MODULE-1: 

COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY AND PLANTS  

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner should confidently be able to

o know composition of animal body
o understand composition of plants and their byproducts
o differentiate between composition of plants and animals
o describe factors affecting chemical composition of plants.

COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY 

 The composition of animal body is affected by species, strain, age, sex and state of
nutrition.

The percentage composition of animal body

Species
As such or fresh matter basis Water and fat free basis
Water Protein Fat Ash Protein Ash
Calf (new 74 19 3 4.1 82.2 17.8
born)
Steer (thin) 64 19 12 5.1 79.1 20.9
Steer (fat) 43 13 41 3.3 79.5 20.5
Sheep (thin) 74 16 5 4.4 78.2 21.8
Sheep (fat) 40 11 46 2.8 79.3 20.7
Pig (8 kg) 73 17 6 3.4 83.3 16.7
Pig (30 kg) 60 13 24 2.5 84.3 15.7
Pig (100 kg) 49 12 36 2.6 82.4 17.6
Hen 56 21 19 3.2 86.8 13.2
Horse 61 17 17 4.5 79.2 20.8
Man 59 18 18 4.3 80.7 19.3

Water

 Water content of animal body is variable and decreases as age increases.

 For example,
 o A cattle embryo contains -- 95% water
o A new born calf contains -- 75-80% water
o 5 months old calf contains -- 66-72% water
o Mature animal contains -- 50-70% water
 The distribution of water within the body is not uniform. Blood plasma contains 90-92%,
heart, kidney and lungs – 80%; muscles – 75%, bones – 45% and tooth enamel only 5%
water. Water content of animal body also depends on nutritional status of the animal.

Fat

 Fat is the most variable of all components. Fat content of animal body increases with age.
Fat is usually found in adipose tissues, which is present under the skin, around kidney,
around intestine and other internal organs.

Protein

 It is the major constituent of dry matter in muscles, soft tissue, liver, heart, kidney,
lungs, intestines, etc. Muscles contain nearly 75-80% protein. Protein is also present in
hair, nails, feathers, hooves, skin, wool, tendons and bones. Protein along with some
inorganic elements is responsible for the structure of the animals.

Carbohydrates

 It is present only around 1% of the total animal body. It is being constantly formed and
broken down and serves a multitude of functions. It is usually present as glucose or
glycogen in liver and muscles.

Inorganic elements

 Animal body contains many minerals. The amount of mineral in animal body vary which
depend on the function of the particular part of the body. Concentration of some
minerals in animal body is as follows:
o Calcium - 1.3%,  Phosphorus - 0.7%
o Sodium - 0.16%,  Potassium - 0.19%
o Magnesium - 0.04%,  Sulphur - 0.15%
 Calcium is the mineral that occurs in largest amount in the body and is almost entirely
present in bones and teeth. Phosphorus is present in bones in close association with
calcium. Phosphorus is also present in association with proteins, fats and other inorganic
salts. Na, K and Cl are present in inorganic form in various fluids. Other minerals form
component of tissues, fluids or enzymes.

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS 

 The composition of plants shows wide variations. The principal constituent of living
plants is moisture. The moisture content of plants is highly variable. Young plants have
more moisture content. As the plant mature, the moisture content decreases.
  The dry matter of plant contains mainly carbohydrates. Carbohydrate serves as a
structural and reserve material in plants. In seeds carbohydrates occur principally as
starch while in stems and to a certain extent in leaves a considerable proportion of
carbohydrate is present in the form of structural carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin). The lignin content of plant tissues increases with maturity of the plant.
 Protein is primarily present in active tissue such as the leaf. As the plant mature there is
migration of the protein from the leaves to the seeds to serve as a reserve material for
germination. Young tissues of plant, fruits, and seeds, especially leguminous, are rich in
protein.
 Fat is present at highest level in the seeds followed by leaves and stem. Oil-bearing seeds
have higher percentage of protein and fat compared to cereals.
 The mineral content of plants is highly variable. It differs with species and plant parts
and is also influenced by soil and other environmental factors.
 In plants there are various organic acids (citric, malic and fumaric), which are important
for metabolism in the cells of plant.
 Vitamins both fat-soluble and water-soluble are also present in plants.

The percentage chemical composition of some plants and their byproducts

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash

Green plants
Berseem 90.0 2.0 0.3 6.3 1.4
Cow pea 80.0 2.5 0.5 15.0 2.0
Maize 75.0 2.0 0.6 21.0 1.4
Pasture grass 84.0 3.6 1.0 10.0 2.4
Cereal grains
Wheat 13.0 12.0 2.0 71.2 1.8
Seeds
Groundnut 6.0 27.0 45.0 20.0 2.0
Plant byproducts
Paddy straw 10.0 3.5 1.5 70.5 14.5
Wheat straw 10.0 3.5 1.5 76.5 8.5
Rice bran 10.0 10.0 15.0 55.0 10.0
Wheat bran 10.0 10.0 3.0 70.0 7.0

Difference between plants and animals in their composition

S.No Parameters Animal Plant

 .
1. Major constituent Water Water
2. % dry carbohydrate 1 75
3. Reserve energy as Fat Carbohydrate (Starch)
4. Structural component Protein and Carbohydrate (Cellulose,
mineral hemicelluose)
5. As source of protein Good Poor (except oil seeds)
6. Mineral content Constant to Variable
species
7. Variation in Less Wide
composition

Factors affecting chemical composition of plants

 Plant factor - Chemical composition of different varieties of same species of forage vary

because of different genetic material.
 Agro-climatic condition - Atmospheric temperature and humidity affect the chemical
composition of plants.
 Cultivation practices – seed rate, seed treatment, time of sowing, method of sowing,
manure and fertilizer, irrigation, weeds and disease control influence growth rate and
the chemical composition of plants.
 Stage of growth – The content of crude protein, soluble ash is higher just before
flowering and goes down at seed formation stage, whereas crude fibre and dry matter
content increase as the plant matures. Ether extract goes down progressively at maturity
of the plant.
 Processing and preservation practices – Different processing methods may change
particle size, particle shape, nutrient content and composition of plant materials.

MODULE-2: IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Learning objectives  

 After  studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer

o Functions of water
o Water requirement and factors modifying water requirement
o Effect of water restriction
o Water resources
o Regulation of water intake
o Water quality

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENTS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND

 HEALTH

The efficiency of animal production depends on nutritional status of animal and management
practices. Nutrition plays a pivotal role in animal production and health as:

 It brings out the genetic potentiality of the animal. For example, even if a cow has a
capacity of producing 25 litres of milk per day as per genetic makeup, the cow can
not produce 25 litres of milk per day if it is underfed.
 It makes the animal production economical as the cost of feeding of animals accounts for
70-75% of total animal production cost.
 It minimises the competition between human and animal for food by introducing non-
conventional feeds for animal feeding.
 It manipulates feed ingredients for effective utilisation of nutrients.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

 Life can not be sustained without water.

 Animals may live for more days without food but die in fewer days if deprived of water.
 Functions of water as a major component in body metabolism.
o As a major factor in body temperature regulation.
o All the biochemical reactions that take place in an animal require water.
o Act as solvent for a wide variety of compounds.  Due to this solvent action, it
helps in the transport of dissolved nutrients in the system and helps in the
excretion of end products of metabolism.  Many compounds readily ionize in
water.  Salts within the body dissociate into ions, which have specific action in
body tissues.  It serves as a carrier of digestive juices, enzymes and hormones.
o It is a medium for hydrolysis of nutrients in the system.
o It provides cell rigidity, fluidity and elasticity.
o It serves as lubrication fluid in the synovial cavities.
o It serves as a medium for transportation of semisolid digest in the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract; medium for various solutions like blood, tissue fluids
and cell secretions and excretory fluids such as urine and sweat.

WATER REQUIREMENT

 Water requirements for any class or species of animals depends on dietary and
environmental factors
 Water consumption is related to
o Heat production
o Energy consumption
o Body surface area in non-stressing situations.
 All environmental temperature that do not result in heat stress, there is a good linear
relationship between dry matter consumption and water consumption.
 Non-heat stressed non-lactating cattle may drink 5-6%body weight per day.

Water consumption may increase by 12% or more of body weight per day during heat stress.
 Animal Litres/day
Dairy cattle 38-110
Beef cattle 22-66
Sheep and goat 4-5
Horses 30-45
Swine 11 -19
Chickens 0.2-0.4
Turkey 0.4-0.6

 Animals will consume 2 to 5kg of water for every 1 kg of dry feed consumed when they
are not heat stressed.
 Birds require less than mammalian species.
 Young animals generally require more water than adult per unit of body weight.

FACTORS MODIFYING WATER REQUIREMENT

 Physiological status of animal

o Young calves consume more water
o Pregnant and lactating animals consume more water.
 Ambient temperature, Relative humidity, Wind velocity, Rain fall
 Dry matter intake
 Composition of feed:
o Feed with high level of salt increases the water intake.
o Feed with high protein leads to higher production of uric acid / urea which in
turn increasses water requirement
o High fibrous feed also leads to increase in water requirement.
 Variation of species
 Frequency of watering the animal
 Diurnal and seasonal variation
 Animals can tolerate higher salinity than humans. Low quality water leads to reduction
in water intake and feed consumption and decreased production.

EFFECT OF WATER RESTRICTION

 Moderate water restriction decreases  

o feed intake                                                    
o productivity
o urine and faecal water excretion
  Severe water restriction leads to 
o rapid weight loss, increase in blood concentration
o increased renal excretion of sodium, potassium and
nitrogen                                                        
 o Increased pulse rate and rectal temperature especially at hot temprature because
animal has no longer enough water to evaporate
o Nausea, difficulty in muscular movements and death

WATER SOURCES

 Drinking water
 Water contained in feed or bound water
 Metabolic water or oxidation water: Water that is provided to the animal by metabolic
processes is called as metabolic water or oxidation water. Oxidation of carbohydrates
yield 60% of its weight as water, protein yields 42% and fats yield 100%. Metabolic water
plays important role under certain physiological conditions of the animal. In hibernating
animals it is the only source of water. To a certain extent metabolic water is a source of
water for animals living in deserts.

MODULE-3: IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Learning objectives  

 After  studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer

o classification of minerals
o functions of minerals.
o dietary sources
o mineral absorption, imbalance and prevention

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

 In animal tissues and feeds,  minerals are present in varying amounts and
concentrations.
 The seven minerals / elements that are present  in high concentration (>70 mg/kg live
weight) are termed as major minerals. 
 They are as follows:
o Calcium (Ca)
o Phosphorus (P)
o Magnesium (Mg)
o Sodium (Na)
o Potassium (K)
o Chlorine (Cl)
o Sulphur (S)
 Trace elements or Micro minerals are those minerals that are pesent in low
concentration (<70 mg/kg live weight) but are physiologically equally important
 The following fifteen trace elements are essential to fullfil physiological functions in the
body

Iron (Fe)  Chromium (Cr)

 Copper (Cu)  Fluorine (F)
Cobalt (Co) Tin (Su)
Manganese (Mg)  Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)  Silicon (Si)
Iodine (I) Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se) Arsenic (As)
Molybdenum (Mo)

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

 The main structural components of bones and teeth are to give rigidity and strength eg.
calcium and phosphorus
 Magnesium, fluorine, silicon in bones and teeth also contribute to the mechanical
stability of the body.
 Small fractions of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus and most of the sodium,
potassium and chloride in the body fluid and in the soft tissues acts as electrolytes.
 Electrolytes in body fluids like blood and cerebrospinal fluid helps to 
o maintain acid – base balance and osmotic pressure.
o regulate membrane permeability.
o exert characteristic effect on the excitability of muscles and nerves.
 Salts in the saliva, gastric and intestinal juices and rumen fluid are appropriate medium
for the action of enzymes and growth of microbes.
 Essential trace elements are integral part of or components of certain enzymes.
o Example:

Element Enzyme
Copper Cytochrome oxidase
Zinc Carbonic anhydrase
Selenium Glutathione peroxidase

 Trace elements are also components of biologically important compounds – such as

o Iron in haemoglobin
o Cobalt in vitamin B12
o Iodine in the hormone thyroxine
 Trace elements also function as activators of enzymes.

DIETARY SOURCE OF MINERALS

 Farm animals derive most of the mineral nutrients from:

 o Concentrate feed and forages that they consume.
o Mineral supplements such as bone meal mineral mixture, common salt, calcite,
shell grit etc.,
o Drinking water – minor source
o Soil contamination of herbage source for grazing animals.

MINERAL ABSORPTION, IMBALANCE AND PREVENTION

Mode and site of absorption of minerals:

 Minerals are mainly absorbed as ions.

 The major site for absorption
o Small intestine and anterior part of the large intestine
 Large amounts of minerals entering the digestive tract in digestive juices are reabsorbed
together with those originating directly from the food.
 Mode of excretion varies with species of animal
 Ruminant tends to excrete Ca and P in the faeces whereas monogastric species excrete
Ca and P mainly in the urine.

Effects of deficiencies and imbalance of minerals on animals and their prevention:

 Ingestion of diets that are deficient, imbalanced or excessively high in certain minerals
induces changes in their concentration in the animal tissues from below or above the
permissible limits affecting physiological functions:
o Retarded growth
o Decreased food utilization and productivity
o Disturbances in fertility and general health
o Surplus of ions in the basic medium of intestine may lead to precipitation of
inorganic insoluble salts and decreased availability of respective mineral.
o Eg. Surplus PO4-Ca ions precipitated, Mo-Cu precipitated

Prevention of mineral deficiencies and imbalances:

 Supplementation with concentrated source of one or more mineral elements

o Suitable mineral mixture
o Suitable licks
o Treatment of drinking water with soluble salts
o Injection of slowly absorbed organic compounds
o Appropriate fertilizer treatment of the soil to improve mineral composition of
herbage.

MODULE-4: IMPORTANCE OF MAJOR MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-1

Learning objectives  
 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following minerals in animal production and health
o Calcium
o Phosphorus

CALCIUM - FUNCTIONS 

 Structural component of body (Skeleton and teeth): 99% of the calcium in the body is
present in the bones and teeth.
 Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles
 Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood

REGULATION OF CALCIUM METABOLISM

 Whenever blood calcium level decreases below the normal, parathyroid gland is
stimulated to secrete parathormone. This hormone mobilizes calcium from the bone and
also facilitates reabsorption of calcium in the kidney.
 It also increases calcium absorption in the small intestine by increasing the synthesis of
1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol (active form of vitamin D) from 25 hydroxy cholecalciferol
in the kidneys, which in turn increases the synthesis of calcium binding protein resulting
in increased calcium absorption.
 High level of blood calcium stimulates the secretion of calcitonin, which has antagonistic
action to that of parathormone.

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS -  RICKETS /

OSTEOMALACIA

 If calcium is deficient in the diet of young growing animals, then satisfactory bone
formation cannot occur and the condition known as rickets is produced. 
 The symptoms of rickets are misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and
stiffness.
 In adult animals, calcium deficiency produces osteomalacia in which the calcium in
the bone is withdrawn and not replaced. 
 In osteomalacia the bones become weak, fragile and are easily broken. 

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - MILK FEVER

 Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition, which most commonly occurs in dairy
cows shortly after calving.
 It is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms and in
extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.
 The exact cause of hypocalcaemia associated with milk fever is obscure, but it is generally
occurs with the onset of lactation,
 The parathyroid gland is unable to respond rapidly enough to increase calcium
absorption from the intestine to meet the extra demand.
 Normal levels of blood calcium can be restored by intravenous injections of calcium
gluconate, but this may not always have a permanent effect.
  It has been shown that avoiding excessive intakes of calcium while maintaining adequate
dietary levels of phosphorus during the dry period reduces the incidence of milk fever.
 Feeding acidified diet during the later part of dry period also suggested to prevent milk
fever.
 Deliberate use of low calcium diets during dry period to increase calcium absorption in
the practical prevention of milk fever requires a good estimate of calving date, otherwise
calcium deficiency may occur.
 Administration of large doses of vitamin D3 for a short period prior to parturition has
also proved beneficial.

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN POULTRY

 In hens, deficiency symptoms are

o soft beak and bones,
o retarded growth and bowed legs,
o the eggs have thin shells or there is production of leathery eggs.

CALCIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Dairy cattle : 0.34 % DM

 Pig : 0.9 % DM
 Poultry – Broiler : 1.0 % DM
 Poultry – Layer : 3.5 % DM

Supplementation

 Animal byproducts containing bone are excellent sources such as fishmeal, Meat and
bone meal, steamed bone meal
 Milk and green leafy crops, especially legumes are good sources of calcium.
 Other sources include ground limestone, dicalcium phosphate

PHOSPHORUS - FUNCTIONS 

 Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone.

 Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-phosphates
and adenosine di- and triphosphates.
 Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein and lipids
which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds.
 Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid transport
and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes.
 Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA.
 Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – RICKETS /

OSTEOMALACIA
  Rickets / Osteomalacia: Like calcium, phosphorus is also required for bone
formation and a deficiency can also cause rickets or osteomalacia.  

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – PICA / DEPRAVED

APPETITE

 'Pica' or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of

phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood,
bones, rags and other foreign materials.
 In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – POOR FERTILITY

 Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility,
apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of
oestrus.
 There are many examples where phosphorus supplementation increases fertility in
grazing cattle.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – PRODUCTION

RELATED

 In cows a deficiency of this element may also reduce milk yield.

 Subnormal growth in young animals and low live weight gains in mature animals are
characteristic symptoms of phosphorus deficiency in all species.

CALCIUM PHOSPHORUS RATIO - NUTRITIONAL SECONDARY

HYPERPARATHYROIDISM

 The optimum calcium phosphorus ratio is between 1:1 and 2:1.

o An excess of dietary phosphorus in relation to calcium may result in a bone
disorder called nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH).
o An excess of phosphorus depresses calcium absorption and leads to decrease
in blood calcium level which stimulates the release of PTH which mobilizes
calcium from the bone.
o The demineralised bone is replaced by fibrous connective tissue.
 Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs in horses that are fed large
amount of grains or their byproducts without calcium supplementation. The
condition is also referred to as miller’s disease or bran disease or big head
disease.

PHOSPHORUS - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Dairy cattle : 0.29 % DM

  Pig : 0.7 % DM
 Poultry – Broiler : 0.7 % DM
 Poultry – Layer : 0.5 % DM

Supplementation

 Cereal grains, fish meal and meat products are good sources of phosphorus.
 Much of the phosphorus present in cereal grains is in the form of phytates, which are not
digested and utilised in monogastrics.
 In ruminants, hydrolysis of phytates by bacterial phytases occurs in the rumen and
therefore well utilised.

MODULE-5: IMPORTANCE OF MAJOR MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-2

Learning objectives

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following minerals in animal production and health
o Magnesium
o Sodium
o Potassium
o Sulphur

MAGNESIUM - FUNCTIONS 

 Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus.

 Essential constituent of bone and teeth
 Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator
 Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP formation
 Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the biosynthesis of
proteins

MAGNESIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

 In adult ruminants a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany associated with

low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) has been known under a variety of
names including magnesium tetany, lactation tetany and grass staggers,
 Typical symptoms of tetany are
 Nervousness,
 Tremors,
 Twitching of the facial muscles,
 Staggering gait
 Convulsions.

MAGNESIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - POULTRY

  In poultry decreased egg production
 Reduced growth rate, egg production and eggshell thickness

MAGNESIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Ruminants 0.2% in dry matter.

 Monogastrics 0.05% in dry matter. 

Supplementation

 Wheat bran, dried yeast and most vegetable protein concentrate, especially cottonseed
cake and linseed cake, are good sources of magnesium. 
 The mineral supplement most frequently used is magnesium oxide, which is sold
commercially as calcined magnesite.  

SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE - FUNCTIONS

 Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered together because of the
similarity of their functions and distribution in the body.
 Sodium, potassium and chloride are stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.
 They maintain osmotic presence
 They regulate acid base equilibrium
 They control water metabolism in the tissue
 They are essential for the operation of enzyme systems
 They are essential for neural and muscular conduction and transmission
 Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered to be of minor importance
because they are present in sufficient quantity in the diet.
 The danger of excessive intake exist only under special conditions.
 Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids, while potassium is the main cation of
intracellular fluid.
 Chlorine (anion) plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it occurs as
hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - POTASSIUM

 Deficiency is rare in farm animals kept under natural conditions.

 Experimental diets low in potassium induces retarded growth, weakness and tetany,
followed by death.

DEFICIENCY - SODIUM

 A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure which
results in dehydration of the body.
 Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of digested
proteins and energy.  In hens, egg production and growth are adversely affected.
 DEFICIENCY - CHLORIDE

 A dietary deficiency of chlorine is rare. If it occurs it may lead to an abnormal increase of

the alkali reserve of the blood (alkalosis) caused by an excess of bicarbonate.

EXCESS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 

Excess of sodium chloride in the diet leads to salt toxicity

 Symptoms are excessive thirst, muscular weakness and oedema.

 Salt poisoning is quite common in pigs and poultry, especially where fresh drinking
water is limited.

SULPHUR - FUNCTIONS

 Sulphur is a component of
o Thiamine
o Biotin
o Glutathione
o Insulin
o Coenzyme A
o Chondroitin sulphate
 Sulphur needed for the synthesis of these compounds is derived from sulphur containing
amino acids.
 Rumen microbes require sulphur for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids

MODULE-6: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-1
Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the
importance of the following minerals in animal production and health
o Iron
o Copper

IRON - FUNCTIONS 

 More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most
important being haemoglobin and myoglobin.
 Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is concerned with
the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.
 Ferritin is a protein containing iron. It is present in the spleen, liver, kidney and bone
marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.
 Haemosiderin is an another storage form of iron.
 Iron has a major role in many of biochemical reactions, particularly in connection with
enzymes of the electron transport chain (cytochromes).
  Enzymes containing or activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases, phenylalanine
hydroxylase etc.,

IRON - MUCOSAL BLOCK THEORY 

 The efficiency of absorption is increased during periods of iron need and decreased
during periods of iron overload.
 According to Mucosal block theory the mucosal cells of the gastrointestinal tract absorb
iron and convert it into ferritin, and when the cells become physiologically saturated
with ferritin, further absorption is impeded until the iron is released and transferred to
plasma.
 The adult's need for iron is normally low, as the iron produced from the destruction of
haemoglobin is made available for haemoglobin regeneration, only about 10 per cent of
the element escaping from this cycle.

IRON - DEFICIENCY - ANAEMIA 

 Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing suckling

animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low.
 This can occur in piglets housed in pens without access to soil. The piglet is born with
very limited iron reserves and sow's milk provides only about 1mg per day.
 Providing the sow with supplementary iron in gestation does not increase the foetal
piglets liver iron or the amount in the milk.
 Anemia in piglets is characterized by poor appetite and growth. Breathing becomes
labored and spasmodic-hence the descriptive term 'thumps' for the condition.
 Iron deficiency anemia is not common in lambs and calves.

IRON - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Because of efficient recycling, requirement of iron for most of the farm animals is very
low @ 25 –100 mg kg –1 dietary dry matter.
 In laying hens the iron requirement is more, since egg production represents a
considerable drain on the body reserves.
 Increased during pregnancy, haemorrhages, young one when they are maintained on
milk diet. Higher growth rate demands 125 ppm in piglet diet and 40 ppm to calves

Supplementation

 Feeds of animal origin, such as meat, blood and fishmeals, are excellent sources of iron
 Legume and oil seed meal are rich in iron.
 Cereals straw and bran are rich in iron
 Ferrous sulphate salts and iron dextran

COPPER - FUNCTIONS 
  Copper is the integral component of following enzyme
o Ceruloplasmin (ferrooxidase) - conversion of iron into transferrin.
o Erythrocuprein - occurs in erythrocytes where it plays a role in oxygen
metabolism.
o Cytochrome oxidase , which is important in oxidative phosphorylation and
myelin synthesis.
o Lysyl oxidase is needed for the conversion of lysine to desmosine which forms
crosslinks in elastin and collagen fibres.
o Tyrosinase is necessary for the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine to
melanin which is necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool.
 Copper is the integral component of T uracin, a pigment of feathers.
 Copper is required for maintenance of crimp of wool.

COPPER - DEFICIENCY

 A deficiency of copper impairs the animal's ability to absorb iron leading to anemia,
 Deficiency of copper causes
o Poor growth
o Bone disorders.
o Scouring, gastro-intestinal disturbances
o Infertility,
o Depigmentation of hair and wool,
o Lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with
muscular incoordination, and occur especially in young lambs
- swayback condition also known as 'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal
ataxia. The signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a
swaying staggering gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs.
o Loss of 'crimp' in wool - 'stringy' or 'steely' wool
o 'falling disease' – sudden death due to rupture of major blood vessels
o Copper deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.

COPPER - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Dietary requirement and supply of copper

o Dairy cattle - 10 ppm DMB
o Beef cattle, sheep - 5 ppm
o Pigs and poultry - 5-6 ppm

Supplementation

 Seeds and seed byproducts are usually rich in copper

 Application of copper containing fertilizer
 Provision of copper containing salt licks
 Ingestion of organic complexes of Copper
 COPPER POISONING 

 Continuous ingestion of copper in excess of nutritional requirements leads to an

accumulation of the element in the body tissues, especially in the liver. Hence copper can
be regarded as a cumulative poison.
 The tolerance to copper varies considerably between species. Pigs are highly tolerant and
cattle relatively so. On the other hand, sheep are particularly susceptible and chronic
copper poisoning has been encountered in housed sheep on concentrate diets containing
40 mg/kg of copper.
 Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells, jaundice, loss of appetite
and death from hepatic coma.

COPPER-MOLYBDENUM - SULPHUR INTERRELATIONSHIP /

'TEART'

 Sulphide is formed by ruminal microorganisms from dietary sulphate or organic sulphur

compounds.
 The sulphide then reacts with molybdate to form thiomolybdate which in turn combines
with copper to form an insoluble copper thiomolybdate (CuMoS4) thereby limiting the
absorption of dietary copper.
 In addition it is considered likely that if thiomolybdate is formed in excess; it may be
absorbed from the digestive tract and exert a systemic effect on copper metabolism in the
animal.

MODULE-7: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-2

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following micro minerals in animal production and health
o Zinc
o Manganese

ZINC - FUNCTIONS 

 High concentrations of zinc is present in the skin, hair and wool of animals.
 Several enzymes in the animal body are known to contain zinc; these include carbonic
anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.
 In addition zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems

ZINC - DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS

 Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and leads to reproductive
disorders in farm animals.
 Gross signs of zinc deficiency in chicks are
 o retarded growth,
o foot abnormalities,
o 'frizzled' feathers,
o bone abnormality referred to as the 'swollen hock syndrome' in poultry.
 Symptoms of zinc deficiency in calves include inflammation of the nose and mouth,
stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis.

ZINC - DEFICIENCY - PARAKERATOSIS 

 Zinc deficiency in pigs causes parakeratosis, a skin disorder. 

 Reddening of the skin followed by eruptions, which develop, into scabs.
 Parakeratosis is aggravated by high calcium levels in the diet and reduced by
decreased calcium and increased phosphorus levels.
 Pigs given diets supplemented with high levels of copper, for growth promotion, have
an increased requirement for zinc.

ZINC - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Poultry 40 mg.kg feed

 Pig 40 mg/kg feed
 Cattle 30 mg/ kg feed

Supplementation

 Yeast is a rich source, and zinc is concentrated in the bran and germ of cereal grains.
 Animal protein byproducts such as meat meal and fishmeal are usually richer sources of
the element than plant protein supplements.

MANGANESE - FUNCTIONS 

  Manganese is important in the animal body as

o An activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinases
o As a constituent of enzymes such as arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and
manganese superoxide dismutase.
o Manganese through its activation of glycosyl transferases, is required for the
formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
o Manganese containing superoxide dismutase catalyses the reactions that promote
immunity in animals.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS

 Manganese deficiency in all species leads to retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities,

ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure. Low manganese diets for cows and goats
have been reported to depress or delay oestrus and conception, and to increase abortion.
  In pigs lameness is a symptom due thickening and shortening of bones of the legs. Other
abnormalities associated with deficiency include impaired glucose utilization and a
reduced vitamin K induced blood clotting response.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY - PEROSIS OR 'SLIPPED TENDON'

 Manganese is an important element in the diet of young chicks, a deficiency leading

to perosis or 'slipped tendon', a malformation of the leg bones.
 There is enlargement of the hock joint, thickening and shortening of the tibia which
causes Achilles tendon to slip from its condyle causing the leg of the bird to be pulled
sideward and backward.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY - NUTRITIONAL

CHONDRODYSTROPHY

 Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces hatchability and shell thickness, and
causes head retraction in chicks, causes a condition called
as nutritional chondrodystrophy which is characterized by the shortening of the
bones of the wings and legs, shortening of the lower mandible leads to parrot beak
condition

MANGANESE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Poultry: 50 mg/Kg of feed

 Pig: 40 mg/Kg of feed
 Cattle: 25 mg/Kg of feed
 Sheep: 40 mg/Kg of feed

Supplementation

 Rich sources are rice bran and wheat bran, offals. Most green foods contain adequate
amounts. Manganese salts: oxide, chloride, carbonate

MODULE-8: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-3

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following minerals in animal production and health
o Cobalt
o Selenium
 COBALT - FUNCTIONS 

 Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin B12
 Cobalt acts as an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions

COBALT - DEFICIENCY 

Deficiency - Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus

 Cobalt deficiency causes vitamin B 12 deficiency in ruminants

 Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus
o Decreased feed intake
o Emaciation - Loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal muscles
o Decreased growth rate
o Fatty degeneration of liver

COBALT - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 0.07 ppm in the DM – dairy cattle, sheep

 0.1 ppm – beef cattle and lambs

Supplementation

 Cobalt can be supplemented either through

o salt licks
o mineral mixtures or
o by placing cobalt oxide bullet in the ventral sac of rumen using a cobalt gun.
pellets

SELENIUM - FUNCTIONS 

 Selenium is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme which catalyses

the removal of hydrogen peroxide, thereby protecting cell membrances from oxidative
damage.
 Selenium has a sparing effect on vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption of the
vitamin. This is due to its role in preserving the integrity of the pancreas and thereby
ensuring satisfactory fat digestion.
 Selenium also reduces the amount of vitamin E required to maintain the integrity of lipid
membranes and aids the retention of Vitamin E in plasma.

SELENIUM - DEFICIENCY
Deficiency - Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb
disease / mulberry heart disease

 The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency
in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
 Nutritional myopathy , also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs
in cattle, particularly calves.
 The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals
have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after
standing, a trembling and staggering gait.
 Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles
prevents them from raising their heads.
 A popular descriptive name for this condition is white muscle disease.
 The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.
 Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to those of
calves. The condition is frequently referred to asstiff lamb disease.
 In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and selenium deficiency
are myopathy and cardiac disease.
 The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated staggering gait, or are unable to rise.
 The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected.
 Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the lesions of the
cardiac muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is
commonly known as mulberry heart disease.

Last modified: Wednesday, 4 July 2012, 03:10 PM

SELENIUM TOXICITY - ALKALI DISEASE AND BLIND

STAGGERS

 Some species of plants (Astragalus racemosa) that grow in seleniferous areas contain
very high levels of selenium.
 Alkali disease and blind staggers are localized names for chronic diseases of
animals grazing certain seleniferous areas in the USA.
 Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail and hoof
deforrmities.
 Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure, can arise from sudden
exposure to high selenium intakes.

SELENIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Calves and lambs : 0.1 mg / kg feed

 Growing pigs        : 0.05 mg / kg feed
 Poultry                  : 0.1 mg / kg feed

Supplementation
  Fish meal is a good source of selenium.
 Seleno-methionine, seleno-cysteine and sodium selenite are supplemental sources for
selenium.

MODULE-9: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-4

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following micro minerals in animal production and health.
o Iodine
o Molybdenum
o Fluorine
o Arsenic
o Chromium

IODINE - FUNCTIONS 

 Iodine plays an important role in the synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine
and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid gland.
 The thyroid hormones accelerate reactions in most organs and tissues in the body, thus
increasing the basal metabolic rate, accelerating growth, and increasing the oxygen
consumption of the whole organism.

IODINE - DEFICIENCY - GOITRE

 When the diet contains insufficient iodine the production of thyroxine is decreased.
 The main indication of such a deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland,
termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland.
 The thyroid being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals
manifests itself as a swelling of the neck. 
 Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most outstanding consequences of reduced
thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in iodine give birth to hairless, weak or dead
young.

IODINE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Pig: 80-160 micro gram /day

 Poultry 5-9 micro gram /day
 Sheep 50 -100 micro gram /day
 Cattle 400- 800 micro gram /day

Supplementation
  The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin like seaweed's, fish meal
etc,.
 In areas where goiter is endemic, precautions are generally taken by supplementing the
diet with the element, usually in the form of iodized salt.

MOLYBDENUM - FUNCTIONS 

 The biological functions of Molybdenum, apart from its reactions with copper, are
concerned with the formation and activities of the following enzymes.
o xanthine oxidase,
o cytochrome C oxidase
o aldehyde oxidase.
 MOLYBDENUM - DEFICIENCY 

Molybdenum deficiency has not been observed under natural conditions in any species.

MOLYBDENUM - TOXICITY 

The prominent manifestations of molybdenum toxicity in cattle are diarrhoea, scouring, harsh,
staring coats and weight loss. This condition is termed as 'teart' or 'peat scours'. This
condition may be counteracted by oral or intravenous administration of copper.

MOLYBDENUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Since the requirement is very low, it is met from the usual diet

Supplementation

 Not warrented

FLUORINE 

 Fluorine is a very toxic element, with ruminants being more susceptible than non-
ruminants. It causes a condition called as fluorosis.
 There is dental pitting and wear, leading to exposed pulp cavities. Further increases in
fluorine cause depression of appetite, lameness and reduced production.
 Bone and joint abnormalities also occur, probably owing to ingested fluorine being
deposited in the bone crystal lattice as calcium fluoride.
 The commonest sources of danger from this element are fluoride-containing water,
herbage contaminated by dust from industrial pollution and the use of soft or raw rock
phosphate supplements. Processed phosphates are generally safe.
 ARSENIC

 Animals given an arsenic-deficient diet had rough coats and slower growth rates than
control animals given a supplement of arsenic.
 A long term study with goats showed interference with reproduction (abortion, low birth
weights) and milk production and sudden death.
 The toxicity of the element is well known; symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea
and severe abdominal pain.

CHROMIUM

 Chromium was first shown to be essential for normal glucose utilization in rats.
 Chromium appears to have a role in glucose tolerance, possibly forming a complex
between insulin and its receptors. Chromium is a component of glucose tolerance factor
(GTF)
 Chromium may also play a role in lipid synthesis.

MODULE-10: IMPORTANCE OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-I
Learning objectives

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the definition,
classification, differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins and the
importance of the following fat soluble vitamins in animal production and health
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin D

DEFINITION 

Vitamins are organic compounds required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a
living organism. Absence or deficiency of vitamins causes deficiency disorders

CLASSIFICATION

 Vitamins may be classified based on their solubility as fat soluble vitamins and water
soluble vitamins.
o Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A, D, E and K.
o Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin B complex group and vitamin C.
o The B complex group of vitamins includes the following:
1. Vitamin B1 (thiamin)
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid)
4. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
5. Panthothenic acid
6. Folic acid
 7. Vitamin B12 (Cyano cobalamine)
8. Biotin
9. Choline
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FAT SOLUBLE AND WATER
SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Differences fat soluble water soluble vitamins

Names A,D,E,K Vitamin C

B Vitamins
Solubility Soluble in fats and organic Water soluble
solvents
Digestion and Requires fat and bile Easily absorbed in intestine
absorption
Excretion Via faeces Via Urine
Storage Stored in the body in fat Not stored in body except Vitamin
depots and in liver B12
Toxicity An overdosage can lead to Usually not toxic as it is readily
toxicity excreted when given in excess
VITAMIN A - FUNCTIONS 

 Synthesis of glycoprotein to maintain integrity of epithelial cells

 In bone formation synthesis of mucopolysacharides
 Synthesis of the visual pigment Rhodopsin
 Retinol and retinoic acid (RA) are essential for embryonic development during fetal
development.

FUNCTIONS VITAMIN A AND VISION

Rhodopsin synthesis – Visual cycle

 The retina is located at the back of the eye. When light passes through the lens, it is
sensed by the retina and converted to a nerve impulse for interpretation by the brain.
 Retinol is transported to the retina via the circulation, where it moves into retinal
pigment epithelial cells.
 There, retinol is esterified to form a retinyl ester, which can be stored. When needed,
retinyl esters are broken apart to form 11-cis retinol, which can be oxidized to form 11-
cis retinal.
 11-cis Retinal can be shuttled to the rod cell, where it binds to a protein called opsin to
form the visual pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple).
 Rod cells with rhodopsin can detect very small amounts of light, making them important
for night vision.
  Absorption of a photon of light catalyzes the isomerization of 11-cis retinal to all-trans
retinal and results in its release.
 This isomerization triggers the generation of an electrical signal to the optic nerve.
 The nerve impulse generated by the optic nerve is conveyed to the brain where it can be
interpreted as vision.
 Once released all-trans retinal is converted to all-trans retinol, which can be transported
to the retinal epithelial cell to complete the visual cycle.
 Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation, known as
"night blindness."
 VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – BITOT'S SPOTS

Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva (corner of the eye)
called Bitot's spots.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – XEROPHTHALMIA (DRY EYE)

 Severe or prolonged vitamin A deficiency causes a condition called xerophthalmia

(dry eye)
 Xerophthalmia is characterized by changes in the cells of the cornea that ultimately
result in corneal opacity, keratinization of the cornea, corneal ulcers, scarring,
and blindness.
 Some times vitamin A deficiency can lead to obstruction of lacrimal ducts due to
degenerated epithelial cells leading to decreased out put of tears.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – CONGENITAL BLINDNESS

 Vitamin A is needed for bone formation.

 If vitamin A is deficient optic foramen is not formed properly.
 Small size optic foramen leads to the constriction of optic nerve.
 Permanent damage to the nerve can lead to permanent blindness.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – ANTI-INFECTIVE VITAMIN

 Vitamin A is involved in the formation and protection of epithelial cells.

 Damage to epithelial cells can cause easy entry of pathogenic microbes leading to
infection.
 So infection of gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract and skin is
common in Vitamin A deficiency.
 As vitamin A helps to prevent these infections it is called anti infective vitamin.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – NUTRITIONAL RUOP

 In poultry Vitamin A deficiency leads to high mortality rate.

 Early symptoms include retarded growth, weakness, ruffled plumage and a staggering
gait.
  Egg production and hatchability are reduced. Nasal and ocular discharge, drowsiness,
pale comb and wattles, eyelids stuck shut with thick exudates.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON IMMUNE SYSTEM

 Vitamin A is commonly known as the anti-infective vitamin, because it is required for

normal functioning of the immune system.
 The skin and mucosal cells (cells that line the airways, digestive tract, and urinary tract)
function as a barrier and form the body's first line of defense against infection.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON BONE FORMATION

 Vitamin A is essential for normal bone formation as it is involved in the synthesis of

mucopolysacharides needed for laying down of the bone matrix.
 Hence a deficiency of vitamin A can lead to developmental bone deformities.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON REPRODUCTION

 Normal levels of vitamin A are required for sperm production.

 Similarly, normal reproductive cycles in females require adequate availability of vitamin
A.
 Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to infertility or sterility in male
 Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to vaginitis, abnormal oestrous cycle, early embryonic
mortality, abortion and defective formation of foetus in females.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON CEREBROSPINAL

FLUID PRESSURE

 One of the initial effects of vitamin A deficiency is elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
pressure.
 The mechanism whereby the increase in CSF pressure is brought by thickened
duramater leading to under absorption of CSF.

VITAMIN A - TOXICITY 

 The condition caused by vitamin A toxicity is called hypervitaminosis A.

 It is caused by over consumption of vitamin A.
 Symptoms include nausea, headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dizziness, and dry skin.

VITAMIN A - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Growing Cattle :80 IU/ kg body weight

 Dry cow :76 IU/ kg body weight
 Lactating cow: 110 IU/ kg body weigh
  Piglet :500 – 1000 IU / kg feed
 Pig : 2000 – 3000 IU / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler : 1500 IU / kg feed
o Layer : 4000 IU / kg feed

Supplementation

 Animal source: Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut), egg yolk, milk fat.
 Plant source: All green leaves are rich in provitamin A, beta-carotene.
 Conversion of carotene to vitamin A takes place in the intestinal mucosa.
 One molecule of beta-carotene is converted into two molecules of retinol.
 Conversion efficiency depends upon the species of animal.
 Highest efficiency is seen in chicken and rat.
 Vitamin A value is expressed as IU . One IU = 0.3 micro gram of crystalline retinol.

MODULE-11: IMPORTANCE OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-II

Learning objectives

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the definition,
classification, differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins and the
importance of the following fat soluble vitamins in animal production and health
o Vitamin D
o Vitamin E
o Vitamin K

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – RICKETS

 Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are weak, more
prone to fractures and deformities.
 The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and arching
of back.
 Occasionally there is paralysis.
 Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also noticed

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – OSTEOMALACIA

 Resorption of calcium and phosphorus from the bone.

 Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
 It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased amount of
calcium and phosphorus.

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – RUBBERY LEGS IN POULTRY

 In poultry bones and beak become soft and rubbery; legs become weak.
  Egg production is reduced and eggshell quality deteriorates.

VITAMIN D - TOXICITY

 Vitamin D toxicity (hypervitaminosis D) induces abnormally high serum calcium levels

(hypercalcemia), which could result in
o bone loss,
o kidney stones, and
o calcification of organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a long period of
time.

VITAMIN D - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating cow :30 IU/ kg body weight

 Piglet :100-200 IU / kg feed
 Pig : 200 – 400 IU / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler : 200 ICU / kg feed
o Layer : 600 ICU / kg feed

Supplementation

 Cod liver oils (rich source),

 Egg yolk and sun dried roughage's/grains.
 Colostrum contains 6 to 10 times the amount present in ordinary milk.
 Provitamin D: Ergosterol - plant and 7-dehydrocholestrol – skin of animals.

VITAMIN E - FUNCTIONS

 Vitamin E functions in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant

 In association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase, it protects
cells against oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
 Free radicals are formed during cellular metabolism and, as they are capable of
damaging cell membranes, enzymes and cell nuclear material, they must be converted
into less reactive substances if the animal is to survive.
 This protection is particularly important in preventing oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty
acids. Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids produces hydroperoxides, which also damage
cell tissues and more lipid free radicals so that prevention of such oxidation is of vital
importance in maintaining the health of the living animal.
 The animal has two main methods of protecting itself against oxidative damage. Firstly,
radicals are scavenged by vitamin E as a first line of defence and secondly, glutathione
peroxidase destroys any peroxide formed before they can damage the cell.
 These two defence mechanisms complement one another.
 Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of the immune
system.
 VITAMIN E - DEFICIENCY

Deficiency – Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb disease /

mulberry heart disease / exudative diathesis / crazy chick disease

 The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm
animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
 Nutritional myopathy , also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in
cattle, particularly calves.
 The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak
leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a
trembling and staggering gait.
 Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents
them from raising their heads.
 A popular descriptive name for this condition is white muscle disease.
 The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.
 Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to those of calves.
The condition is frequently referred to asstiff lamb disease.
 In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and selenium deficiency are
myopathy and cardiac disease.
 The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated staggering gait, or are unable to rise.
 The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected.
 Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the lesions of the cardiac
muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is commonly known
as mulberry heart disease.
 Vitamin E deficiency in chicks may lead to a number of distinct diseases: nutritional
myopathy, encephalomalacia and exudative diathesis. In nutritional
myopathy the main muscles affected are the pectorals although the leg muscles also
may be involved.
 Nutritional encephalomalacia or crazy chick disease is a condition in which the
chick is unable to walk or stand, and is accompanied by hemorrhages and necrosis of
brain cells.
 Exudative diathesis is a vascular disease of chicks characterized by a generalized
oedema of the subcutaneous fatty tissues, associated with an abnormal permeability of
the capillary walls.
 Both selenium and vitamin E appear to be involved in nutrition myopathy and in
exudative diathesis but selenium does not seem to be important in nutritional
encephalomacia.

VITAMIN E - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating cow : 2.5 IU/ kg body weight

 Piglet               : 5- 10 IU / kg feed
 Pig                   :  20  - 30 IU / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler  : 5 - 10 IU / kg feed
 o Layer   : 5  IU / kg feed

Supplementation

 Green fodders, cereal grains, vegetable oils, fats, and nuts, oil seeds and legumes.

VITAMIN K - FUNCTIONS

 Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver and also for the synthesis
of factors plasma thromboplastin and tissue thromboplastin involved in the conversion
of prothrombin to thrombin.
 The inactive vitamin K dependent zymogens are converted into calcium binding proteins
which activate them.

VITAMIN K - DEFICIENCY – SWEET CLOVER DISEASE

 Low prothrombin level in blood leads to haemorrhagic conditions.

 In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K.
 Sweet clover when it gets mould infested contains a compound dicoumarol, which
lowers prothrombin content of blood leading to haemorrhagic disease and hence
vitamin K is also called as anti haemorrhagic vitamin.
 In chicks Vitamin K deficiency causes anaemia and delayed clotting time of blood.

VITAMIN K - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Piglet  : 0.25 – 0.50 mg / kg feed

 Pig      : 1.0 – 1.5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler : 0.50 mg / kg feed
o Layer : 0.50 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 Green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver, fish and synthesised by bacteria in gastro
intestinal tract.

MODULE-12: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-I

Learning objectives  
  After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health
 Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
 Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

VITAMIN C - FUNCTIONS

 Plays an important role in the formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance
(Capillaries, teeth, bone)
 Plays an important role in the oxidative reduction reaction of living cells.
 Plays an important role in the metabolism of tyrosine
 Plays an important role in the absorption of iron and incorporation of plasma iron into
ferritin.
 Plays an important role in the hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone, tryptophan,
phenylalanine

VITAMIN C - DEFICIENCY – SCURVY

 Scurvy in adults: Weakness, bleeding, loosens teeth, swollen joints hemorrhages.

 Infantile scurvy
o Anorexia,
o Listlessness,
o Leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of long bone.
o Gums swollen,
o Dyspnoea,
o Cyanosis,
o Convulsions and death if not treated.
o Delay in wound healing.

VITAMIN C - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Vitamin C is dietary essential only in man, guinea pig and other primates, red

vented bulbul and fruit eating batas these species lack the enzyme L-gulonolactone
oxidase.
 Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin.
 Other species synthesise vitamin C from glucose.

Supplementation

 Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables are rich sources.

VITAMIN B1 - FUNCTIONS

  Thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme involved in oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
to acetyl coenzyme A. and of alpha ketoglutarate to succinyl COA in TCA cycle.

VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – GENERAL SYMPTOMS

 Anorexia,
 Emaciation,
 Muscular weakness and progressive dysfunction of the nervous system
 VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – STAR GAZING

In Chicks deficiency of thiamine leads to anorexia, emaciation, polyneuritis characterized by

head retraction, nerve degeneration and paralysis which other wise called as star gazing
posture

VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – CHASTEK PARALYSIS

Thiamine deficiency in foxes causes Chastek paralysis.

VITAMIN B1 - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 41 mg / day

 Piglet : 0.5 1.0 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 2 - 3 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 1.5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 0.8 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 Yeast, germ and bran of cereal grains.

 Pork is rich in thamine.

VITAMIN B2 - FUNCTIONS

 It is a constituent of flavoproteins, Flavin mononucleotide and Flavin adenine

dinucleotide.
 They are involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism.
 In sows riboflavin is necessary to maintain normal oestrous activity and prevent
premature parturition.

VITAMIN B2 - DEFICIENCY – CURLED TOE PARALYSIS /

 CLUBBED DOWN CONDITION

 Poor appetite, retarded growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and eye abnormalities.
 In chicks riboflavin deficiency causes curled toe paralysis caused due to peripheral
nerve degeneration, in which the chicks walk on their hocks with the toes curled inwards.
 In breeding hens deficiency causes decreased hatchability. Embryonic abnormalities
occur including the clubbed down condition in which the down feather continues to
grow within the follicle leading to curled feather.

VITAMIN B2 - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow   : 156 mg / day

 Piglet                  : 1 – 3 mg / kg feed
 Pig                      : 4 – 5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler     : 2 - 3 mg / kg feed
o Layer       : 2 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 Synthesised by yeast, bacteria and fungi. Rich sources are liver, yeast, milk and green
leafy vegetables. 

MODULE-13: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-II

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health
o Niacin
o Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
o Pantothenic acid

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - FUNCTIONS

 Nicotinamide functions in the animal body as the active group of two important
coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
 These coenzymes are involved in the mechanism of hydrogen transfer in living cells.

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - DEFICIENCY
  In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth, anorexia, enteritis, vomiting and
dermatitis.
 In fowls a deficiency of the vitamin causes bone disorders, feathering abnormalities and
inflammation of the mouth and upper part of the oesophagus.
 Deficiency symptoms are particularly likely in pigs and poultry if diets with a high maize
content are used, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or of tryptophan
 Pellagra is commonly observed in human population where is predominant part of diet.

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - REQUIREMENT AND

SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 289 mg / day

 Piglet : 5 – 7 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 15 – 20 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 27 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 10 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 It can be synthesised from amino acid tryptophan in the body tissues.

 If the diet is rich in protein containing tryptophan than dietary requirement of the
vitamin is low.
 Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast, groundnuts and sunflower meals.
 In cereals the vitamin is present in the bound form.

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - FUNCTIONS

 Of the three related compounds (pyridoxine, the corresponding aldehyde derivative as

pyridoxal and the amine as pyridoxamine.) the most actively functioning one is pyridoxal
in the form of the phosphate.
 Pyridoxal phosphate plays a central role as a coenzyme in the reactions by which a cell
transforms nutrient amino acids into mixtures of amino acids and other nitrogenous
activities of transaminases and decarboxylases, and over 50 pyridoxal phosphate-
dependent enzymes have been identified.
 The vitamin is believed to play a role in the absorption of amino acids from the intestine.

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - DEFICIENCY

 Affects the animal's growth rate.

 Convulsions may also occur, possibly because a reduction in the activity of glutamic acid
decarboxylase results in an accumulation of glutamic acid.
 In addition, pigs exhibit a reduced appetite and may develop anemia.
 Chicks on a deficient diet show jerky movements, while in adult birds hatchability and
egg production are adversely affected.
 VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - REQUIREMENT AND
SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 48 mg / day

 Piglet : 0.5 – 1.0 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 2 – 3 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 3mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 3 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 The vitamin is present in plants as pyridoxine whereas animal products may also contain
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
 Pyridoxine and its derivatives are widely distributed in yeast, pulses, cereal grains, liver
and milk.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - FUNCTIONS

 Pantothenic acid is a constituent of coenzyme A, which is the important

coenzyme of acyl transfer.
 It is also a structural component of acyl carrier protein, which is involved, in the
cytoplasmic synthesis of fatty acids.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - DEFICIENCY – GOOSE-STEPPING' GAIT

 Deficiency of pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair,
scaliness of the skin and a characteristic 'goose-stepping' gait
 In severe cases animals are unable to stand.
 In the chick, growth is retarded and dermatitis occurs.
 In mature birds, hatchability is reduced.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - REQUIREMENT AND

SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating cow : 425 mg/day

 Piglet : 5 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 10 – 15 mg / kg feed
 Poultry- Broiler and Layer : 10 mg / kg feed

Supplementation
  Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas, yeast and molasses.
 Cereal grains and potatoes are also good sources of the vitamin.

MODULE-14: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-III

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the
following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health
o Folic acid
o Biotin
o Choline
o Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)

FOLIC ACID - FUNCTIONS

 Folic acid is converted into tetrahydrofolic acid which functions as a coenzyme

in the mobilization and utilisation of single-carbon groups (e.g.) formyl,
methyl that are added to, or removed from, such metabolites as histidine, serine,
glycine, methionine and purines.

FOLIC ACID - DEFICIENCY

 A variety of deficiency symptoms in chicks and young turkeys have been reported,
including
o poor growth,
o anaemia ,
o poor bone development and
o poor egg hatchability.

FOLIC ACID - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 35 mg / day

 Piglet : 0.15 – 0.30 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 0.50 – 0.90 mg / kg feed
 Poultry- Broiler : 0.55 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 0.25 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

 Folic acid is widely distributed in nature; green leafy materials, cereals and extracted
oilseed meals are good sources of the vitamin.
  Folic acid is reasonably stable in food stored under dry conditions but it is readily
degraded by moisture, particularly at high temperatures.
 It is also destroyed by ultraviolet light.

BIOTIN - FUNCTIONS

 Biotin serves as the prosthetic group of several enzymes which catalyse the transfer of
carbon dioxide from one substrate to another.
 In animals there are three biotin-dependent enzymes of particular important:
o pyruvate carboxylase,
o accetyl coenzyme A carboxylase,
o propionyl coenzyme A carboxylase.

BIOTIN - DEFICIENCY IN PIGS

 In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions, alopecia (hair loss) and a dry scaly skin.
 In growing pigs, both growth rate and food utilization is adversely affected.
 In breeding sows, a deficiency of the vitamin can adversely influence reproductive
performance.

BIOTIN - DEFICIENCY – FATTY LIVER AND KIDNEY

SYNDROME

 In poultry, biotin deficiency causes reduced growth, dermatitis, leg bone abnormalities,
cracked feet, poor feathering and fatty liver and kidney syndrome (FLKS).
 Fatty liver and kidney syndrome , which mainly affects two-to five-week-old chicks,
is characterized by a lethargic state with death frequently following within a few hours.
 On autopsy, the liver and kidneys, which are pale and swollen, contain abnormal
depositions of lipid.

BIOTIN - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow :  6  mg / day

 Piglet                : 0.05 mg / kg feed
 Pig                    : 0.1 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler   : 0.15 mg / kg feed
o Layer     : 0.10 mg / kg feed
 Avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs can induce biotin deficiency, which
combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.

Supplementation

 Biotin is widely distributed in foods; liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds and vegetable are rich
sources 
 CHOLINE - FUNCTIONS

 Choline is an essential structural component of body tissues.

 It is a component of lecithins which play a vital role in cellular structure and activity.
 It also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver by preventing the
accumulation of fat in this organ.
 It serves as a donor of methyl groups in trans methylation reactions and is a component
of acetylcholine which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses.
 Choline can be synthesized in the liver from methionine and the level of methionine in
the diet therefore influences the exogenous requirement for this vitamin.

CHOLINE - DEFICIENCY – PEROSIS OR SLIPPED TENDON

 Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver, have been
produced in chicks and pigs.
 Chorine is also concerned with the prevention of perosis or slipped tendon in
chicks.

CHOLINE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 1733 mg / kg feed

 Calf    : 1000 mg / kg feed
 Pig     : 900 mg / kg feed
 Piglet : 250 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
o Broiler : 1300 mg / kg feed
o Layer   : 500 mg / kg feed
 The choline requirement of animals is unusually large for the vitamin, but in spite of this,
deficiency symptoms are not common in farm animals because of its wide distribution,
its high concentrations in foods and because it can be readily derived from methionine.

Supplementation

 Green leafy materials, yeast, egg yolk and cereals are rich sources of choline.

VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - FUNCTIONS

 The coenzymic forms of vitamin B12 function in several important enzyme systems.

 These include isomerases, dehydrases and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of
methionine from homocysteine.
 Of special interest in ruminant nutrition is the role of vitamin B12 in the metabolism of
propionic acid into succinic acid.
 In this pathway, the vitamin is necessary for the conversion of methylmalonyl coenzyme
A into succinyl coenzyme A
 VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - DEFICIENCY

 Poor growth,
 Poor feathering,
 Decreased hatchability,
 Dermatitis and rough coat.

VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - REQUIREMENT AND

SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

 Lactating Cow : 600 µg / day

 Piglet : 5 – 8 µg / kg feed
 Pig : 15 µg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler: 9 µg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 3 µg / kg feed
 In poultry housed with access to litter, majority of the vitamin requirements can be
obtained from the litter.
 Microorganisms in the rumen synthesize B12. However, if levels of cobalt in the diet are
low, a deficiency of the vitamin can arise.

Supplementation

 Vitamin B12 is considered to be synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and its

presence in foods is thought to be ultimately of microbial origin.
 The main natural sources of the vitamin are foods of animal origin, liver being a
particularly rich source.

MODULE-15: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS, THEIR

CLASSIFICATION & ENERGY FEEDS

Learning objectives  

 This module will enable the learner 

o to identify the category of a given feed / fodder. This fundamental knowledge will
be useful in comparing the nutritive value of different feed / fodder that will be
dealt in subsequent chapters.
o to categorise a given feed / fodder
o feed ingredients that provide higher level of energy to livestock and poultry.
o to understand the nutritive value as well as the limitation of ingredients that are
used as energy source. This knowledge will be useful to formulate ration to
livestock and poultry.
o to answer the nutritive value of energy feed ingredients. 

INTRODUCTION
 Readers are advised to go the sub segments sequentially as it will help these to
understand the subject easily.
 A visit to feed mill or nutrition laboratory to feel the texture of the samples of feed
ingredients is advisable prior to reading this chapter. However, it is not mandatory, as
relevant photographs are inserted for the reader to recognize the feed ingredients.
 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to
view power point presentation for easy understanding.
 Readers are advised to thoroughly understand this chapter as it forms the foundation for
feed formulation.
 Feed or feed ingredients that supplies higher-level of major nutrients but contains less
than 18 % crude fibre are called as concentrates and those having more than 18% crude
fibre are classified as roughage.
 Concentrates containing higher than 18% protein are called protein rich concentrates
while those containing less than 18% protein are called “Energy rich concentrates”.

CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDSTUFFS

 This section deals with the classification of feeds and fodders that are fed to livestock and
poultry.
 Students are advised to visit near by livestock farm to get conversant with the feed
ingredients fed to livestock and poultry. They are also advised to visit following chapters,
incase they are unable to identify / recognize the ingredients.
 Feedstuffs are classified as follows:
 CEREAL GRAINS
(Maize, Barley, Oats, Wheat, Rice, Rye, Millets, Sorghum and Bajra)
Cereal Grains:  CP: 8-12%
 TDN: 68-72%
 Cereal grains are rich in starch containing 8-12% of  Fat: 2-5%
crude protein with low lysine and methionine, 2-  Low in lysine,
5% fats, less than 0.15% of calcium and relatively Methionine.
higher phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.  P in the form of
 Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates
phytates, which has the ability to immobilize  Ca; 0.15%; P 0.3 –
dietary calcium. 5.0%
 Cereal grains are rich source of thiamine and
vitamin E but deficient in vitamin A and riboflavin
except yellow maize, which is rich in provitamin A.
 The commonly used cereals in feed are maize,
barley, oats, wheat, rice etc,.

Maize or Corn (Zea maize):

 Maize has high metabolisable energy value with

low fibre content and 8-13% of crude protein.
 The maize kernel contains two main proteins Zein
and Glutelin.
 Recently, new variety of maize (Floury 2) was
produced at UK with high methionine and lysine.
 Farm animals are fed with crushed maize.  High TDN: 85%
 Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic  Prone to Aflatoxin
acid proportion in rumen and hence depresses the  Flaked maize
butterfat content of milk. depress milk fat%
 Improperly stored maize having higher moisture
content are prone toaspergillus flavus infestation
and produce aflatoxin.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare):

 Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude

protein having low lysine and less than 2% of oil
content.
 Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening pigs
in UK.
 The awns of barley should be removed, crimped or
coarsely ground before feeding poultry or swine.
 Veriety “Notch 2” developed at UK is rich in lysine.

 Main ingredent used for

fattening of pigs in UK
Oats (Avena sativa):

 Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 - 16% with 7-15%

of crude protein.
 Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient
in oats but abundant in glutamic acid.
 Cattle and sheep are fed with crushed or bruised
oats whereas pigs and poultry are fed with ground Abundant in Glutamic
oats. acid

Wheat (Triticum aestivum):

 Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein.

 The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and
glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is
referred as gluten.
 Wheat gluten decides whether the flour is suitable
for bread or biscuit making.
 Strong gluten
 Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since it
suitable for bread
form dough, which traps the gasses, produced
making.
during yeast fermentation.
 Do not feed finely
 Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals
ground wheat to
because it forms the pasty mass in the mouth and
farm animals
may lead to digestive upset.

Rice (Oryza sativa):

 The crude protein and energy values are

comparable to maize.
 It is widely used for human consumption.

Nutritive value
comparable to Maize
Rye (Secale cereale):  

 Rye is similar to wheat in composition and

regarded as least palatable among cereals.
 Rye is prone to ergot infestation. Rye should be
crushed and fed to livestock.

Millets :  
  Millets are cereals having high percent of fibre and
produce small grains and are mostly grown in
tropics.e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.

Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare):

 Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical

composition but they have higher protein and low
fat than maize.
 Pig and poultry can be fed with cracked grain
whereas cattle are fed with ground sorghum.

Lower in fat than Maize

Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides):

 Nutritive value of bajra is similar to sorghum with

8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.
 Seeds are hard so they have to be ground or
crushed before feeding to cattle.

Rich in Tannin
MILLING BYPRODUCTS
Bran:

 It is the outer coarse coat of the grain separated

during processing. E.g. rice bran, wheat bran, maize
bran.
Rice bran:

 Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein

and 11-18% oil mostly with unsaturated fatty acids
and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.
 The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice
bran in the market for livestock feeding.

De-oiled Rice bran is fed

to livestock

Wheat bran:  

 Wheat bran is an excellent food for horses with more

fibre content.
 It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends
to counteract scouring when it was given dry.
 It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of
the fibrous nature and low digestibility.

Laxative, good for horse;

cattle

Flour:  

 Flour is soft, finely ground meal of the grains with CP: 16%;CF:1.5%
16% protein and 1-1.5% crude fibre consisting
primarily of gluten and starch from endosperm. E.g.
corn flour.

Gluten:

 Gluten is a tough substance obtained after the

removal of starch from flour.
 This is not usually given as a feed to non- ruminants
due to poor quality protein, bulkiness, unpalatability.
 E.g. corn gluten

Middling:  

 A byproduct from flour milling industry comprising 15-20% protein Deficient

several grades of granular particles of bran, in Calcium
endosperm and germ.
  Middlings contain 15-20% protein and deficient in
calcium.

Grain screening:

 Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign

materials of value as a feed, separated through
cleaning of grains with screen is called grain
screening.
 Nutritive value varies according to proportion of weed
and foreign materials.

Polishing:  

 During rice polishing this byproduct accumulates to  CP: 12%  

contain 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.  Rich in B-
 It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy. Complex &
Energy 
 Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.

Molasses:

 It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract

prepared from selected plant material.
 It is a concentrated water solution of sugars,
hemicellulose and minerals.
 Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz.
o Cane molasses,
 
o Beet molasses,
Cane molasses – 3% CP,  
o Citrus molasses and
o Wood molasses. Beet molasses – 6% CP,
 Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and
contains 3% protein with 10% ash. Citrus molasses – 14%
 While Beet molasses is a product during production CP,  
of beet sugar and has higher protein (6%).
 Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein Wood molasses – 2% CP
(14%) and produced when oranges or grapes are
processed for juice.
 Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with
2% protein and palatable to cattle. Good source of energy 
 Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.
Appetiser
 It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as
binder in pellet making. Reduces dustiness
 Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration
and upto 5% in poultry ration.
 The molasses quality in terms of sweetness is
indicated in Brix unit. Binder in pellet making
 Cane molasses usually have 80.0 degree Brix unit.
Upto 15% in cattle ration

Upto 5% in poultry feed

ration.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FAT

 Dairy cows in early lactation demands a high-
energy ration.
 A higher level of energy in the ration can be
achieved by increasing the amount of cereal
grains.
 However, higher levels of grain are not
desirable owing to negative effects on rumen
metabolism.
 In this juncture, fats have received increased
interest and are considered to be potential
 High producing livestock
source of energy in the rations of lactating and poultry needs high
cows. energy feed to meet their
 Hence, strategies that would actually enable nutritional demand.
more fat to be included in the ruminant diet
through protected fat gained considerable  Fat; oil provides 2.25 %
importance. more energy than protein
 Similarly high growth rate in broilers / egg and Carbohydrate.
production in layers lead to increased energy
 Higher level of PUFA
density in diet and this could be achieved only leads to rancidity.
by inclusion of fat in the diet.
 Fat (Vegetable /Animal) provides 2.25% more  Anti oxidants like BHT or
energy than carbohydrate or protein. Ethoxyquin should be
 Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and included in high fat diet.
lessens the wear on feed mixing equipments.
 Vegetable oils like corn oil, Groundnut oil,
sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow
are extensively used in livestock / poultry
feeding.
 Animal fat contains saturated as well as
unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, C24.
 Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of
linoleic acid.
 Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids
leads to rancidity and therefore anti oxidants
like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or
Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.
 MODULE-16: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - PROTEIN
SUPPLEMENTS  

Learning objectives

 In this module the learner will be able to 

o know about the plant protein sources.
o answer the difference between vegetable protein supplements and animal protein
supplements

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS

 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to
view power point presentation for easy understanding. This chapter will enable you to
make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein sources are generally costlier.

Protein supplements can be obtained from animal origin or plant origin.

 Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus, and fewer
than 2.5% fibre while plant origin has mostly less than 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5%
phosphorus and over 2.5% fibre.
 Other sources from which protein supplements can be obtained include NPN
compounds, single cell protein etc.

Animal Origin Plant Origin

Mostly over 47% protein Mostly under 47% protein
Mostly over 1.0% Ca Mostly under 1.0% Ca
Mostly over 1.5% P Mostly under 1.5% P
Mostly under 2.5% fibre Mostly over 2.5% fibre
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS OF PLANT
ORIGIN
 Protein supplements can be obtained from animal Anima Plan
origin or plant origin. l t
 Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0%
calcium, 1.5% phosphorus, and fewer than 2.5% > 47% <
fiber while plant origin has mostly less than 47% CP 47%
protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus and over CP
2.5% fibre. > 1.0% <
 Other sources from which protein supplements Ca 1.0%
can be obtained include NPN compounds, single Ca
cell protein etc. > 1.5% <
 P 1.5%
P
< 2.5% >
CF 2.5%
CF
OIL SEED CAKE / MEAL AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE
 Oil bearing seeds are grown for many purposes like Processes to
vegetable oil for human, for paints and other remove oil
industrial purposes.
 The byproducts left after extraction of oil from oil  Ghani /
seeds are used for feeding all kinds of livestock. Expeller –  
Use pressure
 Oil content and protein content varies according to
to force out
the method of processing. oil.
 Three main processes are used for removing oil from  Organic
oil seeds.  solvent –
o Use pressure to force out oil (ghani and Solvents
expeller). dissolve oil.
 Expeller
o Use of an organic solvent to dissolve the oil
followed by
from the seed. solvent –
 Material of higher oil content undergoes modified (High oil
screw pressing to lower the oil content to a suitable Materials).Us
level followed by solvent extraction. e force
followed by
 Only material with oil content of less than 35% is solvent
suitable for solvent extraction. extraction

Nutritive value   

Protein:    

 Oil seed proteins have low cysteine and methionine  Vegetable

and  lysine content. protein
sources are
 Therefore they cannot provide adequate low in Lysine,
supplementation to the cereal proteins with which Methionine &
they are commonly used. Cystein
 They should be used in conjunction with an animal
protein when given to simple stomached animal.
 95% of the nitrogen in oil seeds meals is present as
true protein with digestibility of 75-90%.

Fat:  

 When the oil content is high in the oil seed cakes, it  Vegetable
protein source
 makes a significant contribution to the energy content in conjunction
of the diet. with cereals
will be low in
 This purely depends upon the process employed in Lysine &
extracting oil and its efficiency. Methionine
 Digestive disturbances may occur from uncontrolled
use of cakes rich in oil.
 Milk or body fat may be soft and carcass quality is
lowered when the oil is unsaturated.

Micronutrients:  

 The oil seed meals usually have high phosphorus  

content, which generally tend to aggravate their low
calcium content.  High
 They may provide useful amount of B vitamins but Phosphorus
&Vitamin B
poor sources of carotene and vitamin E.
 Commonly used oil cake / meals in livestock feed are
groundnut or peanut oil meal, soybean oil meal,
linseed meal, coconut meal, cotton seed meal,
safflower meal, sunflower meal, mustard cake, sesame
seed meal, rape seed meal, palm kernel meal etc.

MODULE-17: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS -

VEGETABLE PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-I

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer the nutritive
value of the following vegetable protein supplements:
o Groundnut cake
o Soyabean meal
o Safflower meal/Kardi meal
o Sunflower cake
o Cotton seed meal

GROUNDNUT CAKE
 Groundnut cake is one of the best protein
supplement for livestock feeding and is
extensively used.
 Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted
residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II) are
available in the market.
 Groundnut cake refers to expeller pressed and
two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are available in
the market.
 The common adulterant includes castor husk and
Mahua oilcake.
 Groundnut cake has about 45% protein, which is  Can be included
deficient in cysteine, methionine and lysine, but upto 25 % in pig
good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium. ration ; 30% in
 In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a cattle ration.
 Deficient in lysine,
toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite methionine and
of Aspergillus flavus. cysteine.
 Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can  Aflatoxin,
occur at any stage from growing crop to the metabolite
formulated feed or stored raw material. ofAspergillus
flavus is most
 Drought may leads to cracked seeds, which
potent toxic.
favours the insect infestation.  Presence of oxygen,
 Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, conducive
teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities temperature (10 –
produced by the species of Aspergillus 40ºC) and high
flavus and A. parasiticus on food and feed humidity favours
the mould growth.
materials.  Among B1, G1, B2,
 Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – G2 Aflatoxin, B1 is
40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould most toxic.
growth.  Turkey poults and
 High moisture in the crop, which harvested ducklings are highly
susceptible.
around wet period and also inadequately dried
products, favours the fungal growth and toxin
production.
 There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2 out of
which B1 is most toxic.
 The susceptibility to these toxins differs among
the species, turkey poults and ducklings are
highly susceptible, calves and pigs are susceptible
whereas mice and sheep are resistant.
 In the same species, young animals are more
susceptible than adults.
 The most common symptoms in the affected
animals are liver damage with marked bile duct
proliferation, liver necrosis and hepatic tumors
while the other symptoms include gastritis and
 kidney dysfunction.

 SOYBEAN MEAL

 Soybean meal contains 44% crude

protein with all indispensable amino
acids except cysteine,
methionine whose concentrations
are        sub- optimal.
 It can be fed to all livestock including
poultry up to 30% of the ration.
 The common adulterant includes
urea, castor husk and Mahua oil cake.
 Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans
have number of toxic and inhibitory
substances.
 For example, in some species, the
long-term use of soybean leads to
goiter due to the presence of
goitrogenic material.
 Six protein inhibitors have been Raw soybean has
identified in soybean; out of these
two inhibitors namely Kunitz anti-  Goitrogenic material.
trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-  Six protein
Birkchymotrypsin inhibitors are inhibitors Kunitz anti-
practically significant. trypsin inhibitor
o Trypsin inhibitors especially & Bowman-
interferes the protein digestion Birkchymotrypsin inhibitors
in monogastric animals. are important.
o Protein indigestibility affects  Haemogglutinin
growth rate, egg production agglutinates RBC.
and feed efficiency and also  Genistein is phyto estrogenic
may lead to hypertrophy of compound.
pancrease and excess
endogenous loss of essential Heat treatment inactivates these
amino acids. anti nutritional properties.
 Haemogglutinin (Lectin) present in
soybean agglutinates red blood cells
of rats, rabbits and human except
sheep and calves.
o Lectins are proteins capable of
binding carbohydrate moieties
in the epithelial cell lining of
small intestine, disrupting the
brush boarder and reducing
 the efficiency of absorption.
 Genistein, a plant estrogen in
soybean has the potency of 4 x 10-6
time as that of diethyl stilbestrol.
 These toxic inhibitory substances and
other factors in soybean like saponins
can be inactivated by proper heat
treatment during processing.

SAFFLOWER MEAL / KARDI MEAL

 The meal is produced after removal of

most of the hull and oil from the
safflower seed.
 Usually decorticated forms contain 40-
45% protein with 10% fibre.
 Safflower meal has low lysine and
methionine content.
 It should be fed to the non-ruminants
like pigs in conjunction with other
lysine rich protein concentrates.

SUNFLOWER CAKE
 Sunflower cake contains 40% of protein with low
lysine and twice the amount of methionine than
soy protein.
 It has very short shelf-life.
 The expeller variety of sunflower seed meal or
cake has high content of polyunsaturated fatty
acids that tends to produce soft pork in pigs and
soft butter in cows when fed in large amount.
 It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level and
10% to poultry ration.
 Sunflower cake is not recommended for calves,
lambs,   chicks and young pigs.

 PUFA makes fat soft.

 Not recommended for
calves, lambs,
chicks and young pigs.

COTTONSEED MEAL
  It has a good quality of protein but with
low content of cysteine, methionine
and lysine.
 The calcium to phosphorus ratio is
about 1:6, so calcium deficiency may
occur.
 It cannot be fed to pigs and poultry due
its dusty nature.
 Lactating cows can be fed with cotton
seed meal but when it was given large
amount, milk may become hard and
firm, so butter made from such milk fat
is difficult to churn and may also tend
to develop tallowy taints.  Wide Ca:P – 1:6
 Both decorticated cottonseed oilcake as  Gossypol – antioxidant &
well as undecorticated cottonseed polymerization inhibitor.
oilcake are available in the market with  Not suitable to pigs &
two grades (Grade I & II) in each poultry
variety.  Milk firm & hard.
 Cottonseed meal contains 0.3-20g/kg  Expeller process, Ca OH &
dry matter of a yellow pigment known Fe reduces gossypol
as Gossypol, a polyphenolic aldehyde. toxicity.
 It is an antioxidant and polymerization
inhibitor.
 It is toxic to simple-stomached animals
and the symptoms include depressed
appetite, loss of weight and even lead to
death due to cardiac failure.
 Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the
addition of calcium hydroxide and iron
salts.
 Shearing effect of screw press in
expeller process is an efficient gossypol
inactivator.

MODULE-18: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS -

VEGETABLE PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-II

Learning objectives

 After studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer the nutritive
value of the following vegetable protein supplements:
o Coconut meal
o Linseed meal
 o Mustard cake
o Sesame seed meal / Gingelly oil cake / Til cake
o Rapeseed meal / Canola meal
o Palm kernal meal
o Leguminous seed

COCONUT MEAL
 It contains 20-26% crude protein with
low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-
6.5% oil content.
 The higher oil in meals tends to get
rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence
low oil content meal should be
preferred.
 It should be restricted in swine and
poultry as it contains low protein and
high fibre and low fibre coconut meal
can be fed to monogastric animals with
lysine and methionine supplements.
 Coconut meal produces firm milk fat  Not recommended to
that is most suitable for butter making. swine & poultry.
 Produces firm milk fat
that is most suitable for
butter making.

LINSEED MEAL

 Among the oilseed residues, linseed is unique

because it readily dispersible in water,
forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-
10% of mucilage.
 Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an
associated enzyme, linase in immature
linseed hydrolyses it with the evolution of
hydrocyanic acid.
 HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and
hence, depending on the species the
minimum lethal dose taken orally has been
estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight.
 Proper water washing, drying and storage can
reduce glycosides in the feedstuffs.  Mucilage forms
 Linseed is rich protein source with low viscous slime in
methionine and lysine content and also rich water.
in phosphorus part of which is present as  Linamarin and
 phytase but has only moderate calcium linase produce HCN
content.  Linseed cake/meal
 It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, is not suitable to
nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline. poultry but good
 It also has protective action against selenium feed to horses and
poisoning. ruminants.
 Linseed oil meal refers to solvent extracted
residue and two grades (Grade I; grade II) are
available in the market.
 Linseed cake refers to expeller pressed and
two verieties (Grade I; grade II) are available
in the market.
 Linseed cake/meal is not suitable to poultry
but good feed to horses and ruminants.

MUSTARD CAKE

 It is widely used in cattle feed in

Northern India.
 Its nutritive value is lesser than
groundnut cake.
 D.C.P and T.D.N values are 27% and
74 % respectively.
 Up to 10% of the ration, it can be fed
to poultry and for pigs it may be up to
20%.
 It has rich calcium and phosphorus
content of about 0.6% and 0.1% 27% D.C.P and 74 % T.D.N
respectively.

SESAME SEED MEAL / GINGELLY OIL CAKE / TIL OILCAKE

  It contains 40% protein rich in leucine,
arginine and methionine but low lysine.
 It was produced from the residues of
sesame meal after removal of oil from
sesame seed.
 There are three verities – red, black,
white.
 White is of high nutritive value than
red.
 It has high phytic acid, which make
phosphorus unavailable to monogastric
animals.
 Sesame seed meal has laxative action
and can be included in the cattle ration
 Can be included in the
upto 15%.
cattle ration upto 15%.
 Sesame seed meal is not suitable to
 Three varieties – red,
young pigs and poultry.
black, white.

RAPESEED MEAL / CANOLA MEAL

 It contains low protein content than soybean

meal with balanced essential amino acids.
 It also contain 14% fibre with low ME.
 It has favourable calcium phosphorus ratio.
 Rapeseed meal contains tannins and
consequently lowers the digestibility
 Presence of glucosinolates accompanied by
thioglucosidase (myrosinase) may lead to
goiter and liver and kidney dysfunction in  
some animals.
 Canadian produced a variety of rapeseed,  Favourable
which is also referred as canola, and hence calcium
meal derived from canola is referred as Canola phosphorus ratio.
meal.  Tannins reduces
 Canola meal is low in glucosinates and digestibility.
warrants lysine supplementation.  Goitrogenic.

   

PALM KERNEL MEAL

 It contains low protein with poor balance of amino

acids.
 Calcium and phosphorus ratio is much more  Not suitable
 favourable than other oil seed meal.
 Since the meal is dry and gritty, it is not readily to pig and
eaten. poultry
 When fed to cow it increases the fat content.  Increases fat
 Palm kernal meal is not suitable to pig and poultry. content of
 Palm kernal meal increases fat content of milk and milk and can
can be included upto 20% in the diet. be included
upto 20% in
the diet.

MODULE-19: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - ANIMAL

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-1

Learning objectives 

 This module will enable you to make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein
sources are generally costlier.

ANIMAL PROTEIN CONCENTRATES

 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are
advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.   

 Included only upto

 Animal protein concentrates are included 15% to makeup
only upto 15% in the ration. deficiency in EAA,
 They are included mainly to makeup the Expensive.
deficiency in essential amino acids  Bovine Spongiform
content. Encephalopathy (Mad
 Animal protein concentrates are Cow Disease) in cattle
expensive. Scrapie in sheep &
 While feeding animal protein goat.
concentrates, care should be taken to  Misfolded protein
prevent spread of Bovine Spongiform (prion) transmitted
Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) in by feeding protein of
cattle and Scrapie in sheep and goat. bovine origin to
 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) cattle / sheep and
and Scrapie are caused by misfolded goat.
protein (prion) present in bovine tissues  Should be free from
and transmitted by feeding protein of pathogens
bovine origin to cattle / sheep and goat. likesalmonella and E.
 Animal protein concentrates should be coli.
free from pathogens
 likesalmonella and E.coli.
 Protein supplements from animal origin
are Fish meal, Meat meal, Blood meal,
Hatchery waste, Milk products.

Last modified: Tuesday, 27 March 2012, 03:42 PM

FISH MEAL
 The whole or parts of various fishes can be used as  High in Lysine,
a fishmeal after they have been dried or ground. Methionine;
 Cooking fish and pressing to remove water and oil Trytophan.
is preferred as this process sterilizes fishmeal  High in Ca ; P.
produced by drying the cooked fish.  Rich in Vit B
 It has high levels of protein, amino acids like Complex ;
lysine, methionine and tryptophan and minerals  Animal Protein
like calcium and phoshorus. Factor.
 Apart from these, fishmeal is rich in vitamin B
complex and growth promoting effect of Animal
Check fish meal for
Protein Factor (APF).
salt; E.coli
 Two main process are employed to process this
sort of meals.
 Batch process (under vacuum) or a continuous Inclusion level:
process.
 In both the cases heating is carried out in steam  Upto 10% in
jacketed vessels. young animal
 Next one is Flame drying process in which meal is diet.
dried in a revolving drum by hot air from a  5% in older
furnace at one end of the drum. animal diet.
 Fishmeal should be tested for salt
toxicity, E.coli bacteria.
 Fishmeal has greatest usage in feeding simple-
stomached animals due to high quality protein
having adequate quantity of essential amino acids.
 Young animals need more fishmeal than the older
ones because the young ones require high quality
protein in addition to growth promoting factor.
 Such diets may include up to 10% of fishmeal.
 In older animals fishmeal is included at 5% and it
may be eliminated entirely from diets for those in
the last stages of fattening.

SQUILLA MEAL

 It is an important byproduct from fisheries.

 This product has rich protein and its calcium content is high when compared to
phosphorus being 2% only.

MEAT AND BONE MEAL

 Rendering is a process that converts  Ackerman factor in the
waste animal tissue into stable, intestinal tract of swine.
value-added materials.  Growth factor in ash.  
 The carcasses of animals can be
used as meat meals after drying or
grinding.
 The product must be substantially  Carcasses of animals rendered
free of hooves, horns, bristle, hair & converted into stable value-
and feathers, skin and contents of added material.
stomach and viscera.  60-70% protein and good
 Its protein content ranges from 60- source of lysine.
70% useful as lysine supplement but  Meat and bone meal has been
less amount of amino acids like banned in the feeding of
methionine and tryptophan affect ruminants due to the
their protein quality. possibility of BSE
 It has fat level upto 9%.
 The enteric factor from the
intestinal tract of swine, the
‘Ackerman’ factor and growth factor
in ash are important in meat meal.
 Meat meal is more valuable for
simple-stomached animals than
ruminants.
 Meat meal as well as meat and bone
meal are readily eaten by pig and
poultry and can be included upto
15% in the diet.
 Meat and bone meal has been
banned in the feeding of ruminants
due to the possibility of BSE

LIVER RESIDUE MEAL

 This can be supplied in place of fishmeal mainly in poultry and livestock.

 A good quality of this meal should contain 65% protein, 5%lysine, and nearly
1%methionine and cysteine.
 It is offered at about 5 to 10% diet level in poultry and animal feeding.

BLOOD MEAL
 This meal is  Obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered
 obtained by animals and poultry.
drying the  Rich source of lysine, methionine, leucine with 80%
blood of protein but deficient in isoleucine and hence low
slaughtered biological value.
animals and  Unpalatable.
poultry.
 It is in the
form of dark
brown
coloured
powder with a
characterstic
smell.
 Rich source of
lysine,
methionine,
leucine with
80% protein
but deficient
in isoleucine
and hence low
biological
value.
 It is a good
food for
boosting
dietary lysine
levels but is
unpalatable.
 It is not
recommended
for young
stock since it's
use has
resulted in
reduced
growth rates
in poultry.

HATCHERY WASTE

 It is otherwise known as
Incubator waste or
Hatchery By Product Meal
(HBPM).
  The mixture of infertile,
unhatched eggs and  Mixture of infertile, unhatched eggs and
eggshells have been eggshells cooked, dried and powdered.
cooked, dried, and  Can replace 33% fishmeal.
powdered to produce this
kind of meal.
 It is found to replace 33%
of fishmeal especially in
Broiler chicks to enhance
weight gain.

HYROLYSED FEATHER MEAL

 The poultry feathers subjected to hydrolysis produce hydrolysed feather meal.

 The digestibility of nutrients is increased.
 Poultry feathers are more prone to get Salmonella infection easily, so strict control have
to be maintained while processing this meal.
 This meal is not recommended for weaner, creep fed pigs or chicks.

POULTRY LITTER

 Dried poultry excreta has been used as ruminant feed.

 Poultry manures vary in composition depending upon their origins.

MODULE-20: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - ANIMAL

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-II

Learning objectives  

 This module will enable you to make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein
sources are generally costlier.

SKIM MILK
 Skim milk is a residue remains after the  Removal fat results in
cream has been separated from milk. concentrated SNF.
 Fat content is below 1% with  Used in simple-
concentrated SNF. stomached animals to
 Skim milk can be used as a main protein cereal based diet to
supplements in the diet of simple- makeup amino acid
stomached animals. imbalance.
 It is effective in bridging gap between
demand and supply of essential amino
 acid in cereal-based diet.

WHEY

 During cheese  Whey protein is B-lactoglobulin and is used as a

making process, constituent in milk replacer for young calves.
casein
precipitates and
the remaining
product is whey.
 Most of the
whey protein is
B-lactoglobulin
and is used as a
constituent in
milk replacer
for young
calves.

NON PROTEIN NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

 NPN is  Rumen microbes use NPN in the synthesis of their own

an cellular tissues and thus supply animal protein in the form
import of microbial protein. 
ant
source
of
nitroge
n for
rumina
nt
animal
s.
 Its use
depend
s upon
the
ability
of the
rumen
microb
es to
use
them
 in the
synthes
is of
their
own
cellular
tissues
and
thus
supply
animal
protein
in the
form of
microb
ial
protein
.

UREA

 It is a nitrogen rich (46%), white, crystalline

compound with the formula NH2-C=O-NH2.
 Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea with the help of  Urea can
urease enzyme and produce ammonia. provide
 The wastage of nitrogen may occur with excessive 287.5 % of
absorption of ammonia from the rumen leading to Crude
ammonia toxicity which cause ataxia, muscular protein (46 x
twitching, tetany, excessive salivation, bloat and 6.25).
respiratory disorders.  Rumen
 Urea should be given in such a way as to slow down microbes
its rate of breakdown and enhance NH3 utilization hydrolyze
for protein synthesis. urea with
 Rumen microbes require readily available source of urease to
carbohydrate to serve as energy for capturing produce
ammonia and therefore urea diet should contain ammonia.
readily available carbohydrate so that the animal can  Excessive
satisfy the needs of its rumen microorganisms. absorption
 One gram of urea should be given along with 0.13g of ammonia
of anhydrous sodium sulfate at the N:S ratio of 15:1 from the
thus minimize sulfur containing amino acids rumen leads
deficiency. to ataxia,
 Urea does not provide energy, minerals, or vitamins muscular
to animals so adequate supplementation of these twitching,
nutrients in diet is necessary. tetany,
 To avoid the danger of toxicity, frequent, small excessive
intake of urea is preferable. salivation,
bloat and
respiratory
disorders.
 Readily
available
carbohydrat
e and slow
urea
hydrolysis
enables
microbes to
utilize
ammonia
effectively
for microbial
prolification.
 N:S ratio of
15:1 is
necessary to
avoid sulfur
containing
amino acids
deficiency.

Urea mixed in concentrates

 Growing and lactating ruminants are fed with urea,

which is incorporated into the concentrate portion of
the ration at 3% or at 1% of total dry matter intake  Urea can be
through complete diet. included at
 The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal 3% of
over 260kg of body weight. concentrate
 Urea can be fed in several forms. or 1% in
 It is available in solid blocks as urea molasses complete
mineral blocks, which provide energy, vitamin and diet.
minerals.  Maximum
 Intake of block is restricted by their high salt content allowance
and hardness of the blocks. 136g/animal
 There is some danger of excessive urea intakes,  Urea blocks
should the block crumble or should there be readily with high salt
available source of water allowing the animal to cope and hardness
 with the high salt intakes. restrict
 Solution of urea (Uramol) containing molasses and intake.
variable amount of vitamins, minerals are now in  Urea should
use. never be fed
 Urea is also used in the upgradation of poor quality to mono
roughages like paddy straw. gastric
 Urea should never be fed to monogastric animals, animals,
birds and young rumiants. birds and
young
ruminants. 

BIURET

 Heating urea produces Biuret.  Biuret contains

 It is a colourless, crystalline compound having 225% crude
40.8% nitrogen equivalent to 225% of crude protein.
protein.  Require longer
 Biuret is expensive compared to urea and requires adaptation
longer adaptation period for the microbes to period.
utilize.

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN(SCP)

 Nowadays, single cell

organisms like yeast and
bacteria are exploited in  Single cell organisms like yeast &
various fields. bacteria grow rapidly and provide
 They can grow very protein.
rapidly and double their
cell mass in large-scale
fermentors.
 A range of nutrient
substrates can be used  Single cell protein can be included at 2-
including cereal grains, 5% in broilers and 10% in layers.
sugar beet, sugar cane,
and its byproducts, waste
products from food
manufacture to culture
bacteria such
asPseudomonas sp are
grown.
 SCP has high levels of
nucleic acids of 5-12% DM
in yeast and 8-16% DM in
 bacteria.
 Some of the purine and
pyrimidine bases in these
acids can be used for
nucleic acid biosynthesis.
 Uric acid or allantoins,
the end products of
nucleic acid catabolism,
are excreted in the urine
of animals consuming
SCP.
 Although SCP does
contain a crude fibre
fraction and lacks
cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin, it contains
glucans, mannans and
chitin.
 Dietary SCP for broilers is
2-5% concentration and
nearly 10% is
recommended for laying
hens.

MODULE-21: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - FORAGE

GRASSES

Learning objectives 

 This module will provide information on the merits and demerits of grasses and
legumes. The nutritional disorders associated with them are highlighted and system of
grazing pasture is elaborated.

NUTRITIONAL DIS ORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH GRASSES AND

LEGUMES

 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to
view power point presentation for easy understanding. This chapter will enable you to
manage your farm with the available roughages as well as to understand the options
available to cultivate appropriate fodder to meet the demand of the farm.

 Grasses are the best and cheapest bulk

feed for the livestock.
 The grasses are the most widely
 Non- Legumes
distributed herbaceous plants, either
Legumes
annuals or perennials and are more than
10,000 species. C.P 5-10% 20-25%
 In the natural pastures and grazing area of
the country, different kinds of native Ca 0.3-0.5% 1.4-1.6%
grasses such as Bracharia, Anjan, Hariyali,
Giant star, Marvel, Spear, etc. are found to  P 0.2-0.3% 0.1-3%
grow under rainfed conditions.
 Under irrigated conditions, grasses like
Napier Bajra hybrids, Guinea grass and
Deenanath grass are suitable for
cultivation.
 Non legume forages contain 5-10 % crude
protein, 0.3-0.5 % calcium and 0.2-0.3 %
phosphorus while legume forages like Cow
pea, Leucerne and Sesbania contain 20-
25% crude protein, 1.4-1.6 % calcium and
0.1-3 % phosphorus on dry matter basis.

PASTURE

 Pastureland can be classified  

as natural or cultivated.
 Natural pastureland includes
rough and hilly grazing land
 Cultivated pastureland may
be sub divided into
permanent or temporary
depending upon its usage.
 Natural pastureland includes
large number of species
whereas cultivated pasture
land contain fewer number
of chosen species.
 The Indian grass cover has  
been classified into following
five groups based on the
dominant grass species: 
o Schima –
Dichanthium type
o Dichanthium –
Cenchrus –Lasiurus
type
o Phragmites –
 Saccharum –
Imperata type
o Themeda –
Arudinella type
o Temperate - Alphine
type 

NUTRIENTS IN PASTURE

 The nutrient composition is  C.P: 3-30%

extremely variable; for
example, the crude protein  C F: 20-40%
may range from 3 per cent
in very mature herbage to  Fat: 4%
30 per cent in young heavily
fertilised grass.
 The crude fibre content is
inversely related to crude  Legumes have ability to grow in a
protein content and may symbiotic relationship with nitrogen
range from 20 in young fixing bacteria.
grass to as much as 40 per  Legumes are superior to grasses in
cent in very mature grass. protein and mineral content.
 Consequently the
digestibility declines as the
plant matures.
 In early stages of growth,
moisture content is high
about 75 to 85% and as the
plant mature, it falls to
about 60 per cent.
 The pasture lipid content
rarely exceeds 4 per cent of
the dry matter.
 Based on the stage of
growth, soil type, amount of
fertiliser applied etc the
mineral content varies with
species.
 Green herbage is
exceptionally rich in
carotene, the precursor of
vitamin A and quantities as
high as 55 mg per 100
grams of dry matter of
young green crops.
 The nutritive value of
temperate grass varies from
tropical grass.
 Temperate species of grass
belong to (C3) three carbon
compound
phosphogylcerate as
important intermediate in
photosynthethetic fixation
of carbon dioxide, where as
tropical grasses have (C4)
pathway of photosynthesis
in which carbon dioxide is
fixed in four carbon
compound – Oxaloacetate.
 Hence the tropical grass
species contain low protein
content compared to
temperate grasses.
 Legumes belong to
leguminosea and have
ability to grow in a
symbiotic relationship with
nitrogen fixing
bacteria. Example –
cowpea, bersem, lucerne
etc,.
 Legumes are superior to
grasses in protein and
mineral content,
particularly calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium,
copper and cobalt.

NITRATE POISIONING

 Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous

fraction (NPN) present in forages.
 Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals.
 The toxic effect on ruminants is caused
 Nitrate reduced to
by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the
nitrite in rumen to
rumen.
become toxic.
 Recently fertilized plants have higher
 Nitrite combines with
nitrate levels.
hemoglobin to form
 Grazing herbage containing more than
 700 ppm of nitrate nitrogen / kg dry methemoglobin.
matter is considered to produce toxic  Methemoglobin can’t
effect by converting to nitrite. transport oxygen.
 Nitrite is absorbed into red blood cells  Increased heart rate &
and combines with hemoglobin (oxygen respiration.
carrying molecule) to form brown  Suffocates; die.
pigment called methemoglobin.
 Methemoglobin cannot transport oxygen
and hence the animal's heart rate and
respiration increases, the blood and
tissues of the animal take on a blue to
chocolate brown tinge, muscle tremors
can develop, staggering occurs, and the
animal eventually suffocates and die.

BLOAT

 Occurs in grazing
land with
predominant leg
umes like lucerne
 Bloat occurs when eructation of gas is interfered.
and clover.
 Ruminants carry
 Gas is trapped in small bubbles in foam in the rumen
an active
causing an obvious swelling on the left side of body.
population of
microorganisms
that generate
large volumes of
gas during the
normal process
of digestion.
 This gas either is
belched up or
passes through
the
gastrointestinal
tract.
 Bloat occurs
when eructation
of gas is
interfered.
 Natural foaming
agents (Saponin)
in legumes cause
a stable foam to
 form in the
rumen.
 Gas is trapped in
small bubbles in
this foam in the
rumen and the
animal cannot
belch up the gas.
 Pressure builds
up in the rumen
causing an
obvious swelling
on the left side of
the body.
 Vegetable oils are
effective for
preventing and
treating pasture
bloat because
they break down
the frothy
condition in the
rumen contents.

PHYTO-ESTROGENS

 Pasture plants like subterranean

clover, red clover and Lucerne
contain Oestrogenic activity.
 Oestrogenic hormones may be  Subterranean clover, red clover
produced either by pasture and Lucerne contain Oestrogenic
legumes (plant oestrogens or activity.
phytoestrogens), or by soil-borne
fungi that live on pasture plants  Phyto-estrogen causes infertility,
or on dead and decomposing dystocia & other reproductive
organic matter at the base of problems.
pasture.
 Phyto-estrogen causes infertility,
dystocia and other reproductive
problems.

GOITROGENIC SUBSTANCE
  The genus Brassica includes
 Thiocyanate interferes with the
cabbages, turnips and
uptake of iodine by thyroid
cauliflower. They contain
gland leading to goiter.
goitrogenic substance –
thiocyanate which interferes
with the uptake of iodine by
thyroid gland leading to goiter.
 Forage brassicas also cause
heamolytic anaemia in
ruminants.

SYSTEMS OF GRAZING IN A PASTURE

 Three system of grazing are

followed.
o Continuous grazing.  Continuous
o Rotational grazing and grazing.
o Strip grazing.  Rotational
 In continuous grazing animals grazing. 
are kept on the same area  Strip grazing. 
through out the year.
o It is essential that the  
stocking rate (no of
animals per unit area)
maintains balance
 Balance eating & herbage regrowth.
between the growth of
 Overstocking – inferior grass.        
new herbage and its
 Understocking -uneconomical.        
harvesting by grazing
animals in order to
provide constant supply  
of fresh grass.
o Overstocking leads to
inferior herbage for
grazing leading to
reduction in animal
performance and
understocking leads to
uneconomical returns.
 In rotational grazing, the
livestock are periodically
moved to fresh paddocks, to
allow pastures to regrow.
o In this system, pasture
is divided into several
fenced paddocks and is
 grazed for short time at
a high stocking rate.
o The pasture is then
rested for longer period
for grasses to grow.
 Strip grazing is a grazing
management system that
involves giving the livestock a
fresh allocation of pasture each
day.
o It is usually organised
within a paddock
grazing system and the
animals are controlled
by the use of an electric
fence.
o Strip grazing systems
are often employed
where there is a
significant excess of
forage available early in
the season and where
providing the livestock
with access to a larger
area would result in
wastage - for example
through trampling or
spoiling by dung.

MODULE-22: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS -

CULTIVATED FODDER, CROP RESIDUES, ROOTS AND
TUBERS
Learning objectives  

 After studying this module, the learner will confindently reply on the various

cultivated fodder crops, crop residues, roots and tubers.

CEREAL FODDER CROPS

 Cereal crops cultivated for fodder includes sorghum,

maize, oats and bajra. CP: 7-9%
 On drymatter basis the crude protein content ranges
from 8-12% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and
 phosphorus content of 0.2-0.5%. Ca: 0.4-0.6%
 Cereal fodders are annual crops and the fodder should
be harvervested at 2/3rd or 50 % flowering stage P: 0.2-0.5%
(around 45 to 60 days for most of the crops) .
Harvest in 45
 Intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive
days
value of the harvested fodder. Fodder sorghum as well
a fodder maize under irrigated conditions yield about 40-45 t/ha,
40-45 tonnes per hectare while fodder bajra and oats
yields 25-30 tonnes per hectare. Oats: 25t/ha
 One may get 50 % of these yields under rainfed
conditions.

CULTIVATED GRASSES

 Cultivated grasses includes Bajra Napier hybrid (Co.

CN -4), Guinea grass, (Co. GG 3) para grass, Cenchrus CP: 6-10%
ciliaris. On drymatter basis the crude protein content
ranges from 6-10% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% Ca: 0.4-0.6%
and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4%.
P: 0.2-0.4%
 Grass fodders are perennial in nature and have to be
harvested at the recommeded intervals. First harvest Harvest Co4 in 45
of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done days,150 t/ha,
at 75 days after planting and the subsequent cuttings
are done at 45 days interval. Others: 100 t/ha
 Bajra Napier hybrid (Co.CN4) yields 400 tonnes/
hectare; Guinea grass (Co. GG 3) yields 300
tonnes/hectare; Para grass yields 80-100
tonnes/hectare.
 Cenchrus is suitable for rainfed areas and yields about
40 tonnes/hectare. Intercropping legumes improves
the nutritive value of the harvested fodder.

CULTIVATED LEGUME FODDER CROPS

 Berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus and stylo are

the common leguminous crops grown in India. On Ca: 1.0-2.0%
drymatter basis, they contain from 15-25 per cent P: 0.2-0.4%
crude protein with 1-2% calcium and 0.2-0.4%
Harvest in 45
phosphorus leading to wide calcium to phosphorus
days,75 t/ha,
ratio.
 Legumes yields 75-100 tonnes per hectare but cowpea Cowpea: 30 t/ha
yields only 20 tonnes per hectare. Legume fodders
are liable to produce “bloat” if given in large
quantities and thus it is advisable that they should
 always be given along with some dry fodder (not
exceeding a maximum of 1/3rd of total green
roughages).
 Perennial legume fodders such as Desmanthes
and Lucerne are harvested at 75 days after sowing
and subsequently at 45 days intervals for Desmanthes
and 30 days interval for Lucerne.
 Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should
be harvervested at 50% flowering stage and are ready
by 50-60 days. Intercropping with cereal or grasses
increases the total green fodder yield per unit of land
and thereby avoids overfeeding of legume alone that
may lead to bloating in animals. CP: 15-25%

TREE FODDERS
 Tree fodders form the staple fodder for small and
large ruminants in most parts of our country.
 They enhance animal productivity by overcoming
seasonal nutritional deficits.
 Further, trees can tolerate varied climatic and  Mimosine
environmental conditions, propagate readily and causes
can serve as a valuable source of protein and reduction in
minerals. growth,
 The non leguminous tree fodders includes leaves of excessive
neem, banyan and fig while leguminous tree salivation,
fodders includes leaves of gliricidia, subabool, loss of hair,
 acacia, sesbania.
 The crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in
non-leguminous tree fodders to 19-22% in eroded gums,
leguminous tree fodders. enlarged
 The calcium content ranges from 1-3 % and thyroid gland
phosphorus ranges from 0.3-0.5%. & poor
 The major constraint in the use of tree fodders is reproductive
the presence of anti-nutritional factors. efficiency
Subabool – Mimosine:
o In subabool, Mimosine is a toxic non-
protein free amino acid otherwise
chemically similar to tyrosine.  Mimosine is a
o Mimosine can cause problems when the toxic amino
forage is eaten in large quantities for a long acid.
period.  Mimosine is
o Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxy degraded to
pyridone (DHP) in the rumen. DHP in
o DHP reaches thyroid gland and inhibits rumen.
biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.
 Symptoms includes reduced growth, excessive
salivation, loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged
thyroid gland and poor reproductive efficiency.
 Certain strains of rumen microbes at Australia that
are capable of detoxifying mimosine have been
identified and are now being inoculated to
livestock of other nations to overcome mimosine
toxicity.

ROOTS AND TUBERS

 Roots are underground parts of plant e.g., Turnip, beet root, carrot etc.,
 Tubers are thickend stem usually formed in underground e.g., potatoes, Cassava,
Sweet potatoes.
 Roots contains sucrose while tubers contains starch or fructan as carbohydrate.
 Feeding livestock with roots and tubers are common in Europe.
 However, Cassava is widely fed to livestock in India.
 Cassava contains two cyanogenetic glucosides, which liberates hydrocyanic acid
(HCN).
 HCN poisoning leads to death and wilting reduces HCN content to safe level.

CROP RESIDUES

 Crop Residues are the left over portion of the crop after the main crop is harvested for
human consumption.
 Crop residues may be grouped under the following headings
 Straws Stover Aerial portion of other crops Others
Wheat Maize Sugarcane tops Corn cobs

Paddy Sorghum Groundnut haulms Bagasse

Oats Soyabean haulms Peanut hull

Barley Rice hull

Millets

Nutritional quality of crop residues

 Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy and micronutrients.
 They are usually high in cell wall constituents like lignin and silica.
 Hence their palatability is low leading to low voluntary intake.
 Their digestibility is also low and bulky in nature.

Straws

 Straws are produced from most cereal crops and from some legumes.
 They consist of the stem and leaves of plants after the removal of the ripe seeds by
threshing.
 They are fibrous, rich in lignin and of extremely low nutritive value.
 Straw feeding is not recommended for pig and poultry.

Paddy straw

 The Paddy straw consist of lignin, about 6-7% dry matter is however lower than that of
other cereals straw.
 But it has an exceptionally high ash content (17% of dry matter) having high silica level.
 In contrast to other straws, the stems are more digestible than the leaves.
 The poor nutritive values of straws may be attributed to the following facts.
o Straw digestion is limited due to the formattion of strong physical and/or
chemical bonds between lignin and the structural polysaccharides (Cellulose and
Hemicellulose).
 Although cellulose by itself has a highly ordered crystalline structure, it
has a very strong association with lignin, which even the most potent
cellulosic enzymes cannot have access to the cellulose unless the bondage
between lignin and cellulose is broken.
o Crystalline structure of cellulose is also responsible for low digestibility of
cellulose.
o Highly deficient in other nutrients like minerals, vitamins, fatty acids and in
proteins. 
o High silica content of straw is known to depress organic matter digestibility.
  It is economical to increase the nutritive values of all types of poor quality roughages by
physical, chemical or biological treatment.

Legume straws

 The husks of the pods with leaves and tender stems are remain as byproducts after
harvesting the seeds of pulses.
 These products can be utilised as nutritious cattle feeds.
 Most common pulse are
o Urad (Phaseolus mungo),
o Moong (Phaseolus radiatus),
o Moth (P.aconiti folius),
o Cow peas (Vigna catiang ) etc.
 The energy value of these straws is comparable with those of cereal straws but they are a
fairly good source of digestible protein.
 Supplementation with energy-rich feeds like cereal grains will, however will be necessary
in the case of high milk producing cattle.

Other straws (Cereals) that are commonly fed to animals are

 Wheat straw, Rye straw and Oat straw.

Stover

 Consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum or soybean plants that are left
in a field after harvest.
 It can be directly grazed by cattle or dried for use as fodder (forage).
 Its nutritive value is similar to straw.

Sugarcane tops

 It is the top portion that has been removed from the highest fully formed node in
sugarcane.
 It includes the green leaves, bundle leaf sheath and variable amounts of immature cane.
 At the time of sugarcane harvest, abundant quantities of sugarcane tops are available.
 Though sugarcane tops serve as green fodder, it has low nutritive value (4 % crude
protein and 48 per cent TDN), dries up quickly and hence wasted.
 To preseve sugarcane tops in succulent form, ensiling with one percent urea, molasses
and salt is beneficial. 

Haulms

 The stems of peas, beans etc., are called as haulms.

 The aerial portion of groundnut plant (groundnut haulms) and Soybean plant (Soybean
haulms) can serve as a potential source of fodder for livestock.
 Haulms contain about 15 percent crude protein and 30 % crude fibre and have better
nutritive value than stovers.
Others

 A corncob is the left over protion after removal of maize grain.

 Corncobs can be used as fibre souce in ruminant feeding.
 Bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after sugarcane is crushed to extract their juice.
It has very low palatability.
 Hulls are outer shell of pods and are fibrous in nature with low nutritive value.

MODULE-23: MEASURES OF FOOD ENERGY AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS 

Learning objectives  

 This module will enable the learner to know about

o the different system of measuring energy value of feed and fodder. Various
methods of measuring energy value are also described.
o how the energy values are quoted. Important points have been listed in the box
for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for
easy understanding.
o to estimate the energy value of feeds and fodder and understand how energy is
expended in the body.

MEASURES OF FOOD ENERGY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 The force that enables to sustain life activities is  
energy.
 Various types of energy, such as chemical, electrical  
and mechanical, radiant can be converted from one
form to the other.  Force that
 The plants trap energy from sun to synthesize sustains life
complex constituents (chemical energy) that are activity is
broken to yield energy for maintenance of life in the energy.
animal for performance of work /production.  Various
 Energy required for maintenance of life includes: types of
o Mechanical energy for essential muscular energy are
activities like heart beat, respiration etc., interchange
o Chemical energy like movement of dissolved able.
substance against concentration gradient,  Energy is
synthesis of enzymes & hormones. required for
 Energy required for performance of work / maintenanc
production includes: e of life and
o Muscular work. performance
o Milk production. of work /
o Growth. production.
o Egg production.
 o Wool production.

SYSTEMS OF EXPRESSING ENERGY VALUE OF

FEEDSTUFFS

 Food evaluation systems are based on digestible,  Gross energy.

metabolic and net energy.  Digestible
 The various systems in vogue are DE, ME, NE, energy.
physiological fuel value, total digestible nutrients,  Metabolisable
starch equivalent, Armsby NE system and energy.
Scandinavian food unit system.  Net energy.
 Actually, the only useful form of energy is Net  Physiological
energy. fuel value.
 Although the experimental determination is  TDN.
somewhat tedious, in most of the developed  Starch
countries, most systems of feed evaluation at equivalent.
present is based on net energy.  Armsby NE
system.
 Scandinavian
food unit.

Basic unit of energy:  

 Calorie: One calorie is the energy required to Calorie is the energy

raise the temperature of 1g of water to 15.5°C required to raise the
from 14.5°C. 1000 calories = 1Kcal (amount of temperature of 1g of
heat required to raise 1kg of water to 1°C). 1000 water to 15.5°C from
Kcal      = 1Mcal or Therm. 14.5°C.
 Joule:The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) advocates to use the
term Joule as against Calorie. 
1 calorie = 4.184 joules.

GROSS ENERGY

 It is defined as the energy liberated as heat when feed, faeces or any other substance is
fully oxidised by burning a sample completely in a bomb calorimeter.

DIGESTIBLE ENERGY

 It is the energy of the feed less the faecal energy.

 Energy lost in faeces accounts for the largest loss of energy, which ranges between 20 to
40%.
 METABOLISABLE ENERGY

 It is the digestible energy less the energy lost in urine and combustible gases leaving the
digestive tract , chiefly methane.
 It can also be defined as ingested gross energy minus faecal energy minus urinary energy
minus gaseous energy.
 It is the portion of energy available for metabolism.
 ME is commonly used to evaluate feedstuffs for poultry because the birds void urinary
and faecal losses together.
 Urinary losses of energy is quite stable in a given species and is usually 2-3% of GE. The
losses are more in ruminants.

HEAT INCREMENT (HI) 

 Heat increment is the amount of energy lost as a result of chemical and physical
processes associated with digestion and metabolism.
 HI increases with the amount of feed consumed and may be used in animals
reared in cold environment to warm the body otherwise.
 HI is a wasteful process.
 HI is also called as specific dynamic effect it consists of the following
o Heat of nutrient metabolism.
o Heat of fermentation.
o Heat production from work by the kidney.
o Heat production from increased muscular activity due to nutrient
metabolism.
 HI is greater in ruminants compared to monogastrics

NET ENERGY (NE)

 Net energy is obtained from ME by subtraction of heat increment.

 NE is that portion of energy that is completely useful to the animal for maintenance and
production purpose.
 The portion of NE used for maintenance is the energy required to sustain life processes.
 The other portion of NE is used for tissue gain or milk or egg production.

MODULE-24: TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND STARCH

EQUIVALENT  

Learning objectives 

 This module deals with

o Total Digestible Nutrients
o Factors affecting TDN value of feed 
o Merits and Limitations  
o TDN in energy evaluation 
o Kellner's Starch equivalent  
o Calculation of Starch Equivalent  
 o Merits and Limitations 

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

 This is the simplest form of energy evaluation wherein the animal requirements and the
value of feeds in meeting these requirements are expressed in terms of the weight of
digestible material in the feed.
 The digestibility of nutrients is determined by digestibility trials.
 TDN is simply a figure, which indicates the relative energy value of a feed to animals.
 It is ordinarily expressed in Kg or in percent.
 It can be calculated by the formula

TDN (%) = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fibre + % digestible N-

free extract + (2.25 x % digestible ether extract).

% TDN =  % DCP + % DCF + % DNFE +(2.25 x % DEE)

 The digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.25 because on oxidation fat provides 2.25
times more energy as compared to carbohydrates.
 The digestible protein is included in this equation because of the fact that excess of
protein eaten by the animals serve as a source of energy to the body.
 The principle of determining the TDN of feed is essentially the same as proposed by
Henneberg and Stohkmann at the Weende’s experiment station.
 The feed and faeces are subjected to the proximate analysis namely, CP, EE, CF and
NFE.
 The amounts of these nutrients not recovered in the faeces are considered to be digested.

FACTORS AFFECTING TDN VALUE OF FEED

 % Dry matter:
o In high moisture feed the nutrient concentration is less and so the TDN value on
fresh matter basis will be less.
 % Digestibility of dry matter:
o The presence of indigestible substances like lignin, acid insoluble ash will
interfere the digestibility of other useful nutrients.
o Hence feeds with high lignin and/or acid insoluble ash will have low TDN values.
 Presence of minerals:
o Since minerals as such contribute no energy, high mineral containing feeds will
have low TDN.
 % Digestible fat in the feeds:
o The feeds containing high digestible fat will have high TDN value because due
weightage is given for its high energy content in TDN system.
o For feeds containing more digestible fat the TDN value sometime exceeds 100%.

MERITS AND LIMITATIONS

Merits:

 It is easiest to determine the digestible values through digestive trials unlike the ME and
NE, which require complicated equipments and procedures.
 The TDN values for most of the feedstuffs are obtained from carefully conducted
digestion trial and are available in standard books.
 The energy requirements of the ruminant were in TDN values.

Limitations:

 Only the loss in faeces is accounted for in this method, but losses in combustible gases,
heat of fermentation and urine are not considered. This is a strong limitation to the
usefulness of TDN for evaluating feeds for ruminants.
 It over estimates the value of roughages. This is because the losses in methane and heat
are relatively larger per unit TDN for roughages than for concentrate Eg. 1 kg of TDN in
low-grade roughage contains only 50% of the net energy present in 1 kg of TDN in maize
grain. Thus, low quality feeds are over estimated by the TDN system.
 If feeds are high in fat content, the TDN value some time exceed 100 in percentage (Eg.)
Pure fat which has 100% digestibility would theoretically have a TDN value of 225% (100
x 2.25 = 225). Animal fat – 175%, maize oil – 172%.
 The term total digestible nutrients consider only the energy giving nutrients whereas the
micronutrients like minerals have not been included.

TDN IN ENERGY EVALUATION

Position of TDN in energy evaluation system:

 TDN is based on the Atwater physiological fuel values for human nutrition.
 In human after digestion and absorption the energy losses of carbohydrate and fat is
negligible, only for protein there is some metabolic loss.
 So, for all three nutrients the physiological fuel values represent the metabolisable
energy values.
 In case of ruminants (where the TDN system is commonly followed) even after digestion
there is high gaseous loss that occurs in the form of methane and CO2 in case of
carbohydrates.
 Moreover the urinary loss is high in case of ruminant animals when compared to human
beings. Hence it can be concluded that,
o As far as carbohydrate (CF ; NFE) and fat is concerned the TDN system can be fit
into DE system in ruminants.
o In case of protein, the TDN system not only considered faecal loss but also
urinary loss. So in case of protein the TDN system can be fit into ME system.
o If the TDN system completely fits into the DE system, then the %DCP should be
multiplied by a figure of 1.3.

Utility of TDN system as an energy measure:

 In India TDN system is commonly followed energy evaluation system for ruminants.
 The famous Morrison standard, which is extensively used by American farmers, is based
on TDN system.
  It can be used for feeding pigs and horses and it is also reliable for comparative
evaluation of ruminant rations of similar composition.
 It is often preferred to express TDN in calories of DE. DE can be calculated by
multiplying TDN with a factor of 4.4. It is found experimentally that the average caloric
value of 1 gram of TDN is 4.4 Kcal (= 17.5 KJ).

KELLNER'S STARCH EQUIVALENT

 The classical method developed by Kellner in 1907 in Germany is a net energy system,
since the production value of feeds is measured by their utilization for fat deposition in
adult animals relative to the fat producing power of 1 kg of starch.
 Kellner’s system was based on the determination of carbon nitrogen balance by
respiration experiments.

Definition:

 SE is defined as the number of Kg of starch that produces the same amount of fat as 100
kg of the respective feed.
 This value is also called as starch value of the feedstuff.

SE = ( Weight of fat stored per unit of food/ Weight of fat stored per unit weight of
starch) X 100.

 One kg of starch fed in excess of maintenance requirement produced 248 g of body fat or
since 1 gram of fat is equivalent to 9.5 Kcal, the NE value of 1 kg of starch for fattening is
2360 Kcal (2.36 Mcal).
 Kellner expressed the energy value of feedstuff by its fat producing ability relative to that
of pure starch.
 (Eg.) When we say that the SE of wheat bran is 45, it means that 100 kg of wheat bran
can produce as much animal fat as 45 kg of pure starch when fed in addition to
maintenance ration or in other words 100 kg of wheat bran contains as much
net/productive energy as 45 kg of the starch.
 Starch value of typical feedstuffs has been determined by carbon-nitrogen balance
experiments.
 For rationing diets, starch values are computed from their content in digestible
nutrients.
 Kellner determined the actual fat producing power of isolated nutrients typical of the
proximate constituents of feedstuffs and the results are summarized in the table below.

Digestible Fat deposited (g) Starch equivalent factor

nutrients
Starch 250 250 =1.0
250
Crude fibre 250 250 =1.0
250
 Ether extract
From oil seeds 600 600 =2.4
250
From cereals 525 525 =2.1
250
From roughages 474 474 =1.9
250
Protein 235 235 =0.9
250

 It appears from the table that the starch values of starch, crude fibre and NFE are equal.
 The fat producing power of protein is lower, since breakdown of protein to nitrogen free
substances and formation and excretion of urea need energy.
 The fat producing power of ether extract from oil seeds is considerably higher than that
from cereals and roughages because the latter fractions contain a greater percentage of
non-glyceride compounds such as waxes and pigments than the pure fat from oil seeds.

CALCULATION OF STARCH EQUIVALENT

 The percentages of the digestible nutrients are multiplied by the respective starch
equivalent factors.
 The arithmetic sum of these products is called as production value/starch value.
 As the calculated production values differed with the actual values Kellner used a
standard for concentrates called as golden number and correction factor for
roughages.

Concentrate – Golden number (0.95):

 For concentrates the actual starch value is obtained from the production value by
multiplying with the ‘ golden number’ or ‘value number’.
 The value number expresses the ratio between the starch value of a feedstuff and that
of the pure nutrients contained in the feedstuff.

Actual SE of concentrates =  Calculated production value x 0.95 Golden number

Roughages (Correction factor):

 The production value of a roughage would be reduced by 0.58 units for every 1 per
cent crude fibre present in the roughages.

Actual SE of roughages =  Calculated production value x (CF% x 0.58 ) Correction factor

MERITS AND LIMITATIONS
Merits: 

 To express the energy value of feedstuff Kellner used starch, which is well known by the
farmers. So the farmers easily understand it. 
 In many European countries this system was once very popular and even now used in
some.
 It is a productive type system, which considers all the energy losses including faecal,
urinary, gaseous and heat losses.

Limitations:

The starch equivalent system suffers from the same weaknesses as other net energy systems
namely,

 The starch value of the ration is not constant at different levels of feeding, but decreases
with increasing levels.
 The starch value differs considerably for different productive purposes, even at the same
level of feeding.
 Kellner expressed energy values for feedstuffs and requirements for all functions in
starch equivalents for fattening. For fattening the efficiency is lower than for other
functions like growth, lactation, etc.

Position of SE in energy evaluation:

 As the SE considered all the energy losses from the body and only the useful energy is
stored as fat, this system can be fit into the NE system.

MODULE-25: FOOD UNIT AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUE 

Learning objectives 

 This module deals with

o Armsby's Net energy system 
o Physiological fuel value  
o Atwater ’s average Gross energy value  
o Atwater’s digestible energy value  
o Atwater physiological fuel values

ARMSBY'S NET ENERGY SYSTEM

 Armsby used calorimeter for his NE determination unlike Kellners C-N balance.
 Kellner compared two levels above maintenance and measured energy values of foods for
fattening.
 Armsby, however, compared two levels below maintenance – the higher level was close
to maintenance – and calculated the NE value of feed by relating the addition of more
food to the resultant saving in body tissues.
  As the utilization of ME for maintenance is markedly higher than for fattening the
evaluation of the same feedstuff according to Kellner and Armsby leads to different
results.
 Armsby expressed the NE value in therms (1 therm = 1 Mcal = 1000 Kcal).

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUE

 Based on the composition of carbohydrate, fat and protein the heat of combustion of the
feed sample can be worked out using appropriate factors.
 From the gross chemical composition of the feed samples the amount of energy yielding
nutrients namely carbohydrate, fat and protein are estimated.
 If the amount of each is known it is easy to workout the heat of combustion of the feed
sample using appropriate factors.
 The heat of combustion of individual carbohydrates, proteins and fats differ with their
composition. (Eg.) As determined by Atwater GE of sucrose is 3.96 Kcal/gram and that
of starch is 4.23 Kcal/gram.
 Energy yield of butterfat was found to be 9.21 Kcal/gram and that of lard, 9.48
Kcal/gram.
 For practical use individual figures were averaged to apply to the major food stuffs
(carbohydrate, fat and protein) as gross energy of food.

ATWATER ’S AVERAGE GROSS ENERGY VALUE

 Average gross energy value can be worked out based on composition of

carbohydrate, fat and protein using appropriate value. The following values were
assigned to calculate the gross energy value.

Atwater ’s average gross energy value factors

 Carbohydrate - 4.15 Kcal/g

 Fat - 9.4 Kcal/g
 Protein - 5.65 Kcal/g

ATWATER’S DIGESTIBLE ENERGY VALUE

 Since none of the foodstuff is completely absorbed, some energy is excreted in the faeces
and therefore the Gross Energy value of feed stuff does not represent the actual energy
require for the body cells. Hence, the following digestibility coefficient of 98% to
carbohydrate, 95% to fat and 92% protein are applied to monogastric animals.
 The calorific values of the three nutrients are multiplied by the corresponding digestible
coefficients to get the digestible values.

Atwater ’s digestible energy value factors

 1 g carbohydrate = 4.15 x 0.98 = 4 Kcal

 1 g fat = 9.40 x 0.95 = 9 Kcal
 1 g protein = 5.65 x 0.92 = 5.2 Kcal
 ATWATER PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUES

 While carbohydrates and fats are completely oxidized to CO2 and water in body cells
after digestion and absorption, proteins are not completely oxidized by the cell.
Nitrogenous components removed from the protein in the form of urea, creatine, and
uric acid that are excreted in the urine. Many combustion of urine experiments showed
that the unoxidised matter is equivalent to 7.9 Kcal/gram of nitrogen, which in terms of
protein is 1.25 Kcal/gram of protein.
 This energy represents metabolic loss and must be subtracted from the ‘digestible
protein’. After considering this Atwater has given factors for ME, which is also known as
physiological fuel values.

Atwater physiological fuel value factors

 Carbohydrate – 4.15 x 0.98 = 4 Kcal/g

 Fat – 9.40 x 0.95 = 9 Kcal/g
 Protein – (5.65 – 1.25) x 0.92 = 4 Kcal/g
 In ruminants gaseous loss also costs much of energy thus these physiological fuel values
are not applicable in the case of ruminants. These values have been used in calculating
the TDN of feedstuffs, but it is a crude procedure for ruminants.

MODULE-26: DIRECT CALORIMETRY 

Learning objectives  

 This chapter deals with calorimeter and its types.

DIRECT CALORIMETRY

 This is simple in theory, difficult in practice; sensible heat loss (heat of radiation
conduction) from the animal body can be measured with two general types of
calorimeters, adiabatic and gradient.
 The insensible heat (latent heat of water vaporized from the skin and the respiratory
passages) is estimated by determining in some way the amount of water vapour added to
the air, which flows through the calorimeter. For this, rate of airflow and change in
humidity is measured.
 There are two kind of calorimeters
o Adiabatic calorimeter
o Gradient calorimeter

ADIABATIC CALORIMETER

 In this type an animal is confined in a chamber constructed in such away that heat loss
through the walls of the chamber is reduced to near zero.
 This is attained by a box within a box.
 When the outer box or wall is electrically heated to the same temperature as the inner
wall, heat loss from the inner wall to the outer wall is impossible.
  Water circulating in a coil in such chamber absorbs the heat collected by the inner wall;
the volume and change in temperature of the water can be used to calculate sensible heat
loss from animal body.
 The construction and operation are complicated and very expensive.

GRADIENT CALORIMETER

 Calorimeters of this type allow the loss of heat through the walls of the animal chamber.
 The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a constant temperature
with a water jacket; the temperature gradient is measured with thermocouples which
line the inner and outer surfaces of the wall.
 By the use of appropriate techniques it is possible to measure separately the radiation
component of the sensible heat loss.
 The amount of water vapour added to the air is measured by assessing the rate of airflow
and change in humidity .
 The main advantage of this type of calorimeter is also the accuracy in measurement.
 The disadvantage is very expensive to construct and complicated to operate.

MODULE-27: INDIRECT CALORIMETRY 

Learning objectives  

 This chapter deals with indirect calorimetry.

INDIRECT CALORIMETRY

 Because the animal body ultimately derives all of its energy from oxidation, the
magnitude of energy metabolism can be estimated from the exchange of respiratory
gases.
 Such measurements of heat production are more readily accomplished than are
measurements of heat dissipation by direct calorimetry.
 A variety of techniques are available for measuring the respiratory exchange; all
ultimately seek to measure oxygen consumption and CO2 production per unit of time.

Open circuit system:

 Devices allow the animal to breath atmospheric air of determined composition; the
exhaust air from a chamber or expired air from a mask or cannula, is either collected or
else metered and sampled and then analysed for O2 and CO2 content.
 Analysis of gases has been accomplished with chemical and volumetric or manometric
techniques. 

Closed circuit system:

 Devices require the animal to rebreathe the same air.

 CO2 is removed with a suitable absorbent which may be weighed before and after use to
determine its rate of production.
  The use of oxygen by the animal body decreases the volume of the respiratory gas
mixture, and this change in volume is used as a measure of the rate of oxygen
consumption.
 Oxygen used by the animal is then replaced by a metered supply of the pure gas.
 Both O2 consumption and CO2 production must be corrected for any difference in the
amounts present in the circuit air at the beginning and end of the experiment.
 Methane is allowed to accumulate in the circuit air and the amount present is
determined at the end of the experiment.

Indirect Calorimetry by the measurement of respiratory exchange:

 The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is therefore converted
into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.
 The overall reaction for the oxidation of a carbohydrate such as glucose is

 And for the oxidation of the typical fat, tripalmitin, is

 In an animal obtaining all its energy by the oxidation of glucose, the utilisation of 1 litre
of oxygen would lead to production of 673/(6x22.4)=5.007 Kcal of heat, for mixtures of
carbohydrates the average value is 5.047 Kcal, and for mixtures of fats alone, the average
value is 4.715 Kcal per litre. Such values are known as thermal equivalents of oxygen, and
are used in indirect calorimetry to estimate heat production from oxygen consumption.
 Animals do not normally obtain energy exclusively from either carbohydrate or fat.
 They oxidise a mixture of these (and of protein also), so that in order to apply the
appropriate thermal equivalent when converting oxygen consumption to heat production
it is necessary to know how much of the oxygen is used for each nutrient.
 The proportions are calculated from what is known as the respiratory quotient (RQ).
 This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide produced by the animal and the
volume of oxygen used.
 Since, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases
contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated from the molecules of
carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.
 From equation (1) the RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1, and from
equation (2) that of the fat, tripalmitin, as 51 CO2/72.5 O2=0.70.
 If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can
then be determined from standard tables. For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the
oxidation of a mixture of 67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent
of oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 Kcal/litre.
 The mixture oxidised generally includes protein.
 The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the output of nitrogen in the
urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.
 The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is completely oxidised)
varies according to the amino acid proportions but averages 5.3 Kcal per g.
  Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body cannot oxidise
nitrogen, and the aveerage amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein
is 4.3 Kcal.
 For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbondioxide is produced and 0.96
litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.
 In practice heat production calculate from respiratory exchange in ruminants is
corrected for this effect by the deduction of 0.5 Kcal for each litre of methane.
 An alternative means of over-coming difficulties of this kind is to calculate heat
production from oxygen consumption alone.
 If a respiratory quotient of 0.82 and a thermal equivalent of 4.8 are assumed, departures
from this RQ of between 0.7 and 1.0 cause a maximum bias of no more than 3.5% in the
estimate of heat production.
 A further simplification is possible in respect of protein metabolism.
 The thermal equivalent of oxygen used for protein oxidation is 4.5 Kcal per litre, not very
different from the value of 4.8 assumed for carbohydrate and fat oxidation.
 If only a small proportion of the heat production is caused by protein oxidation it is
unnecessary to assess it separately, and so urinary nitrogen output need not be
measured.
 An example of the calculation of heat production from respiratory exchange is shown
below:

Calculation of the heat production of a calf from values for its respiratory exchange and Urinary
Nitrogen excretion.

Results of the experiment (per 24 hours)

Oxygen consumed 392.0 litres

Carbon dioxide produced
Nitrogen excreted in urine 14.8 g.
Heat from protein metabolism
Protein oxidised (14.8 x 6.25) 92.5 g.
Heat produced (92.5 x 4.3) 398 Kcal
Oxygen used (92.5 x 0.96) 88.8 litres
Carbon dioxide produced (92.5 x 0.77) 71.2 litres
Heat from carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Oxygen used (392.0 – 3033.2 litres
88.8)
Carbon dioxide produced (310.7 – 71.2) 239.5 litres
Non-protein respiratory quotient 0.79
 Thermal equivalent of oxygen when RQ = 0.79 4.79 Kcal/litres
Heat produced (303.2 x 4.79) 1452 Kcal
Total Heat produced (398 + 1452) 1850 Kcal
INTRODUCTION

Indirect Calorimetry by the measurement of respiratory exchange:

 The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is therefore converted
into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.
 The overall reaction for the oxidation of a carbohydrate such as glucose is

 And for the oxidation of the typical fat, tripalmitin, is

 In an animal obtaining all its energy by the oxidation of glucose, the utilisation of 1 litre
of oxygen would lead to production of 673/(6x22.4)=5.007 Kcal of heat, for mixtures of
carbohydrates an average value is 5.047 Kcal per litre. Such values are known as thermal
equivalents of oxygen, and are used in indirect calorimetry to estimate heat production
from oxygen consumption.
 For an animal catabolishing mixtures of fats alone, (of 4.715 Kcal per litre calculated
from equation (2) above).
 Animals do not normally obtain energy exclusively from either carbohydrate or fat.
 They oxidise a mixture of these (and of protein also), so that in order to apply the
appropriate thermal equivalent when converting oxygen consumption to heat production
it is necessary to know how much of the oxygen is used for each nutrient.
 The proportions are calculated from what is known as the respiratory quotient (RQ).
 This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide produced by the animal and the
volume of oxygen used.
 Since, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases
contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated from the molecules of
carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.
 From equation (1) the RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 Co2/6 O2 = 1, and from
equation (2) that of the fat, tripalmitin, as 51 CO2/72.5 O2=0.70.
 If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can
then be determined from standard tables. For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the
oxidation of a mixture of 67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent
of oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 Kcal/litre.
 The mixture oxidised generally includes protein.
 The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the output of nitrogen in the
urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.
 The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is completely oxidised)
varies according to the amino acid proportions but averages 5.3 Kcal per g.
  Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body cannot oxidise
nitrogen, and the aveerage amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein
is 4.3 Kcal.
 For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbondioxide is produced and 0.96
litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.
 In practice heat production calculate from respiratory exchange in ruminants is
corrected for this effect by the deduction of 0.5 Kcal for each litre of methane.
 An alternative means of over-coming difficulties of this kind is to calculate heat
production from oxygen consumption alone.
 If a respiratory quotient of 0.82 and a thermal equivalent of 4.8 are assumed, departures
from this RQ of between 0.7 and 1.0 cause a maximum bias of no more than 3.5% in the
estimate of heat production.
 A further simplification is possible in respect of protein metabolism.
 The thermal equivalent of oxygen used for protein oxidation is 4.5 Kcal per litre, not very
different from the value of 4.8 assumed for carbohydrate and fat oxidation.
 If only a small proportion of the heat production is caused by protein oxidation it is
unnecessary to assess it separately, and so urinary nitrogen output need not be
measured.
 An example of the calculation of heat production from respiratory exchange is shown
below:

Calculation of the heat production of a calf from values for its respiratory exchange and Urinary
Nitrogen excretion.

Results of the experiment (per 24 hours)

Oxygen consumed 392.0 litres

Carbondioxide produced
Nitrogen excreted in urine 14.8 g.
Heat from protein metabolism
Protein oxidised (14.8 x 6.25) 92.5 g.
Heat produced (92.5 x 4.3) 398 Kcal
Oxygen used (92.5 x 0.96) 88.8 litres
Carbondioxide produced (92.5 x 0.77) 71.2 litres
Heat from carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Oxygen used (392.0 – 88.8) 3033.2 litres
Carbondioxide produced (310.7 – 71.2) 239.5 litres
Non-protein respiratory quotient 0.79
Thermal equivalent of oxygen when RQ = 0.79 4.79 Kcal/litres
 Heat produced (303.2 x 4.79) 1452 Kcal
Total Heat produced (398 + 1452) 1850 Kcal
CARBON NITROGEN BALANCE
TECHNIQUE

Measurement of energy retention by the Carbon and Nitrogen balance technique:

 The main forms in which energy is stored by the growing and fattening animal are
protein and fat, for the carbohydrate reserves of the body are small and relatively
constant.
 The quantities of protein and fat stored can be estimateed by carrying out a carbon and
nitrogen balance trial; that is by measuring the amounts of these elements entering and
leaving the body and so, by difference, the amounts retained.
 The energy retained can then be calculated by multiplying the quantities of nutrients
stored by their calorific values.
 Both carbon and nitrogen enter the body only in the food, and nitrogen leaves it only in
faeces and urine.
 Carbon, however, leaves the body also in methane and carbon dioxide and the balance
trial must therefore be carried out in a respiration chamber.
 The procedure for calculating energy retention from carbon and nitrogen balance data is
best illustrated by considering an animal in which storage of both fat and protein is
taking place.
 In such an animal intakes of carbon and nitrogen will be greater than the quantities
excreted, and the animal is said to be in positive balance with respect to these elements.
 The quantity of protein stored is calculated by multiplying the nitrogen balance by
100/16 (=6.25), for body protein is asumed to contain 16% nitrogen. It also contains
51.2% carbon, and the amount of carbon stored as protein can therefore be computed.
 The remaining carbon is stored as fat, which contains 74.6% carbon. Fat storage is
therefore calculated by multiplying the carbon balance, less that stored as protein, by
100/74.6.
 The energy present in the protein and fat stored is then calculated by using average
calorific values for body tissues.
 These values vary from one species to another, for cattle and sheep those used are
commonly 9.37 Kcal per g for fat and 5.32 Kcal per g for protein.

MODULE-28: PROTEIN EVALUATION OF FEEDS-SIMPLE

STOMACH ANIMALS
Learning objectives  

 This module describes the chemical and biological methods of evaluating protein

quality and quantity. The differences between monogastric and ruminants in
evaluating protein quality have emphasized to focus differentiation for better
understanding.  Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy
understanding.
 It will enable the reader to choose the right feedstuff to feed based on protein
quality to your livestock / poultry as quality of protein plays a major role in their
 productivity and profitability.

Last modified: Monday, 23 July 2012, 10:34 AM

DETERMINATION OF THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PROTEIN

In Simple-stomached animals :

Nutritive value of protein can be determined either by

  Chemical evaluation or
  Biological experiments.

CHEMICAL EVALUATION
 The level of individual essential amino acids in the test materials are assessed
and the results are interpreted as follows:

Chemical score:

 In this concept it is considered that the quality of a protein is decided by that

essential amino acid which occurs in greatest deficit when compared with a
standard.
 The standard generally used is egg protein.
 The content of each of the essential amino acid of the protein is expressed as a
proportion to that of the standard protein.
 The lowest proportion is taken as the score of the protein.
 Eg. In wheat protein the essential amino acid in greatest deficit is lysine.
 The lysine content of egg and wheat protein is 72 and 27g/kg DM respectively,
and the chemical score for wheat protein is 27/72=0.37.
 Disadvantage: No account is taken of the deficiencies of acids other than the
amino acid in greatest deficit.

Essential amino acid Index : (EAAI)

  Is defined as the geometric mean of the egg ratios of essential amino acids.
 Advantage : Predicting the effect of supplementation in combination of proteins.
 Disadvantage: Protein having different amino acid profile may have same or a
very similar index.

Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 11:59 AM

BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS

 A knowledge of the amino acid content of proteins can only help to interpret nutritional
differences among proteins in terms of their amino acid make up.
 Quantitative data regarding the relative digestibility coefficient and nutritive value of
protein i.e. suitability to meet the protein requirements of the body can be obtained only
through experiments on animals or human beings.
 o Digestibility Co-efficient.
o Protein efficiency ratio (PER)
o Net protein retention (NPR)
o Gross protein value (GPV) 
o Nitrogen Balance Experiments 
o Biological value 
o Net protein utilization (NPU) 
o Protein replacement value (PRV)  

DIGESTIBILITY COEFFICIENT

 Before the ingested food becomes available, it must undergo digestion during which it is
broken down to simpler substances, which are absorbed in the body.
 Proteins differ in their digestibility.
 The term digestibility Coefficient of protein refers to the percentage of the ingested
protein absorbed into the blood stream after the process of digestion is complete.
 The digestible protein in a food may be determined by digestibility trials.
 For determination of digestibility coefficient the following data are required.
o Food nitrogen in take.
o Total faecal nitrogen excreted and metaboic faecal nitrogen (when an animal is
fed on nitrogen - free diet certain amount of nitrogen is excreted in the faeces.
This is derived mainly from the digestive juices. This is called metabolic faecal
nitrogen).
 Digestible protein figures are not entirely satisfactory assessments of a protein, because
the efficiency with which the absorbed protein is used differs considerably from one
source to another.
 In order to take this into account, methods of evaluating proteins have been derived
which are based on the response of experimental animals to the protein under
consideration.

PROTEIN EFFICIENCY RATIO (PER)

 The protein efficiency ration normally uses growth of the rat as a measure of the
nutritive value of dietary proteins.
 It is defined as the weight gain per unit weight of protein eaten and may be calculated by
using the following formula.

PER = Gain in body weight / Protein consumed

 Usually a diet containing 10% of protein and eaten by male albino rats of 21 days old is
used and the assay period is four weeks.

NET PROTEIN RETENTION (NPR)

 A modification of PER method, where the weight gain of the experimental group is
compared with a group on a protein - free diet, gives the “net protein retention”.
NPR = (Weight gain by test protein group – weight loss of non protein group)/Weight of
protein consumed

GROSS PROTEIN VALUE (GPV)

 The live weight gains of chicks receiving a basal diet containing 80g crude protein/kg are
compared with those of chicks receiving the basal diet plus 30g/kg of a test protein, and
of others receiving the basal diet plus 30g/kg of casein.
 The extra live weight gain per unit of supplementary test protein, stated as a proportion
of the extra live weight gain per unit of supplementary casein, is the gross protein value
of the test protein, i.e.

GPV = A /Ao

o Where A is g increased weight gain/g test protein, and Ao is g increased weight
gain/g casein.

NITROGEN BALANCE EXPERIMENTS

 A more accurate evaluation of protein may be obtained by using the results of

nitrogen balance experiments.
 In such experiments the ‘N’ consumed in the food is measured as well as that voided
in faeces, urine and any other ‘N’ containing products such as milk, wool or eggs.
When the ‘N’ intake is equal to the out put the animal is in ‘N’ equilibrium.
 When the intake exceeded the out go, it is in positive value, when the out go exceed
the intake the animal is in negative value.

BIOLOGICAL VALUE

 It is a direct measure of of the proportion of the food protein which can be utilised by the
animal for synthesising body tissues and compounds and may be defined as the
percentage of the nitrogen absorbed which is retained by the animal.
 A balance trial is conducted on albino rats in which nitrogen intake and urinary and
faecal excretion of nitrogen are measured and the results are used to calculate the
biological value as follows.

 Part of the faecal N is not derived from the feed but from endogenous losses and is called
metabolic faecal N. Urinary n also contains a proportion of N known as endogenous
urinary N .
 It is N derived from irreversible reactions involved in the break down and replacement of
various proteins structures and secretions.
 MFN and EUN can be estimated in an animal fed a nitrogen - free diet.
  Since these fractions represent the already used up protein they have to be subtracted
from faecal and urinary N lossses to arrive at a more precise BV.                    

While estimating BV the protein intake must be sufficient to bring about N retention. It should
not be in excess of maximum retention.

 The diet must be adequate in all other nutrients.

 The amino acid mixtures absorbed by the animals are required for the synthesis of body
proteins.
 The efficiency of this synthesis depends upon how close the amino acid proportions of
the abosorbed mixture resemble those of body proteins, and partly on the extent to
which these proportions can be modified.
 The biological value of a food protein, therefore, depends upon the number and kind of
amino acids present in the molecule: the nearer the food protein approaches the body
proteins in amino acid makeup, the higher will be the biological value.
 Animals have little ability to store amino acids in the free state and if an amino acid is
not immediately required for protein synthesis it is readily broken down and either
transformed into a dispensable amino acid which is needed by the animal, or used as an
energy source.
 Since indispensable amino acids cannot be effectively synthesised in the animal body, an
imbalance of these in the diet leads to a wastage.
 Food proteins with either a deficiency or an excess of any particular amino acid will tend
to have a low biological value.
 If we consider two food proteins, one deficient in lysine and rich in methionine and the
other deficient in methionine but containing an excess of lysine, then if these proteins
are given separately to young pigs, they will both have low biological values because of
the imbalance of these two indispensable amino acids.
 If however the two proteins are given together, then the mixture of indispensable amino
acids will be better balanced and the mixture will have a higher biological value than
either protein given alone. Such proteins supplement each other.
 In practice, and for a similar reason, it often happens that a diet containig a large variety
of proteins has a higher biological value than a diet containing only a few.
 This also explains why biological values for individual foods cannot be applied when
mixtures of foods are used, since clearly the resultant biological value of a mixture is not
simply a mean of the individual components. For the same reason it is impossible to
predict the value of a protein, as a supplement to a given diet, from its biological value.
 Animal proteins generally have higher biological values than plant proteins, although
there are exceptions such as gelatine, which is deficient in several indispensable amino
acids.

NET PROTEIN UTILISATION (NPU)

 The usefulness of a protein to animal will depend upon its digestibility as well as its
biological value.
  The products of these two values is the proposition of the nitrogen intake which is
retained and is termed as “Net protein utilization”.                           

PROTEIN REPLACEMENT VALUE (PRV)

 This value measures the extent to which a test protein will give the same balance as an
equal amount of a standard protein.
 Two nitrogen balance determinations are carried out, one for a standard such as egg or
milk protein, which is of high quality, and one for the protein under investigation.
 The PRV is calculated as follows:

                            PRV = (A – B) / N intake

 Where A = N balance for standard protein in mg/basal kJ, B = N balance for protein
under investigattion in mg/basal kJ.
 The method can also be used to compare two proteins under similar conditions, when no
standard value for replacement is required.
 The PRV measures the efficiency of utilisation of the protein given to the animal.
 Other methods measure the utilisation of digested and absorbed protein.

MODULE-29: PROTEIN EVALUATION OF FEEDS-RUMINANTS

Learning objectives  

 This module describes the chemical and biological methods of evaluating protein quality
and quantity. The differences between monogastric and ruminants in evaluating protein
quality have emphasized to focus differentiation for better understanding.  Readers are
advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.
 It will enable the reader to choose the right feedstuff to feed based on protein quality to
your livestock as quality of protein plays a major role in their productivity and
profitability.

CRUDE PROTEIN

 The proximate composition of the feed provides this information.

 However, the evaluation of feed based on the Crude protein content is not satisfactory as
the utility of protein cannot be judged based on chemical composition.

DIGESTIBLE CRUDE PROTEIN

 As determining the DCP of large number of foods is impracticable, often the crude

protein value of the feed and the digestible coefficient of crude protein is referred from
the tables available in the literature.
  This holds good for concentrates which has relatively constant composition and
digestibility coefficient.
 With roughage, a different approach is usually taken owing to their greater variability
and relatively greater importance of metabolic faecal nitrogen in material of low protein
content.
 In this case regression equation for DCP and CP are used to calculate the former. A
typical equation

DCP ( g/kg DM) = CP(g/kg DM) X 0.9115 – 36.7

 Is widely used for grasses, hays and silages.

DEGRADABLE AND UNDEGRADABLE PROTEIN

 Proposed by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) for the UK and based on the
classification of protein as ‘Rumen degradable (RDP) and undegradable dietary
protein(UDP)’.
 The requirements of RDP & UDP to ruminants under various physilogical conditions
have been assesed and fed accordingly.

METABOLISABLE PROTEIN

 ‘Metabolisable protein’ system is used in the USA .

 Metabolisable protein is that part of the dietary protein which is absorbed by the host
animal and is available for use at tissue level.
 It consist partly of dietary true protein which has escaped degradation in the rumen but
which has been broken down to amino acids which are subsequently absorbed from the
small intestine.
 Microbial protein, synthesised in the rumen, similarly contributes to metabolisable
protein.

Calculation of ‘Metabolisible Protein’ of diet:

 1000g of dietary protein yields 750g of metabolisable protein, but this depends upon the
validity of certain assumptions particularly the proportion of dietary crude protein
present in non-protein form, the degradability of dietary true protein, and the efficiency
of synthesis of microbial protein, which is determined by the supply of energy readily
available to the rumen micro-organisms.
 In the system of protein allowances, in terms of rumen degradable protein (RDP) i.e.
that available to the micro-organisms, and undegradable dietary protein (UDP) which
escapes degradation in the rumen but which undergoes digestion and absorption in the
lower gut, and utilisation at tissue level.
  In calculating allowances, assumptions have to be made concerning microbial nitrogen
requirements, efficiency of NPN capture by rumen micro-organisms, digestibility of
protein in the small intestine and utilisation of absorbed nitrogen at tissue level.
 The proportion of protein escaping breakdown in the rumen may be estimated in vivo by
measuring dietary nitrogen intake, and the non-ammonia nitrogen and microbial
nitrogen passing the duodenum. Degradability of nitrogen is then expressed as:
 The method requires accurate measurement of duodenal flow and microbial nitrogen.
The former, which requires the use of a dual phase marker system, has a large coefficient
of variation (between animals) and many published values must be suspect owing to the
small number of animals used in their determination.
 Microbial nitrogen in duodenal nitrogen is usually identified by means of marker
substances such as diaminopimelic acid (DAPA), amino ethylphosphonic acid (AEPA),
ribonucleic acid and 35S, 32P and 15N labeled amino acids.
  The concentration of marker in the micro-organisms is measured in a sample of rumen
fluid.
 Different markers may give results which vary widely, sometimes by as much as 100 per
cent and frequently by 20-30 per cent.
 The assumption that the micro-organisms isolated from rumen fluid are representative
of those in the duodenum is of doubtful validity since the latter include organisms
normally adherent to food particles or the rumen epithelium.
 The formula for calculating degradability given above ignores the fact that duodenal
nitrogen contains a significant fraction which is of endogenous origin.
  It would be more accurate if degradability was calculated as follows:

 The endogenous fraction constitutes about 50 to 200 g/kg of duodenal nitrogen but is
difficult to quantify,. A value of 150g/kg is frequently assumed.
  Measurements of degradability are thus subject to possible error owing to uncertainties
in measuring duodenal flow, microbial nitrogen and the endogenous nitrogen and, in
addition, are affected by dietary considerations such as level of feeding and the size and
frequency of meals.
 It has been calculated that estimates of degradability may vary over a range of 0.3 to 0.35
owing to errors of determination alone.
 Despite its inadequacies this technique remains the only method, currently available, for
providing an absolute measure of protein degradability and a standard against which
other methods have to be assessed.
 A method of estimating protein degradation in the rumen by incubation of the food in
synthetic fibre bags suspended in the rumen is often used. The degradability figure is
calculated as the difference between the nitrogen initially present in the bag and that
present after incubation, stated as a proportion of the initial nitrogen.

                    

MODULE-30: VARIOUS PHYSICAL,CHEMICAL AND

BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF FEED PROCESSING FOR
 IMPROVING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF INFERIOR QUALITY
ROUGHAGES 

Learning objectives  

 This module provides an insight on the options available to improve the nutritive valueof
inferior quality roughages. Reader will realize that simple techniques can enhance
nutritive value of inferior quality roughages and thereby profitability in livestock
farming.
 Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.
 It will enable the reader to decide effective way of enhancing the nutritive value of
inferior quality roughages.

PROCESSING METHODS TO IMPROVE NUTRITIVE VALUE

Physical Chemical Biological Combination
 Soaking.  Acid  SCP  Physico
 Grinding. treatme production. chemical.
 Steam pressure. nt  Use of  Karnal
 Explosion.  Alkali cellulolytic process.
 Irradiation. treatme organisms.
 Pelletting. nt.  Mushroom
 Supplementation.  Use of Growth.
other
chemical
s-
ozone,H
2O2.

PHYSICAL TREATMENT

Soaking:

 Chopped straw is soaked in water overnight. Softens the straw leading to increased
intake.
 Disadvantage is mould growth.

Chaffing:

 Decreasing particle size. Increases surface area for action of rumen microbes and hence
increase digestibility.

Grinding:
  Particle size is reduced still further. (0.1 to 0.3 cm ).
 Disadvantage is that it increases rumen flow rate, decreases retention time in the rumen
leading to decreased production of acetate causing a condition of low milk fat syndrome.
 Steam pressure – Straw treated with Steam at pressure of 21.1 kg/cm2 for 10 to 30
seconds. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes cellulose
available for microbial action.

Explosion:

 Chopped or ground straw is treated with steam at pressure of 22.5 kg/cm2 for two
minutes and pressure is suddenly released.
 Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes cellulose available
for microbial action.

Irradiation:

 Straw is treated with γ irradiation.

 Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and makes cellulose available for microbial
action.

Pelleting:

 Particle size is reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 cm and pelleted through 1-2 cm die.
 Retention time in the rumen increases and the disadvantage of only grinding is
overcome.

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Acid treatment:

 Straw is soaked in dilute acids for a specified period of time, washed with water drained
and fed to the animals.
 Not popular due to the corrosive action of acids.
 Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and makes cellulose available for microbial
action.

Alkali treatment:

 Straw is treated with NaOH, NH4OH, CaOH, KOH, Urea.

 When straw is exposed to the alkali the ester linkages between lignin and cellulose /
hemicellulose are hydrolysed causing the cellulose / hemicellulose to be available for
digestion by microbes.

NaOH treatment:

 Beckman process:
 Straw is soaked for 1-2 days in dilute solution of NaOH (15-30 g / litre), washed
o
to remove excess alkali and fed to the animals.
 Dry method:
o  Straw is chopped and sprayed with NaOH 300g/ litre (170 litre / tonne of straw)

Ammonia treatment:

 Anhydrous form or concentrated solution is used – 30 to 35 kg/ tonne of straw.

 Straw is stacked, ammonia solution is sprayed over the straw, kept covered for 20 days
and then fed to the animals.
 This method not only increases the digestability of the straw it also increases the
nitrogen content of it.
 Disadvantage – On opening the stack most of the ammonia is lost by volatilization.
 Sometimes there is formation of toxic imidazoles from reactions between ammonia and
sugars leads to dementia (Bovine bonkers)

Procedure for preparing Urea Enriched Paddy Straw:

Required Materials:

 Paddy straw - 100 kg.

 Urea - 4 kg.
 Water (Clean) - 65 litres
 Spinkler

Procedure:

To enrich 100 kg of paddy straw

 Dissolve 4 kg urea in 65 litres of water

 Spread a polythene sheet/Gunny bag on the floor. Initially spread 5 kg of paddy straw in
layers.
 Using the sprinkler, sprinkle the prepared urea solution over the paddy straw ensuing
that all the paddy straw is wet by it.
 Similarly spread another layer of paddy straw over the first layer and repeat the
sprinkling of urea solution.
 Repeat the spreading and sprinkling for the entire 100 kg of paddy straw and heap it and
cover the straw with polythene sheets to prevent the escape of ammonia liberated from
urea. This step facilitates the breakage of lignocellulose bond by ammonia thereby
releasing cellulose from lingin bondage for digestion and utilisation.
 After 21 days the urea treated paddy straw is ready for feeding.

Click to view animation 

Advantages:
  TDN increased from 45 to 60%.
 CP increased from 2% to 10%.
 Palatability increased, therefore feed intake increases.

Feeding Urea treated Paddy Straw:

 It is advisable to feed the urea treated Paddy Straw for calves above 6 months of age
 Adaptation period is required. The same precautions adopted when feeding NPN
substances are to be followed.
 The urea enriched paddy straw, may be left in the open for 5 minutes prior to feeding in
order to remove the pungent odour of urea.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

 Growing cellulolytic microorganisms such as white rot fungi Trichoderma viridae,

Trichoderma lignorum.

Growing mushrooms:

 Straw is steam treated, packed in polythene bags, inoculated with seed material of
mushroom, bag when filled with mycelia slit open to allow fruiting, after harvesting of
mushrooms the spent straw is used as feed.

Single cell protein production:

 Straw is hydrolysed, steam treated, treated with ammonia, inoculated with Candida

utilis and incubated, after harvesting of SCP the spent straw is used as feed.

Enzyme treatment:

 Pretreatment of straw with lignase

Preparation of silage:

 Straw sprayed with water, additives such as molasses added and ensiled in a silo.
 Nitrogen content is increased by adding urea or poultry manure.
 The above treatments cause biodegradation of lignin and increases the digestibility of
cellulose. They also increase the protein content of the straw.

KARNAL PROCESS

 Technology developed at NDRI, Karnal. Straw treated with 4%urea at moisture level of
60%.
 Stacked in a silo pit under cover for 30 days. A temporary loose brick structure
constructed.
 Thin layer of urea treated straw spread evenly in this structure.
  A solution of the following composition is prepared. 60g superphosphate, 60g calcium
oxide dissolved in 8 litre water. Sprinkled over the urea treated straw.
 Inoculated with 3% Coprinus fimeratius culture.
 Allowed to remain for 5 days then used for feeding.
 Main advantage of this process is that free ammonia is converted into microbial protein
and ligno cellulose bond is degraded.

EFFECT OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS

Advantage:

 Increases palatability.
 Increases digestability.
 Certain treatments increase nitrogen or protein content.
 Improves animal performance.

Disadvantage:

 Increase feed cost.

 Technology or methodology involved.

MODULE-31: CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS - HAY

Learning objectives  

 This module will make the learner to understand the need for conserving fodder and
options available to do so. The chemical reactions that take place during preservation
and ways and means to avoid losses during preservation have also been detailed.
 It will enable the learner to choose the best method of preserving fodder and will help
you to tide over shortage of fodder at the time of fodder scarcity.
 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to
view power point presentation for easy understanding.
 It will also aid the learner in planning your farm activities and draw schedule foreseeing
possible difficulties well in advance.

CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS

 Seasonal variaton creates surplus
forages at one point of time, that
would be wasted if not conserverd.
 There are two methods of conserving
forages, the simple method is to drive
off moisture in forages, while in the
other method, natural fermentation
is facilitated to retain succulance in
the preserved forage.
  The driving off moisture from forage
forms the basis in hay making while
retaing forage’s succulance forms the
basis for silage making.

CROP RESIDUES

Hay making:

 Reducing the moisture content of the

green crop to a level low enough (12-  Natural drying
 Artificial
14%) to inhibit the action of plant and
microbial enzymes is the aim of hay drying
making.
 The harvested crop can be dried
either by natural drying or through
artificial drying, but natural drying is
preferred as there it can be done
without incurring expenditure
towards electricity.
 Hay can be stored satisfactorily in a
stack or bale.

Requisites for good hay:

 Good quality hay can be produced by

 Soft pliable stem.
considering the following points.
o Selection of crop – The crop to
 Harvest at 2/3rd flowering.
 Leafy; green hay.
be made as hay should have
 Free from Moulds &
soft pliable stem.
weeds.
o Harvesting of crop – The crop
 Characteristic aroma.
should be harvested at 2/3rd
flowering stage as it is at that
time the plant will have the
maximum nutrient in it.
Delaying the harvesting
further would divert the
nutrients from the plant to
seed production resulting in
low nutritive value of the
harvested crop.
o Hay should be leafy and green
in colour as they reflect the
nutritive value of hay.
 o Hay should be free from
moulds and weeds.
o Hay should have the
characteristic aroma of the
crop.

SCHEDULE FOR HARVESTING AND CURING OF HAY

 Good quality hay can be produced by harvesting the crop

early in the morning and left in the field as such for curring. Hay making:
 The harvested crop should be allowed to dry in the field
until the moisture content is reduced to about 40%.  Harvest
 Frequent turning is necessary to facilitate uniform drying. in
 On sunny days field drying of harvested crop for two days is morning
sufficient to make hay. .
 The air dried crop may be turned with the rake and made  Left in
into small feathery windrows at the end of first day. field for
 The windrows may be baled at the end of second day and if sun
further drying is required inspite of two days of sun drying, drying.
they may be placed over tripods or tetrapods or over the  Turing
fence to facilitate airation during drying. facilitate
 Hay should always be stored in well ventilated place as they s drying.
catch fire easily.  Feathery
 Average quality hay will have 25-30 per cent crude fibre and windrow
45-60 per cent TDN.  s at the
end of
day.
 Place on
tripods.
 Baled to
store.

CHEMICAL CHANGES

Plant & microbial enzymes:  Sugars (O) CO2

+ H2O
 Plant continues to respire even after harvest and  Protein to
during respiration, the sugars are oxidised to CO2
and H2O leading to increase in concentration of
 Amino acids
cell wall constituents like cellulose and lignin.
 Plant enzymes proteolyse the protein resulting in
formation of free amino acids that could be lost
due to leaching.

Oxidation:  Reduction in
carotene.
 During drying, oxidation occurs leading to  Vitamin D
reduction in the carotene concentration and that high.
is why sun drying should be stopped when
greenery starts fading.
 But sun drying enhances the vitamin D content in
the hay due to irradiation of ergosterol present in
green plant.

Leaching:  Loss of
minerals, sugar
 Leaching causes loss of soluble minerals, sugars & Nitrogen.
and nitrogenous constituents in addition to  Mould growth.
facilitating mould growth.

Microbial action:  Drying for

prolonged
 Microbes flourish during drying for prolonged period lead to
period under bad weather leading to moldy hay hay fever.
that are unpalatable & harmful to farm animals &
man.
 Such hay may cause allergic diseases affecting
man known as hay fever or farmer's lung.

Plant Species:  Legumes are

rich in protein
 Legume hays are rich in protein & minerals than & minerals.
grass hay.
 Non-legume hay has more carbohydrate but less
palatable.

Stage of growth/cutting:  Harvest at

2/3rd flowering
 The nutritive value of hay depends on the stage of
 to make good
growth of the crop at the time of cutting. quality hay.
 Harvesting matured crop results in hay with lower
digestibility, lower net energy value and lower
palatability but with larger yield.
 Harvesting immature crop results in hay with
higher digestibility, higher net energy value and
higher palatability but with lower yield.
 Hence crop should be harvested when they are
about to mature to compromise yield and quality.
 Two third flowering stage is the optimum period
for harvesting to make good quality hay.

Mechanical damage:  Handling hay

during early
 Since leaves lose moisture more quickly than the morning
stems, they become brittle and easily crushed by minimize loss
handling. of leaves.
 Handling hay during early morning minimise loss
of leaves.
 Flattening of herbage facilitates uniform drying
and thereby reduces shattering.

CHANGES DURING STORAGE

 Dark brown colour observed in over

heated hay stored at higher moisture
level during stacking is due to oxidative
degradation of sugars combining with
 Thermophillic bacteria
amino acids or proteins.
continue oxidation in
 Plant respiration ceases at about 40oC,
hay with higher
but thermophillic bacteria continue to be
moisture content.
active until 72oC and therefore oxidative
 Heat generated by
degradation continues in hay containing
oxidation leads to
thermophilic bacteria.
combustion.
 The heat tends to accumulate in hay
stored in bulk and eventually
combustion may occur.  

Losses in nutritive value of hay are due to:

 Losses due to late cutting.

 Losses of leaves by shattering.
 Losses due fermentation.
 Losses due to leaching.

Biochemical changes during and storage of hay:

 Carbohydrate:
o Plant continues to respire even
 Sugars   (O) 
after harvest and during  CO2 + H2O
respiration, the sugars are  Protein        
oxidised to CO2 and H2O leading to  Amino acids
increase in concentration of cell  Reduction in carotene
wall constituents like cellulose and  Vitamin D higher
lignin.
o Organic acids concentration
decreases during wilting.
 Nitrogenous constituents:
o  Plant enzymes proteolyse the
protein resulting in formation of
free amino acids.
o Cynogenic glycosides in forages
lose their toxicity during drying
due to denaturation of enzymes.
 Vitamins:
o During Sun drying oxidation
occurs leading to reduction in the
carotene concentration and that is
why sun drying should be stopped
when greenery starts fading.
o But sun drying enhances the
vitamin D content in the hay due
to irradiation of ergosterol present
in green plant.

ARTIFICIALLY DRIED FORAGES

 Artificial drying is very efficient process

but expensive method of conserving
forage crops.
 Drying is brought about by allowing hot  Hot gas (150oC) for 20 –
gas (150oC) to pass through herbages for 50 minutes
about 20 to 50 minutes depending upon  Hot gas (500-1000oC) for
the drier design and the moisture content 0.5-2 minutes.
of the crop.
 There are driers wherein gases in the
range of 500-1000oC are allowed to pass
 through to dry herbages within 0.5 to 2
minutes.

MODULE-32: CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS-SILAGE

Learning objectives  

 This module will make the learner to understand the need for conserving fodder and
options available to do so. The chemical reactions that take place during preservation
and ways and means to avoid losses during preservation have also been detailed. It also
enable the learner to choose the best method of preserving fodder and will help you to
tide over shortage of fodder at the time of fodder scarcity.
 Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to
view power point presentation for easy understanding.
 This module will also aid the learner in planning your farm activities and draw schedule
fore seeing possible difficulties well in advance.

SILAGE
Silage:

 Silage is the preserved material produced by  Preserved forage

the controlled fermentation of crop under under anaerobic
anaerobic conditions in a structure known as condition.
silo.  Ensilage: Silage
 Ensilage is the name given to the silage making process.
making process.  Silo: Silage
 The main purpose of silage making is to containers.
preserve succulent fodders for usage at the
time of scarcity.
 Silage making involves natural fermentation
in anaerobic condition with due care to
discourage activities of undesirable bacteria.

Click to view animation 

Advantages of Silage Making:  Can be made on all

weather.
 Silage can be made even on weather that does  More number of
not permit hay making. animals/ land.
 More number of animals can be reared per  Year round fodder
unit of land. supply.
 Year round supply of high quality succulent  Weeds do not
fodder is possible. interfere.
 Satisfactory silage can be produced in spite of
 weeds, as ensiling process kills many kinds of  Stemmy forage
weed seeds. becomes soft.
 Silage making converts stemmy forage crops
to soft that are better utilized by the livestock.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SILAGE MAKING

 Selection of crop: Factors to be

o Crop with soft and pliable stem is most
considered:
suitable for silage making.
 Time of harvest:  Crop with soft
o Crop should be harvested when 50% of the
& pliable.
crop are in ear emergence stage as at this  50% ear
stage crop will be nutritious as well as with emergence.
high biomass yield.  Wilt until 60%
 Wilting of the crop: moisture.
o Crops with high moisture (85%) will  Chaffing to
produce more effluents that would go as pack well.
waste.  Smooth &
o To reduce effluent loss, crops with high strong silo wall.
moisture content are wilted for few hours,  2% molasses &
until moisture level is reduced to 60 %. 1% salt.
 Chaffing of the crop:  Rapid filling
o The success of silage depends on the ability the silo.
to provide anaerobic condition in silo.  Compaction for
o Anaerobic condition prevents oxidation of anaerobic
nutrients in crop and promotes conducive fermentation.
environment for desirable organisms to  Sealing the silo.
survive and produce lactic acid.
o Thus in order to prevent the development
of air pockets in silo, compression of
ensiling materials is important.
o Compression can be achieved better by
chaffing the crop.
 Preparation of the silo:
o Several type of containers are used as silo.
o The silo should be cleaned and re plastered
to make the silo walls smooth and strong.
 Additives:
o Molasses at the rate of 2% (Weight of
forage) provides readily available
carbohydrate necessary for increasing the
lactic acid production by lactobacillus.
o Further Molasses increases palatability
 and nutritive value of silage.
o Molasses is sprayed over the forages to
facilitate uniform distribution.
o Salt at the rate of 1% (Weight of forage) is
also added to improve palatability of
silage.
 Filling up of the silo:
o Rapid filling of silo is desired for anaerobic
condition.
o Silage making should not be undertaken
during rainy days.
 Compaction:
o Compaction of chaffed material can be
brought about by manual trampling or by
engaging tractor.
o Compaction is the key step in silage as it
removes the air pockets to promote
anaerobic fermentation.
 Sealing of the silo to prevent the entry of air or
water:
o To sustain anaerobic condition and to
prevent entry of atmospheric air / rain into
silo, the silo should be sealed as soon as
the silo is filled.
o It is advisable to fill the silo pit to form a
dome shape and cover it with insulators
like tarpaulin sheet or plaster it with mud.
o Dome shape filling will facilitate rainwater
to run off and prevents seepage.
 Silage will be ready in four weeks time.
 Upon opening the silo, the silage should be taken
out daily to feed animals.

PRINCIPLES OF FERMENTATION IN SILO

The fermentation in silo can be regulated by

In well preserved
silage pH 3.8 –4.2
 Encouraging lactic acid formation by bacteria
present on the fresh herbage or
 Addition of preservatives such as sodium
matabisulphite or by direct addition of a weak
acid solution.
 The first method the soluble carbohydrates
present in the plant material is fermented to
lactic acid, resulting in a lowering of pH to within
 the range of 3.8 – 4.2.
o Material of this type has a lactic acid
content (8-12% drymatter) and is
described as ‘well preserved silage’.
o As long as the silage mass is kept under
anaerobic conditions, its pH will remain
stable at 4 and the silage can be stored for
3-4 years.
o If, however, rain is allowed to enter the
silage (or) if lactic acid concentration is
scarce, secondary clostridial fermentation
take place.
o There are two types clostridias, while one
group cause a break down of the lactic acid
with the production of butyric acid, the
other group of clostridiaattack amino
acids, with the formation of ammonia,
organic acids, amines and CO2.
o Either or both of these types of clostridia
may become dominant in poorly preserved
silage which will have a comparatively
high pH value of above 5.

The process of fermentation can be

 Four phases in silage:
divided into four phases:
o Soluble carbohydrate
converted to CO2; H2O.
 Phase I:
o Enterobactor produces
o Aerobic phase, plant
acetic acids; lowers pH.
enzymes breaks down
o Lactic acid producing
soluble carbohydrates to
carbon dioxide and water. bacteria produce lactic
 Phase II: acid; further lower pH.
o pH stabilizes at 3.8 –
o Enterobactor species of
bacteria acts on soluble 4.2. silage well
carbohydrates producing preserved.
acetic acid and lowers the  Chemical sterilization by
pH slightly. formaldehyde/ suplhur
 Phase III: dioxide or
o Lactic acid producing
sodiummetabisulphate
 Direct
bacteria (Lactobacillus and
acidification:A.I.Virtanen –
Streptococcus spp)
acid mixture added to lower
ferments soluble
pH to 4.0
carbohydrates present in
the plant material to lactic
acid resulting in a lowering
 of pH .
 Phase IV:
o Lactic acid production
peaks; stabilises to within
the range of 3.8 – 4.2. At
this pH, crop preservation
is good.

 The second method of silage

making process involves the
sterilisation of the mass in the silo
by adding chemical sterilisation
agents such as formaldehyde,
sulphur dioxide or sodium
metabisulphate.
 The success of this method
depends mainly upon ensuring
ample mixing with the crop, which
may frequently be difficult to carry
out.
 The nutritive value of the
preserved material should be very
similar to that of the original
herbage, if effluent production is
not great and satisfactory
sterilisation is achieved.
 Direct acidification of the crop, is
yet an another method of
preserving herbage; one such
system is the A.I.V. process,
named after originator
A.I.Virtanen.
 The mixture of acids used in this
process consists of hydrochloric
acid and sulphuric acid.
 These acids are added to material
during ensiling in sufficient
quanity to lower the pH value
below 4.
 A.I.V. silage has been shown to be
palatable and harmless to
ruminants.

PRINCIPLES OF FERMENTATION IN SILO

The fermentation in silo can be regulated by
In well preserved
silage pH 3.8 –4.2
 Encouraging lactic acid formation by bacteria
present on the fresh herbage or
 Addition of preservatives such as sodium
matabisulphite or by direct addition of a weak
acid solution.
 The first method the soluble carbohydrates
present in the plant material is fermented to
lactic acid, resulting in a lowering of pH to within
the range of 3.8 – 4.2.
o Material of this type has a lactic acid
content (8-12% drymatter) and is
described as ‘well preserved silage’.
o As long as the silage mass is kept under
anaerobic conditions, its pH will remain
stable at 4 and the silage can be stored for
3-4 years.
o If, however, rain is allowed to enter the
silage (or) if lactic acid concentration is
scarce, secondary clostridial fermentation
take place.
o There are two types clostridias, while one
group cause a break down of the lactic acid
with the production of butyric acid, the
other group of clostridiaattack amino
acids, with the formation of ammonia,
organic acids, amines and CO2.
o Either or both of these types of clostridia
may become dominant in poorly preserved
silage which will have a comparatively
high pH value of above 5.

The process of fermentation can be

 Four phases in silage:
divided into four phases:
o Soluble carbohydrate
converted to CO2; H2O.
 Phase I:
o Enterobactor produces
o Aerobic phase, plant
acetic acids; lowers pH.
enzymes breaks down
o Lactic acid producing
soluble carbohydrates to
carbon dioxide and water. bacteria produce lactic
 Phase II: acid; further lower pH.
o pH stabilizes at 3.8 –
o Enterobactor species of
bacteria acts on soluble 4.2. silage well
carbohydrates producing preserved.
 acetic acid and lowers the
 Chemical sterilization by
pH slightly.
formaldehyde/ suplhur
 Phase III:
dioxide or
o Lactic acid producing
sodiummetabisulphate
bacteria (Lactobacillus and
 Direct
Streptococcus spp)
acidification:A.I.Virtanen –
ferments soluble
acid mixture added to lower
carbohydrates present in
pH to 4.0
the plant material to lactic
acid resulting in a lowering
of pH .
 Phase IV:
o Lactic acid production
peaks; stabilises to within
the range of 3.8 – 4.2. At
this pH, crop preservation
is good.

 The second method of silage

making process involves the
sterilisation of the mass in the silo
by adding chemical sterilisation
agents such as formaldehyde,
sulphur dioxide or sodium
metabisulphate.
 The success of this method
depends mainly upon ensuring
ample mixing with the crop, which
may frequently be difficult to carry
out.
 The nutritive value of the
preserved material should be very
similar to that of the original
herbage, if effluent production is
not great and satisfactory
sterilisation is achieved.
 Direct acidification of the crop, is
yet an another method of
preserving herbage; one such
system is the A.I.V. process,
named after originator
A.I.Virtanen.
 The mixture of acids used in this
process consists of hydrochloric
acid and sulphuric acid.
 These acids are added to material
 during ensiling in sufficient
quanity to lower the pH value
below 4.
 A.I.V. silage has been shown to be
palatable and harmless to
ruminants.

NATURE OF CROP

 Legumes have low soluble carbohydrate content  Spray molasses

with high buffering capacity make them difficult to legumes to
to ensile. provide readily
 However, spraying sugar additive, such as soluble
molasses on to the crop at the time of filling the carbohydrate.
silo provides conducive environment for ensiling.  Chopping
 In order to obtain nutritious as well as maximum exposes cell
yield of crop, they should be harvested when 50% sap for
of the crop are in ear emergence stage as microbial
digestibility falls rapidly with increasing herbage fermentation.
maturity.
 Chopping or crushing the crop exposes the cell
sap which tends to produce more favourable
condition for microorganism activity.

LOSSES OF NUTRIENTS DURING ENSILAGE

 Field losses: Wilting beyond 5 days leads to 6-10% DM loss.

o Harvesting In the presence of air carbohydrate breakdown  to CO2 + H
and ensiling Total DM loss due to fermentation in silage  not to exceed 5%.
on the same Effluent loss depends on moisture level.
day prevents
loss of water
soluble
carbohydrate
s and protein.
o Wilting
beyond 5
days leads to
6 to 10 % dry
matter losses.
 Oxidation losses:
o In the
presence of
oxygen, the
 action of
plant and
microbial
enzymes on
substrates
such as
sugars, leads
to the
formation of
CO2 and
water.
o Rapid filling
of silo and
compression
eliminates air
pockets
leaving
unaerobic
condition
suitable for
ensiling and
thereby
preventing
oxidation
losses.
 Fermentation
losses:
o Even though
considerable
biochemical
changes
occur during
fermentation,
the net dry
matter loss
may not
exceed 5%
and energy
loss may be
still lower as
high energy
compounds
like ethanol
are formed
during
ensiling.
  Effluent losses: 
o Effluents are
highly
nutritious as
they contain
sugars,
soluble
nitrogenous
compounds,
minerals and
fermentation
acids.
o The amount
of  drainage
effluent
produced
depends
largely upon
the initial
moisture
content of the
crop.
o Crops ensiled
with moisture
of 85% may
result in
effluent dry
matter losses
as high as
10%, whereas
crops wilted
to about 70%
moisture
produce little
effluent.

SILOS

 The size of the container will generally depend upon the number and kind of animals to
be fed.
 The container plays an important role on the nature and quality of silage.

Types of Silos
Pit silo:  

 The pit can be excavated in any

suitable soil located at non  Locate at non water logged area.
waterlogging area.  10 Kg silage /cubic feet.
 Silo can be cylindrical or
rectangular with strong stright
and smooth walls.
 The dimension of the pit varies
with circumstances and the
number of stock to be fed.
 About 10 kg of silage can be
accomodated in one cubic feet
of silo.

Characteristics of silo pits:  

 Size of the silo depends on the

number and kind of animals to  Size depends on number of
be fed daily, the length of the animals.
feeding period, and the  Strong walls.
amount of forage available for  Depth facilitate packing.
ensiling.  Provision to drain effluents.
 Silo walls should be strong to  Accessible for loading &
withstand pressure with stright unloading.
and smooth to prevent the  Locate pit at elevated place.
formation of air pockets.
 Silo should have adequate
depth to facilitate better
packing.
 Silo should have provision to
drain effluent.
 Silo pits should be
conveniently located and
accessible in all kinds of
weather, for filling as well as
for unloading.
 To avoid water seepage, silo
pits (not tower type) are always
located preferably at the
highest spot on the farm.

Advantages of pit silo:

  A pit silo is very economical to
build & last indefinitely.
 Less power is required for
filling.
 The smooth plastered walls
allows the silage to settle and
retain the juices.

Disadvantage of pit silo:

 Unloading silage from silo pit

is difficult process.
 The pit silo occupies farmland
that becomes permanently
inaccessible for cultivation.
 The main difficulty is ensuring
adequate compression.

TRENCH SILO

 The process of ensiling using trench silo is more or less similar to pit silo but the only
difference is size because trench silo usually have greater length in relation to breadth.

Advantages of trench silo:

 Tractors can be used to pack silage.

 Less power is required for filling the trench silo.
 Well adopted to ensile immature corn etc.,
 There is minimum chance of air getting into the
silo as major part of material conserved will
settle into the trench below ground level.
 Unloading and carrying of silage are much Trench silo
easier.

Disadvantages of trench silo:

 Once constructed, it is not easy to abandon.

 Relatively more silage is spoilt.
 The trench silo must be trimmed upon the edges
& cleaned.
 TOWER SILO

 Tower silo are round, cylindrical with a varying diameter (6 to 10m), placed above the
ground and the height varies from 6 to 10m or more.
 Tower silos are made of wood, reinforced concrete or sheet metal.
 The advantage of using wood is that silage acids do not affect it.
 A chopper blower is necessary for filling up the silo.
 Silage at bottom one third will be over compressed with butyric acid smell emanating
from it.
 The silage at the center will be of good quality, whereas it will be often dark and over
heated in the top.

Advantages:

 Material
can be well
preserved
with no
wastage.
 The mass
itself
applies
pressure &
acts as air
seal to
lower layer.
 Wilting &
sealing are
not
important
as in pit
silo.
 Minimum
dry matter
loss.

Disadvantages:

 Very
expensive.
 Chopper
blower is
required to
fill silo.
 Emptying is
 very
laborious.
 The silage
gets
dehydrated,
in dry hot
places.

TUBE SILO

 Grass is filled in plastic cylindrical tubes of varying capacity.

 During ensiling, various additives can be used to regulate the microbial activity and they
may be grouped as
o Fermentation stimulants - Culture of lactic acid producing bacteria, soluble
carbohydrate sources.
o Fermentation inhibitors - Inorganic acids, antibiotics, sodium metabisulphite,
formaldehyde and formic acids.
o Others - Molasses, urea, limestone, poultry manure, salt etc.

Advantages:

 It can be
shifted to
various
locations
with ease
and it
does not
occupy
permane
nt
location.

Disadvantages:

 Special
machiner
y is
required
to fill as
well as to
evacuate
silo.
  

CHARACTERISTIC OF SILAGE

Very good silage:

 Clean pleasant fruity odour.

 Uniformly green or brownish in colour with absence of butyric acid, absence of moulds,
absence of sliminess and absence of proteolysis.
 The pH is between 3.8 and 4.2.
 The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen should be less than 10 per cent of the total nitrogen.

Good silage:

 There may be traces of butyric acid with pH between 4.2 and 4.5.
 The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen.
 Other points are same as of very good silage.

Fair silage:

 The silage is mixed with a little amount of butyric acid.

 There may be slight proteolysis along with some mould.
 The pH is between 4.5 and 4.8.
 Ammoniacal nitrogen is 15-20 per cent of the total nitrogen.
 Colour of silage varies between tobacco brown to dark brown.

Poor silage:

 Due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis, it has a bad smell.
 The silage may be infested with moulds.
 Less acidity, pH is above 4.8.
 The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is more than 20 per cent.
 Colour tends to be blackish and should not be fed.

Comparison on the Characteristics of Silage

Very good Good silage Fair silage Poor silage

silage
Butyric acid Absence Traces Little High
pH 3.8 – 4.2 4.2 – 4.5 4.5 – 4.8 > 4.8
Ammonical Nitrogen < 10 % 10 – 15 % 15 – 20 % > 20 %
Colour Greenish brown Brownish Tobacco brown Blackish
HAYLAGES

 Haylages are low moisture silage with characteristics between those of hay and silage.
 It is made from grass and/or legume to a moisture level of about 45-55%.
 To use up the oxygen and to trap and hold the produced CO2 within the silo, the silos
should be as airtight as possible.
 This condition will prevent the forage from spoiling by moulding, oxidising, heating etc. 

Advantages:

 Haylage has a pleasant aroma, palatable & high quality feed.

 Partially dried forage can be made into haylage.

Disadvantages:

 Fine chopping, good packing and complete sealing against air entrance inside the silo is
more critical than with silage.
 The danger of excessive heating that lowers protein digestibility is more. 

MODULE-33: HARMFUL NATURAL CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDS

AND FODDERS

Learning objectives  

 Harmful natural constituents of feed and fodder

o This module elaborates on the harmful natural constituents of feed and
fodder and their effect on animals. The harmful natural constituents of feed
and fodder have been grouped under six groups to facilitate easy
understanding.
o Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are
advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.
This module will enable you to manage feeding of feed and fodder having
harmful natural constituents.

HARMFUL NATURAL CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDS AND

FODDERS

 Harmful natural constituents are also called as anti nutritional factors.

 Anti-nutritive substance is defined as “those generated in natural feedstuffs by the
normal metabolism of the species and exerts effects contrary to optimum nutrition”.

Type of Anti-nutritive substances

 On the basis of the type of nutrient affected and the biological response produced in the
animal, the toxic factors can be classified into six major groups as follows:
o Substances depressing digestion or metabolic utilization of protein:
 Protease inhibitors
 Lectins or Ricin (hemagglutinins)
 Saponins
 Polyphenolic compounds (Tannins)
o Substances reducing the solubility or interfering with the utilization of mineral
elements:
 Phytic acid
 Oxalic acid
 Glucosinolates
 Gossypol
o Substances inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain vitamins and
certain mineral:
 Antivitamins A, D, E, K and anti-pyridoxine
 Antiminerals such as Phytic acid, Oxalic acid etc.,
o Mimosine (Anti hormone)
o Nitrates and nitrites
o Moulds and mycotoxins in animal feedstuffs

SUBSTANCE DEPRESSING DIGESTION OR METABOLIC

UTILIZATION OF PROTEINS
Protease Inhibitors:
 
 Substance that inhibit proteolytic
enzymes and thereby growth in non-  Kunitz anti-
ruminants are abundant in seeds and trypsininhibitor; Bowm
legumes. an-Birk
 Six protein inhibitors have been chymotrypsin inhibitors
identified in soybean; out of these, two are important
inhibitors namely Kunitz anti-  Interferes the protein
trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-Birk digestion.
chymotrypsin inhibitors are practically  Affects growth rate, egg
significant. production and feed
 Trypsin inhibitors especially interferes efficiency.
the protein digestion in monogastric  Heat treatment nullifies
animals. the toxic effect.
 Protein indigestibility affects growth rate,  Test for overheating
egg production and feed efficiency and
also may lead to hypertrophy of
pancrease and excess endogenous loss of
essential amino acids.
 The inhibitory substances are mostly
heat labile and thus before feeding any
leguminous grain to non-ruminants, it is
generally corrected by proper heat
 treatment.
 Since overheating can damages some
nutrients, such as amino acids and
vitamins, quality control tests have been
developed to assess the adequacy of heat
treatment.
 These include trypsin inhibitor and
urease assays, cresol red absorption,
protein dispersibility index (PDI) and
nitrogen solubility index (NSI).

Lectins or ricin (hamagglutinins):

 Ricin in castor bean cake is a toxic  Lectins reduce

fraction capable of agglutinating human absorption capacity.
red blood cells.  Heat treatment destroys
 Lectins are proteins capable of binding lectins
carbohydrate moieties in the epithelial
cell lining of small intestine, disrupting
the brush border and reducing the
efficiency of absorption.
 Lectins are destroyed by the same
conditions as those used to inactive
protease inhibitors.

Saponins:

 Leguminous fodders such as lucerne,  Saponins are bitter in

white clover, red clover and soyabean taste & lather forming.
contains saponin at 3% and causes  Saponins alter the
saponin poisoning in livestock that can surface tension of
be avoided by mere water soaking and rumen fluid.
rinsing.  Gas is trapped in small
 Saponins are bitter in taste, lather bubbles in foam in the
forming and inhibit the action of rumen causing Bloat.
proteolytic enzymes.  Saponin rupture RBC.
 They also causes haemolysis of red blood  Increased secretion of
cells. saliva.
 Adverse Actions upon excessive eating:  In respiratory tract.
o In ruminant saponins results in
 In GI tract – Vomition /
formation of bloat by altering the Diarrhoea
surface tension of the ruminant
contents due to entrapment of
countless bubbles of fermentation
 gases throughout the ingesta.
o The compound has got the ability
to lyse red blood cells.
o In general the effects of ingestion
of saponins include excessive
salivation, increased respiratory
tract secretion, gastroenteritis,
vomiting, diarrhoea, haemolysis,
haematuria, bloating, reduction of
gastric motility, reduction of food
intake, reduction of growth rate.
 Legume fodders are liable to produce
“bloat” if given in large quantities and
thus it is advisable that they should
always be given along with some dry
fodder.

Polyphenolic compounds (tannins):

 Also known as tannic acid, gallotannin  Form effective cross-

and gallotannic acid. links between proteins;
 Thy are naturally occurring compounds other macromolecules.
having high molecular weight (500-  Binds protein.
3000) and containing a sufficiently large  Lowers palatability.
number of phenolic hydroxyl groups to  Dry sensation in mouth.
enable them to form effective cross-links  Reduces iron
between proteins and other absorption.
macromolecules.  Depress cellulase
 Chemically tannins may be grouped into activity.
two broad categories:  Damaged GI
o Hydrolysable tannin and
tissue facilitate greater
o Condensed tannins.
tannin absorption;
 Tannins bind proteins. toxicity.
 The low palatability of some herbage
plants and some grains have been
attributed to their high tannin content.
 Many plants employ tannins to deter
animals from being grazed.
 They are also markedly astringent – that
is they cause a dry or puckery sensation
in the mouth, by reducing the lubricant
action of the glycoproteins in the saliva.
 Tannins reduce the bioavailability of
plant sources of iron.
 High tannin content also depress
 cellulose activity and thereby affects
digestion of crude fibre.
 Tannins may cause loss of mucus,
epithelial edema, irritation and damage
of alimentary canal tissue, which in turn
facilitate greater tannin absorption, thus
causing toxicity.

SUBSTANCE REDUCING THE SOLUBILITY OR

INTERFERING WITH THE UTILIZATION OF MINERAL
ELEMENTS

Phytic acid:

 Phytates are the salts of phytic acid.  Forms

 Phytate forms complexes with mineral elements complexes with
like zinc, iron, manganese resulting the minerals zinc, iron,
insoluble in the intestinal tract. manganese;
 Thus their absorption is impaired. impair their
absorption.

Oxalic acid:

 Oxalic acid (oxalate) poisoning of livestock,  Forms insoluble

household pets and people. salts with
 Plants that are rich in oxalates include beet, calcium and
spinach and a number of agro-industrial magnesium;
byproducts used as livestock feed ingredient. impair their
 Oxalic acids readily forms insoluble salts with absorption.
calcium and magnesium leading to impaired
aborption.

Glucosinolates (Thioglucosides):

 Their main biological effect is to depress the  Produces

synthesis of the thyroid hormone (Tryroxine and pungent odour.
Triiodothyronine), thus producing goiter.  Depress the
 Ruminants appear to be less susceptible to the synthesis of the
toxic effect of glucosinolates compared with pigs thyroid
and poultry. hormone.
 This is probably the result of the glucosinolates
being relatively unhydrolysed in the rumen.
  An adequate supply of iodized salt is a preventive  Pig & poultry
measure specifically in areas where non-ruminants are more
consume goitrogenic substances in a large dose. susceptible.
 Glucosinolates are responsible for the pungent
flavour found in some cultivated plants belonging
to the genus Brassica, which includes cabbage,
turnips, rapeseed and mustard seed.

Gossypol:

 Gossypol pigments are polyphenolic compounds  Antioxidant and

found exclusively in the pigment of cottonseed. polymerization
 It is an antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor. inhibitor.
 It is toxic to simple-stomached animals and the  Toxicity can be
symptoms include depressed appetite, loss of reduced by the
weight and even lead to death due to cardiac addition of
failure. calcium
 Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of hydroxide; iron
calcium hydroxide and iron salts. salts.
 Shearing effect of screw press in expeller process is  Pigs, rabbits,
an efficient gossypol inactivator. poultry are
 Pigs, rabbits, poultry are sensitive. sensitive.

SUBSTANCE INACTIVATING OR INCREASING THE

REQUIREMENTS OF CERTAIN VITAMINS AND HORMONES

Anti-Vitamin A:
 Lipoxygenase
 Raw soybean contain an enzyme catalysis
lipoxygenase, which catalysis oxidation of oxidation of
carotene, the precoursor of vitamin A. carotene
 The enzyme can be destroyed by heating  Heating destroys
soyabean for 15 minutes with steam at Lipoxygenase.
atmospheric pressure.

Anti-Vitamin D:

 Soy protein (unheated) depresses vitamin D  Depresses

synthesis in chicks and pigs. vitamin D
synthesis.
  The effect could be partially eliminated by  Increase
increasing the vitamin D in the diet by 10 Vitamin D
fold or autoclaving the Soy Protein that was supplementation
isolated from unheated soya bean. by 10 times or
autoclave.

Anti-Vitamin E:

 Diets containing raw kidney beans  Raw Kidney

(Phaseolus vulgaris) produce muscular beans reduces
dystrophy in lambs by reducing plasma plasma vitE.
vitamin E.  Autoclaving
 Autoclaving beans eliminates the anti- eliminates the
vitamin activity. anti-vitamin
activity.

Anti-Vitamin K:

 Dicoumarol produces fatal hemorrhagic  Dicoumarol

condition in cattle called as “Sweet clover interferes with
disease”. the blood
 Dicoumarol interferes with the blood clothing
clothing mechanism by reducing the mechanism by
prothrombin level of the blood. reducing
 The effect is due to reducing vitamin K vitamin K
utilization in the production of thrombin. utilization.

Anti-pyridoxine:

 An antagonist of pyridoxine (a member of B

Vitamins) occurs in linseed which can be
reduced by water soaking and autoclaving.

Mimosine:

 Mimosine found in the plants belonging to  Mimosine as

the genus Leucaena like subabul is a toxic degraded DHP
non-protein free amino acid otherwise inhibits
 chemically similar to tyrosine. biosynthesis of
 Mimosine can cause problems when the thyroxine
forage is eaten in large quantities for a long  Reduced growth,
period. loss of hair,
 Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxy enlarged
pyridone (DHP) in the rumen. thyroid; poor
 DHP reaches thyroid gland and inhibits reproduction.
biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.  Rumen
 Symptoms include reduced growth, microbes
excessive salivation, loss of hair, eroded atAustralia
gums, enlarged thyroid gland and poor capable of
reproductive efficiency. detoxifying
 Certain strains of rumen microbes at mimosine are
Australia capable of detoxifying mimosine now being
have been identified and are now being inoculated to
inoculated to livestock of other nation to livestock of
overcome mimosine toxicity. other nation to
 Acceptable safe daily intake of mimosine overcome
was calculated to be 0.14% g/kg body mimosine
weight. toxicity.
 Among the various livestock, horses, sheep,  Ferrous sulphate
pigs and even rabbits are highly sensitive to supplementation
mimosine and thus subabul should not be reduces
fed to them. mimosine
 Ferrous sulphate supplementation also toxicity.
reduce the mimosine toxicity, by forming  Horses, sheep,
insoluble red iron complex. pigs and even
rabbits are
highly sensitive
to mimosine.

 
Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 04:03 PM

CYANOGENS
 Sorghum and sudan grass, linseed   High level of HCN is
andcassava root contains relatively high found in the new growth
levels of Cyanide. that follows either a
 These plants generally contain period of drought, or a
cyanogenetic glycoside, which is period of heavy
hydrolysed to hydrocyanic acid (HCN) by trampling or physical
the enzyme usually present in the same
 plant.  damage by frost; heavy
 High level of HCN is found in the new fertilisation followed by
growth that follows either a period of abundant irrigation.
drought, or a period of heavy trampling
or physical damage by frost etc. 
 Heavy nitrate fertilisation of the soil
followed by an abundant irrigation or  Cyanide can quickly
rainfall may increase the HCN poisoning produce anoxia of the
potential of these crops. central nervous system
 However under favourable condition and death can result
these plants do not produce HCN toxicity. within a few seconds.
 Excess cyanide ion can quickly produce
anoxia of the central nervous system
through inactivating the cytochrome
oxidase system, and death can result  Ruminants are more
within a few seconds.  susceptible to HCN
 Based on the intensity, animals show poisoning than are
nervousness, abnormal breathing, horses and pigs.
trembling or jerking muscles, blue
colouration of the lining of the mouth,
spasms or convulsions and respiratory
failure.
 Treatment includes intravenous injection
of sodium nitrate and sodium
thiosulphate.
 Ruminants are more susceptible to HCN
poisoning than are horses and pigs,
because the gastric HCl in monogastric
animals destroys the enzyme concerned
in the release of HCN.

NITRATES AND NITRITES

 Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous

fraction (NPN) present in forages.
 Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals.  Nitrate reduced to
 The toxic effect on ruminants is caused Nitrite in rumen to
by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the become toxic.
rumen.  Nitrite combines with
 Recently fertilized plants have higher hemoglobin to form
nitrate levels. methemoglobin.
 Grazing herbage containing more than  Methemoglobin can’t
700 ppm of nitrate nitrogen / kg dry transport oxygen.
matter is considered to produce toxic  Enhanced heart rate &
effect by converting to nitrite.
 Forages and drinking water when respiration.
contaminated with inorganic nitrates and  Suffocates; die.
nitrites cause an acute toxicosis in cattle
resulting from formation of
methemoglobin.
 Nitrite is absorbed into red blood cells
and combines with hemoglobin (oxygen
carrying molecule) to form brown
pigment called methemoglobin.
 Methemoglobin cannot transport oxygen
and hence the animal's heart rate and
respiration increases, the blood and
tissues of the animal take on a blue to
chocolate brown tinge, muscle tremors
can develop, staggering occurs, and the
animal eventually suffocates and die.
 A high dose of concentrates in the daily
ration and adequate feeding or Vitamin A
have a protective effect.

MOULDS AND MYCOTOXINS IN ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS

 A mycotoxin is a fungal metabolite

causing pathological or physiological
changes in man or animal.
 In rainy season it is specifically labile to  Aflatoxins, metabolite
contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a of Aspergillus flavus is
secondary metabolite of Aspergillus most potent toxic.
flavus.  Presence of oxygen,
 Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production conducive temperature
can occur at any stage from growing crop (10 – 40ºC) and high
to the formulated feed or stored raw humidity favours the
material. mould growth.
 Drought may leads to cracked seeds,
which favours the insect infestation.
 Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic,
mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic  Among B1, G1, B2, G2
metabolities produced by the species Aflatoxins, B1 is most
of Aspergillus flavus and A. toxic.
parasiticus on food and feed materials.  Turkey poults and
 Presence of oxygen, conducive ducklings are highly
temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high susceptible.
humidity favours the mould growth.
 High moisture in the crop, which
harvested around wet period and also
 inadequately dried products, favours the
fungal growth and toxin production.
 There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2
out of which B1 is most toxic.
 The susceptibility to these toxins differs
among the species, turkey poults and
ducklings are highly susceptible, calves
and pigs are susceptible whereas mice
and sheep are resistant.
 In the same species, young animals are
more susceptible than adults.
 The most common symptoms in the
affected animals are liver damage with
marked bile duct proliferation, liver
necrosis and hepatic tumors while the
other symptoms include gastritis and
kidney dysfunction.
 The occurrence of these toxins in food
and feed materials and their
consumption has caused not only health
hazards in animals and humans, but also
resulted in economic losses, especially to
the exporting countries.
 Other fungal toxins include T2 toxin,
Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone.

MODULE-34: COMMON ADULTERANTS OF FEEDS AND

FODDERS

Learning objectives

 This module deals with

o one of the most important aspect in manufacturing feed. Adulterants destroy the
very purpose of feed formulation. Knowledge on adulterant is as important as
that of understanding the quality of feed ingredients.
o the common adulterants used by unscrupulous traders to make illegal profit and
also provides information on the common adulterants used in feed.
 Readers are also informed that the list of adulterants in this chapter is only partial list
since it is ever-growing and therefore updating information on this aspect is key to your
success in feed manufacturing.
 Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding. This
chapter will enable you to succeed in feed manufacturing against the evil activities of
unscrupulous traders.

DEFINITION
  Adulteration is defined as the admixture of pure substance with some cheaper low
quality substance.
o It is done intentionally usually to make money although unintentionally it can
happen.
o Adulteration is done by spraying urea to raise their protein content to costly feed
ingredients like oil cake and feeds of animal origin like fish meal.
o Besides urea, oil cakes are adulterated with hulls and non edible oil cakes.

COMMON ADULTERANTS

 The common adulterants in feed ingredients are a follows:

Feed ingredients Adulterants

Groundnut cake Groundnut husk, urea, non edible oil cakes
Mustard cake Argimona maxicana seeds, fibrous feed ingredients,
Urea
Soybean meal Urea, non edible oil cakes, Hulls, Sand
Deoiled rice bran, Wheat Ground rice Husk, Saw dust, Sand
bran
Fish meal Common salt, sand, urea, NPN, other marine
Molasses Water
Maize Cobs, Cob dust
Broken rice Marble grit
Mineral mixture Common salt, sand, limestone, marble powder
RECENT ADULTERANT: MELAMINE

 Melamine is a metabolite of cyromazine, a pesticide.

 Melamine is mainly used in the chemical industry.
 Usually used to make fertilizer and plastics, melamine has no nutritional value but is rich
in nitrogen (66%).
 It raises the nitrogen level of feed to appear to be higher in protein, and can lead to
higher prices for feed.
 Routine chemical analysis cannot deduct melamine, but special techniques are available.

FIELD TESTING METHODS

 Certain field testing methods mainly based on organoleptic evaluation plays important
role in identifying adulterants.
 The organoleptic evaluation includes Sense of touch, Taste, Vision, Smell, Feed
microscopy.
 Besides, simple field tests (Spot tests) are also carried out.
 ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - TOUCH

Touch (Evaluation by touching)

 Insert hand deep into a bag of grains, if you didn’t find any temperature difference
between inside and outside the bag it means that grains are properly dried.
 Take a pinch of rice polishing, rice bran or deoiled rice bran and rub between fingers. If it
is too coarse & rough, it indicates adulteration with paddy husk.
 Fish meal with more moisture level will be dark in colour, hot and will not break easily.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - TASTE

Taste (Evaluation by taste)

 Fresh feedstuff will have a desirable taste while old feeds will have undesirable musty
taste.
 Biting and tasting oilcakes will give idea about its freshness, rancidity, mould and
moistures and also some adulteration.
 Licking a fish or tasting small piece of it can help in identifying the level of salt.
 Rice bran and rice polish adulterated with paddy husk will have a bland or throat
burning taste with feeling to spit the fibrous portion.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - VISION

Vision (Visual evaluation)

 Examine the feedstuffs for the natural colours, consistency, presence of foreign
materials, mould growth, cake and clump formation and any other abnormalities.
 Mouldy grains will have greenish, grayish or blackish discolouration especially at the
germinal tip.
 Adulteration of groundnut oil cake with rice bran or any other cheaper oil cakes & fish
with prawn heads, crabs, squilla, sheels, etc. can be detected by careful visual
examination.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - SMELL

Smell

 Musty odour indicate fungal contamination or boring insects.

 Odour of petroleum product is suggestive of pesticides/fungicides.
 Leathery smell of meat meal is indicative of adulteration with leather meal.

FEED MICROSCOPY

 Feed and feedstuffs are examined under a wide field microscope.

  Mainly used to detect adulterants, foreign bodies and impurities in ground feeds and
feedstuffs.
 Adulterants like hulls, stones, foreign bodies substitution with cheaper material can be
detected by microscopical examination.
 Presence of hair/leather meal in fish/meat meal, caster / kapok seed meal in seasame /
sunflower meal & similar cheaper substitutes can be detected .
 Microscopic observation of fish meal: The feed microscopic details of fish meal as
well as the possible adulterants in them are furnished below. The adulterants can be
easily identified by trained eye.
 Muscle fibre: Fibre bundles which separate, under pressure, yellowish to brown in
colour & greasy
 Scales: Transparent, round with concentric rings, flat or curled
 Sand: (possible adulterant) Granular, crystalline or bead like, Light brown to
translucent, do not break under pressure.
 Urea: (possible adulterant)
 SPOT TESTS

Some feed supplements can be identified by using simple chemical reagents 

Reagents Reaction Compounds identified

2.5% Ammonium Effervescence and no
molybdate solution precipitate
2.5% Ammonium Yellow precipitate and
molybdate solution no effervescence
2.5% Ammonium Effervescence & Yellow
molybdate solution precipitate
CHEMICAL TESTS TO DEDUCT
ADULTERANTS
Carbonates, viz., calcium carbonate
sodium bicarbonate
Phosphates, viz. disodium phosphate,
monosodium phosphate, bone meal
Dicalcium phosphate

 In addition to the above tests, specific tests to identify the adulterants have been
described by BIS. These tests are only listed here and reader is advised to consult those
procedures as when required.
o Deduction of castor cake in feedstuffs
o Deduction of neem seed cake in feedstuffs
o Deduction of linseed meal in feedstuffs
o Deduction of common salt in feed stuffs
o Deduction of urea in feedstuffs
o Deduction of hoof or horn in feedstuffs
o Deduction of leather meal in feedstuffs
o Deduction of hydrolysed feather meal in feedstuffs
 TESTS THAT NEED TO BE CARRIED OUT IN DIFFERENT
FEED INGREDIENTS
 Tests that need to be carried out in different feed ingredients

MODULE-35: FEED ADDITIVES

Learning objectives  

 After studying this module the learner will be able to know about

o Feed additives classification
o Chelates as feed additive
o Additives that promotes growth and production
o Additives that alter metabolism
o Additives that affect the health status of livestock
 FEED ADDITIVES

What is an Additive?

 An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed, usually in small quantities,

for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other
than as a direct source of nutrient.
 In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects
utilisation of the feed or productive performance of the animal. Feed additives and
implants can be classed according to their mode of action.

Classification

 Types of Feed additives

o Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing and properties of
feeds
 Antifungals
 Antioxidants
 Pellet binders
o Additives that modify animal growth, feed efficiency, metabolism and
performance
 Feed flavours
 Digestion modifiers
 Enzymes 
 Prebiotics
 Buffers               
 Acidifiers
 Ionophores        
 Antibloat compound 
 Isoacids
 Salivation inducers
 Probiotics 
 Defaunating agents
 Metabolism modifiers
 Hormones 
 Beta-adrenergic agents (repartitioning agents)
 Growth promotants
 Antibiotics
 Chemotherapeutic agents
o Additives that modify animal health
 Drugs
 Immunomodulators
o Additives that modify consumer acceptance
 Xanthophylls

ADDITIVES THAT ENHANCE FEED INTAKE 

Antioxidants

 Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated fats.

Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins A, D and E and several of the
B complex vitamins.
 Breakdown products of rancidity may react with lysine and thus affects the protein value
of the ration. Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as antioxidant in
feed.

Flavouring Agent

 Flavouring agents are feed additives that are supposed to increase palatability and feed
intake.
 There is need for flavouring agents that will help to keep up feed intake
o When highly unpalatable medicants are being mixed
o During attacks of diseases
o When animals are under stress, and
o When a less palatable feedstuffs is being fed either as such or being incorporated
in the ration.
 Ruminants prefer sweet compounds. Additionally cattle and goats respond positively to
salts of volatile fatty acids.
 Horses will often refuse musty feed when there is so little mould that the owner fails to
detect it.

ADDITIVES THAT ENHANCE THE COLOUR

Additives that enhance the colour or quality of the marketed product

 Poultry man will often enhance the yellow colour by incorporating xanthophylls into
broiler feed.
 Among various additives, arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate and roxarsone are added
for the purpose.

ADDITIVES THAT FACILITATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

 Grit

 Poultry do not have teeth to grind any hard grain, most grinding takes place in the thick
musculated gizzard.
 The more thoroughly feed is ground, the more surface area is created for digestion and
subsequent absorption. Hence, when hard, coarse or fibrous feeds are fed to poultry, grit
is sometimes added to supply additional surface for grinding within gizzard.
 When mash or finely ground feeds are fed, the value of grit become less. Oyster shells,
coquina shells and limestone are used as grit.

Buffers and Neutralisers

  During maximum production stage ruminants are given high doses of concentrate feeds
for meeting demands for extra energy and protein requirement of the animal.
 The condition on the other hand lowers the pH of the rumen. Since many of the rumen
microbes cannot tolerate low pH environment, the normally heterogeneous balanced
population of microbes become skewed, favouring the acidophilic (acid-loving) bacteria.
 The condition often leads to acidosis and thereby upsets normal digestion.
 The addition of feed buffers and neutralisers, such as carbonates, bicarbonates,
hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA, phosphate salts, ammonium chloride and sodium
sulphate have been shown to have beneficial effects.
 Recently the use of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to increase average daily gain
by about 10 per cent, feed efficiency by 5 to 10 per cent, and milk production by about
0.5 liter per head per day.

Chelates

 The word “Chelates” is derived from the Greek word “Chele” meaning “claw” which is a
good descriptive term for the manner in which polyvalent cations are held by the metal
binding agents. Prior to union with the metal these organic substances are termed as
“ligands”.
 Ligand + mineral = chelate element.
 Organic chelates of mineral elements, which are cyclic compounds, are the most
important factors controlling absorption of a number of mineral elements.
 A particular element in chelated form may be released in ionic form at the intestinal wall
or might be readily absorbed as the intact chelate.
 Chelates may be of naturally occurring substances such as chlorophyll, cytochromes,
haemoglobin, vitamin B12, some amino acids, etc., or may be of synthetic substances like
ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA.)

ENZYMES

 Enzymes are protein which have the property of catalysing specific biochemical
reactions. They are found in all plants and animals and are responsible for growth and
the maintenance of health.
 Microorganism also produce enzymes and in recent years it has been possible to produce
enzymes using microorganism on an industrial scale, extract and use these enzymes in a
wide range of processes for the production of feed and natural products.
 Poultry feeds are largely composed or plant and vegetables materials and there are
enzymes developed to degrade, modify or extract the plant polymers found in some of
the cereals and their byproducts. The enzymes can be used to improve the feeding of
poultry in the following way:
o By improving the efficiency of the utilisation of the feed
o By upgrading cereals byproducts or feed components that are poorly digested
o By providing additional digestive enzymes to help poultry to withstand stress
conditions eg. Hot climates
 Some of the cereals are compounds of polymers either of glucose (beta glucan) or
arabinose and xylose (pentosan or hemicellulose). These polymers are not well digested
by poultry and this can be result in loss of energy in two ways:
o Energy may be lost become these polymers hinder the digestion of starch by
coating starch granules and preventing the action of starch digesting enzymes in
the intestine.
 o Energy may be lost because the animals own enzymes are not capable of
degrading the polymers and therefore they pass through the digestive system
untouched.
 By adding microbial enzymes to the feed these polymers can be degraded and their
energy value made available to the bird.
 The dual role of enzymes has been demonstrated in trials with barley based feed
supplemented with beta-glucanase, where the apparent increase in available energy was
far in excess of that available in the beta-glucan of the barley.
 In this case not only was the problem of sticky dropping completely eliminated but the
chicken’s rate of growth was equivalent to that observed normally with feeds containing
a higher energy density (eg. Wheat based).

Choice of enzyme

 Because feed is normally composed of a single raw material of constant quality, it is

important that the correct choice of enzyme product be made.
 Even in the case of a relatively well defined problem such as that in barley, the use of
multi enzyme activity products has an advantage.
 The enzymes should fulfil the following criteria for practical application:
o The enzymes must be active at the pH of the animals digestive system and
capable of surviving transit through the stomach
o They must be in a physical form in which they can be safely and easily mixed into
all forms of animal feed
o The products should be of a high standarised activity that will remain stable both
before and after incorporation into the feed or pre-mix
o The enzymes must be capable of surviving normal pelleting conditions

CHELATES AS FEED ADDITIVE

 Type I: Chelates that Aid in transport and to store metal ions
o Chelates of this group behave as a carrier for proper absorption,
transportation in the circulatory system and passing across cell
membranes to deposit the metal ion at the site where needed.
 Among amino acids, cysteine and histidine are particularly effective
metal binding agents and may be of primary importance in the
transport and storage of mineral elements throughout the animal
body.
 Ethylene diamine tetracetic acid (EDTA) and other similar
synthetic ligands also may improve the availability of zinc and
other minerals.
 Type II: Chelates essential in metabolism
o Many chelates of animal body are holding metal ions in such a cyclic
fashion which are absolutely necessary to be in that form to perform
metabolic function. Vitamin B12, cytochrome enzymes and haemoglobin
are some of the examples of this type.
o Haemoglobin molecule without its content of ferrous form of iron will be
of no use in transporting oxygen.
 Type III: Chelates which interfere with utilisation of essential cations
 o There are some chelates found in the body which might have accidentally
formed and are of no use to the subject.
o Rather, those chelates may be detrimental for the proper utilisation of the
element. Phytic acid-Zn chelate or oxalic acid calcium chelate are
examples of this type.

Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 05:13 PM

ADDITIVES THAT PROMOTES GROWTH AND PRODUCTION

Antibiotics

 These are substances which are produced by living organisms (mould, bacteria or green
plants) and which in small concentration have bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties.
 They were originally developed for medical and veterinary purposes to control specific
pathogenic organisms.
 Later it was discovered that certain antibiotics could increase the rate of growth of young
pigs and chicks when included in their diet in small amounts.
 Soon after this report a wide range of antibiotics have been tested and the following have
been shown to have growth promoting properties: penicillin, oxytetracycline
(Terramycin), chlortetracycline, bacitracin, streptomycin, tyrothricin, gramicidin,
neomycin, erythromycin and flavomycin.
 Increased weight gain is most evident during the period of rapid growth and then
decreases.
 Differences between control and treated animals are greater when the diet is slightly
deficient or marginal in protein, B-vitamins or certain mineral elements.

Mode of action of antibiotics

 Antibiotics “spare” protein, amino acids and vitamin on diets containing 1 to 3 per cent
less protein, but balance experiments have often failed to show increased nitrogen
retention. Growth stimulation has been greatest when the antibiotic penicillin
supplement has been added to a ration containing no protein supplements of animal
origin or to a ration low in vitamin B12. Under hygienic conditions growth increases are
small.
 Intestinal wall of animals fed antibiotics is thinner than that of untreated animals which
might explain the enhanced absorption of calcium shown for chicks.
 Reduce or eliminate the activity of pathogens causing “subclinical infection.”
 Reduce the growth of micro-organisms that compete with the host for supplies of
nutrients.
 Antibiotics alter intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and thus less
ammonia is formed. Ammonia is highly toxic and suppresses growth in non-ruminants.
 Stimulate the growth of micro-organisms that synthesise known or unidentified
nutrients.

Following points should be kept in mind while using antibiotics for animal feeding:

 Antibiotics should be used only for

o growing and fattening pigs for slaughter as pork or bacon;
 o growing chicks and turkey poults for killing as table poultry.
 Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep and goats),
breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry stock.
 While adding antibiotics at the recommended level, care should be taken that they are
thoroughly and evenly mixed with the feed.
 For best results, antibiotics should be used with properly balanced feeds. Also, the feeds
containing antibiotics should be fed only to the type of stock for which they are intended.
 Antibiotics are not a substitute for good management and healthy living conditions, or
for properly balanced rations.

Probiotics

 It is defined as a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host
animals by improving its intestional microbial balance. The probiotic preparation are
generally composed of organisms of lactobacilli and/or streptococci species, few many
contain yeast caltones.
 They benefit the host by:
o Having a direct antagonistic effect against specific group of undesirable or
harmful organism through production of antibacterial compounds, elementary or
minimising their competition of nutrients.
o Altering the pattern of microbial metabolism in the gastro intentional tract.
o Stimulation of immunity.
o Neutralisation of enterotoxins formed by pathegenic organism.
 Thus resulting in increased growth rate, improved feed efficiency

ADDITIVES THAT ALTER METABOLISM

Hormones

 These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and are
transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a physiological
response.
 Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens,
progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to
stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern,
however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or
milk for the consumers.
 The whole question whether hormones should be used as growth promoters is still
debatable but it seems logical that with any feeding system the economic advantages,
however great should never take precedence over any potential risk to human health.
These substances may induce cancer in human beings if taken over a prolonged period
through products of the treated animals. The use of such substances in poultry rearing
has been prohibited by law in U.S.A.

Implants
  Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to release slowly, but
constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the bloodstream. These are
implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol (DES).

ADDITIVES THAT ALTER METABOLISM

Hormones

 These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and are
transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a physiological
response.
 Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens,
progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to
stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern,
however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or
milk for the consumers.
 The whole question whether hormones should be used as growth promoters is still
debatable but it seems logical that with any feeding system the economic advantages,
however great should never take precedence over any potential risk to human health.
These substances may induce cancer in human beings if taken over a prolonged period
through products of the treated animals. The use of such substances in poultry rearing
has been prohibited by law in U.S.A.

Implants

 Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to release slowly, but
constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the bloodstream. These are
implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol (DES).

ADDITIVES THAT AFFECT THE HEALTH STATUS OF

LIVESTOCK

 Antibloat compounds:
o Surfactants such as poloxalene is used as a preventive for pasture
bloat,several other products have been shown to be highly effective to prevent
bloat are also available in the market.
 Antifungal additives:
o Mould inhibitors are added to feed liable to be contaminated with various
types of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium cyclopium etc.
o Before adding commercial inhibitors all feedstuff should be dried below 10
percent moisture. Propionic, acetic acid and sodium propionate are added in
high moisture grain to inhibit mould growth.
o Antifungals such as Nystatin and copper sulphate preparations are also in use
to concentrate feeds to prevent moulds.
 Anticoccidials:
 o Various brands of anticocidials are now available in the country to prevent the
growth of coccidia which are protozoa and live inside the cells of the intestinal
lining of livestock.
 Antihelmintics:
o Under some practical feeding conditions anthelmintics have also been used.
The compounds act by reducing parasitic infections.

Anticaking agents

 Anticaking agents are anhydrous substance that can pick up moisture without
themselves becoming wet. They are added to dry mixes to prevent the particles
clumping together and so keep the product free flowing.
 They are either anhydrous salts or substance that hold water by surface adhesion yet
themselves remain free flowing:
o Salt or long chain fatty acids.
o Calcium phosphate
o Potassium and sodium ferryocyanide
o Magnesium oxide
o Salts silicic acid – Al, Mg, Ca, Salt.
 Sodium aluminium silicate
 Sodium calcium aluminium silicate
 Calcium aluminium silicate

Humectants

 These are substance which are required to keep the product moist, as for example,
bread and cakes.
 Anticaking agents immobilise moisture that was picked up. Humectants are not of
much use in poultry feed.

Firming and crisping agents

 These are substances that preserve the texture or vegetable tissues and by
maintaining the water pressure inside them, keep them turgid.
 It prevents a loss of water from the tissues.

Sequestrants

 Certain metals – copper, iron can act as pro-oxidant catalytic and there fore need to
the immobilised. Sequestrants are compounds added to do this.
 These compounds should have affinity to metal ions and should prevent the metal in
becoming engaged in oxidative action. Most effective sequestrants Ethylene diamine
tetraacetic acid (EDTA).
 Calcium salt of EDTA works satisfactorily as a sequestrant without interferring with
trace mineral metabolism.
Sweeteners

 It is common constitution of food but yet used as additive. Eg. Sugar

 Some are poorly digestible, may cause digestive upsets.
 Saccharin – extensively used during World War I. It is a compound without any
calorific value.
 Additives such as humectants, firming and crisping agents, sweeteners, emulsifiers,
stabilisers, acid, buffers are not commonly used in poultry feeds.