immediate donor of glucose
● sulin: i​
In​ hibits GP and activates GS (​
n​ sulin
NB: In​
– I​hibits b4 it activates); Type I diabetes
n​
mellitus; stimulates glucose transport from
extracellular space through plasmatic
membrane
● Reverse transcriptase (RNA dependent DNA
polymerase): ​ DNA on the matrix of mRNA
● rRNA: nucleolar organizer
● endonuclease: repair enzyme that is defective in
Xeroderma pigmentosum
● Decarboxylation of Glutamate → GABA →
Succinate
● Decarboxylation of Histidine → Histamine
● Monoamine oxidase: oxidative deamination;
breaks down noradrenaline, adrenaline,
serotonin
● Low level of carnitine: causes obesity
● Hypoxanthine-guanine
phosphoribosyltransferase: Lesch-Nyhan
● Phenylpyruvic acid in urine: disorder of A
​mino-acid
metabolism
● : Osteolaterism
Lysyl oxidase​
● Catalyzation of the same reaction: Isoenzymic
forms
● Cytochrome P-450: Xenobiotic; microsomal
oxidation
● Dehydrogenase of branched-chain alpha-keto
acids: “brewer’s yeast” or “maple syrup”
● Ceruloplasmin: Wilson’s degeneration
● Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): lipotropin,
corticotropin, melanotropin and endorphins
● : able to form ester bond
-OH​
● Dihydrouracil: minor nitrogenous base
PATHOMORPHOLOGY:
● Fatty parenchymatous degeneration: “​ tiger’s heart”
● Tay sachs disease: cherry red spots
● Mantoux test: inject tuberculin; negative result –
no cell mediated immunity; Type IV
hypersensitivity reaction
● Tuberculosis: h​ orseshoe​; military nodules
● Primary tuberculosis: inferior lobe
● Syphilis (​ : e​
treponema pallidum)​ ndovasculitis;
Romanovsky-Giemsa method; “​
perivasculitis; ​ lacquer​ ”
bottom of grayish colour
● Acute glomerulonephritis: “meat slops” urine
● Subacute glomerulonephritis: “demilune”;
crescent
● Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML):
splenomegaly (6kg); hepatomegaly (5kg); pyoid
marrow
● Chronic osteomyelitis: bone sequesters; body of
mandible
● Chronic pyelonephritis: “scutiform” or
“shield-shaped” kidney
● Essential hypertension: shrunken kidney
● Basal cell carcinoma (basalioma): basal
epidermal layer
● Meningioma: Psammoma bodies
● Melanoma: brown pigment with positive DOPA
reaction; Perls’ reaction is negative; retinal
detachment
● Medulloblastoma: area of vermis of cerebellum
● Chorioepithelioma: “​ sponge​”; langhans cells and
giant cells of ​
syncytiotrophoblast
● Neurinoma: verocai (verocay) bodies
● Lipoma: retroperitoneal soft tissue mass
obscuring the left psoas muscle
● Fibroadenoma: ​ breast; mammary gland
● Fibrosarcoma: meat of fish, fish flesh, flesh of
fish
● Fibrosing alveolitis: pulmonary fibrosis,
panacinar emphysema
● Atherosclerosis: abdominal aorta had a
sacciform protrusion
● Liposclerosis: fibrous plaque with some lipids; a
form of atherosclerosis
● Atherocalcinosis: tuberous intima appeared w ​hite
and petrosal​; a form of atherosclerosis
● Anthracosis: c​ -miner
oal​
● Silicosis: dust
● Scarlet fever: crimson tongue; nasolabial triangle
is pale; circumoral
● Spotted fever: ​ Popov’s granuloma
● Virchow’s cells​: Lepra
● : Rhinoscleroma; Scleroma
Mikulicz cells​
● Beresovsky-​ cells/Reed-​
sternberg ​ sternberg​ cells:
lymphogranulomatosis
● Cholera: rice water
● Anthrax (​ ): “scarlet hat”
bacillus anthracis​
● Diphtheria (​ Corynebacterium diphtheriae​ ): a​
ttempts to
remove membrane produce bleeding
● Croupous: ​easily removed
● Ischemic stroke: flabby, anhistic, grayish and
yellowish tissue with indistinct edges
● Necrotic nephrosis (Necronephrosis): ethylene
glycol poisoning; capsule is easily removed;
tubulorrhexis; phlebostasis; necrosis of tubules
● Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): antinuclear
antibodies; “wire loop”
● Septicemia: shock along with​ syndrome
DIC ​
● Septicopyemia: multiple pulmonary abscesses
● Chroniosepsis (chronic sepsis): brown atrophy of
liver, myocardium, spleen and cross striated
muscles as well as renal amyloidosis
● Empyema: greenish-yellow liquid in the right or
left pleural cavity (700ml or 900ml)
● Acute viral hepatitis: kaunsilmen’s bodies;
councilman’s bodies (correct spelling)
● Desmoid: anterior abdominal wall
● Liver cirrhosis: pseudolobules
● Ichthyosis: tortoise shell
● Influenza, severe form: coal miner’s effect
● Uraemia: size of kidneys 7​X3​
​ X2​
​ cm; weight 6​
.5​ g;
5.0​
brain edema
● Regeneration: painful nodules; amputation
neuromas
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:
● Infectious mononucleosis: ELISA revealed
Epstein-Barr virus
● Infectious mononucleosis and AIDS: secondary
immunodeficiency
● Secretory IgA: local post-vaccination immunity
● Type I HSR​: atopy, immediate, reagine, anaphylaxis;
IgG, IgE; mast cell; labrocytes; b​ ;
ronchial asthma​
characterized by rash and i​ tchy papules
● Type II HSR​: antibody-dependent; blood
transfusion
● Type III HSR​: immune complex; acute
post-streptococcal​ glomerulonephritis
● Type IV HSR​ : delayed, cellular cytotoxicity; m ​antoux
test
● Neutrophilic leukocytosis: irradiation dose of
500 roentgen
● Heat radiation: naked person; light clothing
● Heat evaporation: relative humidity (%)
● Convection: exposed skin
● Conduction: in water
● Steroid diabetes (adrenal): 17-ketosteroid (17-KS)
● HDL: removes cholesterol from tissues;
anti-atherogenic lipoprotein
● LDL: hereditary familial hypercholesterolemia
● Hyperlipoproteinemia type IIa: cholesterol
(12.3mmol/L); total lipids (8.2g/L); increase LDL;
consumes eggs, pork-fat, butter
● Cushing’s​pituitary basophilism
(​ syndrome); increased production
Itsenko-Cushing’s​
of glucocorticoids: moon-shaped face;
android-type obesity
● Air embolism: bubbles escape
● Fat/Adipose embolism: fractures
● Thromboembolism of pulmonary artery:
thrombophlebitis of lower limbs
● Eukinetic: increase in cardiac output and general
peripheral resistance
● Myocardial infarction: CK-MB (early period);
LDH1 (6hrs later); aspartate aminotransferase
(AST)
● Complete atrioventricular: atria and ventricles
contracts i​ 60-70 and 35-40
ndependently ​
respectively
● Sinoatrial (S. A.) block: missing of several PQRST
cycles
● S. A. node: 60- and above (112bpm)
● A. V. node: 40-60
● Catecholamines: transplanted heart
● Sympathoadrenal system: raise of arterial
pressure under stress
● Causalgic: gunshot wound damage sciatic nerve
● Protopathic: poorly-localized
● Hemolytic/Prehepatic/Indirect Jaundice:
↑unconjugated, normal conjugated; faeces is
coloured, stercobilin and urobilin are present;
caused by increased hemolysis
● Post-hepatic/Mechanical/Obstructive/Direct
Jaundice: ↑conjugated; normal unconjugated;
faeces is hypocholic (not coloured); stercobilin,
urobilin, stercobilinogen are absent. Caused by
obturation of bile duct, cholithiasis
● Hepatic/Parenchymal/Mixed Jaundice:
combines the characteristics of both
● Increase in ALT and AST rate: indicator for
parenchymatous Jaundice
● Paraproteinemia: myeloma, plasmocytoma,
multiple myeloma, bence jones proteins
● Burn toxemia: extensive burns of torso skin
● Mechanism of edema: increase hydrostatic pressure at the
venous end or rise of hydrostatic pressure in venules
● Thalassemia: anisocytosis, poikilocytosis and
target cells
● Sickle cell anemia: Glutamic acid to Valine;
sickled cells; modified cells
● C-reactive protein: “acute phase” protein
● Gyrus supramarginalis: a​ – lost ability to
praxia ​
execute learned purposeful movements
● Collapse: consciousness is confused
● Glycated hemoglobin: diabetes mellitus; over
the last 4-8 weeks; blood plasma protein
● Electrolytic-osmotic and Membranopathy:
Minkowsky-Shauffard disease
● Hippuric acid: antitoxic liver function
● Catarrhal: lacrimation, nasal discharges
● Ceruloplasmin: Wilson’s degeneration
● Bowels​: vasoconstriction will be m​aximal
● : vasoconstriction will be m
Heart​ ​inimal
● Tay sachs disease: Cherry-red spot
● Cheyne-stokes respiration: cycle repeats
PHARMACOLOGY:
● Hereditary enzymopathy: drug idiosyncrasy
● Pathogenetic: Acetylcysteine as a part of
complex therapy
● Teratogenic: mental and physical development
lag; avoid taking paracetamol during pregnancy
● Pharmacokinetic, absorption stage: treated with
an antacid drug a​lmagel
● Mebendazole: ascarid eggs
● Spironolactone: aldosterone antagonist (no
effect in Addison’s disease)
● ethimizolum: A
A​ sphyxia (a child born with
​​
Asphyxia)
● Corglyconum: acute heart/cardiac failure;
intravenous administration
● Digoxin, digitoxin: chronic heart failure
● Epinephrine hydrochloride: Anaphylactic shock
● Ethanol: methanol intoxication
● Doxycycline: broad spectrum antibiotic; avoid
long stay in sun; dysbacteriosis; forms brown rim
around dental cervix
● Potassium permanganate: gastric lavage
● Dimercaprol, Unithiol: heavy metals – lead,
mercury, bismuth
● Insulin: Type I diabetes; stimulate glucose
transport from extracellular space through
plasmatic membrane; inhibits GP and activates
GS
● Glibenclamide: Type II diabetes; sulfonylurea
● Vitamin U: cabbage and potato juice
● Vicasol: Vitamin K; bleeding/hemorrhage (nose
bleeds); virus B hepatitis
● Amlodipine: long acting calcium channel blocker
● Dihydrofolate reductase: methotrexate,
Co-trimoxazole – these drugs inhibits DNA
synthesis
● Co-trimoxazole: treats toxoplasmosis
● Nitrazepam: GABA-ergic system activation;
hypnotic with tranquilizing effect
● Diazepam: neurosis
● Xanthine oxidase: a​ , xanthine,
llopurinol​
hypoxanthine
● Contrycal: acute pancreatitis; inhibits trypsin
● Magnesium sulphate: cholagogue having also a
laxative effect; antagonist is calcium chloride;
treats hypertensive crisis
● Promedol: antispasmodic effect; cardiogenic
shock; shin fracture
● Levodopa: Parkinson’s disease
● Heparin: natural anticoagulant; antagonist is
protamine sulphate
● Aspirin/Acetylsalicylic acid: blocks or inhibits
cyclooxygenase (COX)
● Bisacodyl: chronic constipations
● Butyrylcholinesterase/Pseudocholinesterase/ac
etylcholinesterase: their deficiency or absence
prolongs dithylinum action
● Azithromycin: macrolide
● Sodium hydrocarbonate: stomach swelling
● Sodim valproate: reduce epilepsy and improve
patients psychic condition
● Methyluracil: accelerate formation of connective
tissue
● Eubiotics: normalize intestinal microflora
● Aminoglycosides: adverse effect – hearing
impairment and vestibular disorders
● Metronidazole: drunk from an open water
reservoir; trichomonal, lamblia (lambliasis),
amebiasis
● Chingamin: dysenteric amoeba and malarial
plasmodia
 ● Metoclopramide: breakdown at a nuclear power
plant
● Dobutamine: non-glycosidic cardiotonic
● Fluids and dobutamine infusion: surgery for
​

necrotic bowel; hemodynamic support

● Amiodarone: blocks potassium channels
● Hydrochlorothiazide: increases digoxin toxicity
● Droperidol: neuroleptanalgesia; potentiate
fentanyl
● Sodium bromide: cough, rhinitis, ​ epiphora
● Aminazine: neuroleptic drug; treats alcoholic
psychosis
● Narcotic analgetics: cheyne-stokes respiration
● urosemide: F​
F​ orced diuresis
​
● Dithylinum: trachea intubation
● Acyclovir: herpetic rash; herpes infection
● Ciprofloxacin: fluoroquinolone, contraindicated
for children
● Naloxone: acute morphine poisoning
● Carbenicillin disodium: blue pus bacillus
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)
● Ketotifen: stabilizer of adipose cells; seasonal
allergic rhinitis
● Pyrazinamide: high serum uric acid level was
found
● Timaline: improvement of immune state