How Computers Work and Interpret Data

Computers consist of several basic parts: the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input devices (such
as a keyboard), and output devices (such as a screen). Understanding how computers add, subtract, and
remember computations requires insight into their functioning, despite lacking a human brain.

While humans understand and communicate in natural languages, computers operate using machine
language. When a person types on a computer’s keyboard, the human brain recognizes letters,
numbers, and characters, combining them to form words and sentences. However, the computer does
not perceive letters in the same way; it views them as a sequence of 0s and 1s, known as binary
language.

Humans primarily use the decimal number system, which has ten digits (0-9), for counting, measuring,
and computation. In contrast, computers can only comprehend two digits: 0 and 1. These binary digits
are crucial for computer communication. The binary number system, denoted by the prefix “bi”
(meaning 2), is used by computers.

In addition to the binary system, other number systems exist, such as the octal number system (based
on eight digits) and the hexadecimal number system (using 16 digits). These systems serve as
intermediaries between the computer’s binary language and the more understandable human (decimal)
language, as computer data can be complex.

Understanding how computers interpret data involves comprehending the conversion of characters
from the keyboard into binary and displaying them on the monitor. This process typically involves
number system conversion. Computer systems receive information from pressure pads located beneath
each key on the keyboard. When a letter is typed, the corresponding pressure pad sends signals to the
computer, which converts them into binary data.

To summarize the steps involved in interpreting data on a computer:

1. Pressure pads beneath each key on the keyboard detect input when a letter is typed.

2. The pressure pad sends signals carrying information about the typed letter.

3. The computer system converts these signals into binary data.

4. The binary data is processed and used to display the corresponding character on the monitor.
By understanding these fundamental aspects of how computers work and interpret data, we gain insight
into the underlying mechanisms that allow computers to perform computations and communicate
information.

Upon typing a letter, the pressure pad sends information to the CPU for processing. The information is
then transmitted in the form of 0’s and 1’s using the ASCII code. The CPU determines the typed
character and sends the information to the computer monitor, again in binary. The monitor displays the
information in its equivalent character, readable by humans.

The majority of computer systems use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
to convert characters into 0’s and 1’s. ASCII is a 7-bit code that represents letters, numbers, and basic
special characters.

For example, the uppercase character ‘A’ is represented in ASCII as 01000001 in binary, 101 in octal, or
41 in hexadecimal.

Programmers create programs to enable computers to perform specific tasks. Depending on the
programmer’s skills, programs can be developed based on the programming language they are familiar
with. Programming is also referred to as coding.

To make coding easier, machine codes are made more human-readable and similar to human language.
Instead of using long strings of binary digits, programmers can use codes that resemble words and
sentences.

For computers to communicate with each other, they use different connection methods depending on
the situation. Computer monitors are connected to the computer unit using wires, while devices like
mice can connect wirelessly.

A computer system communicates through a system bus, which is a pathway consisting of cables and
connectors. The system bus carries data from the computer’s peripheral devices (monitor, keyboard,
mouse, etc.) to the CPU and main memory.

How Computers Connect to Other Computers

To understand how a computer connects to other devices, it is important to explore computer network
systems. Computers can communicate with each other over networks, which are interconnections of
two or more computers. Networks enable computers to share information and resources. The type of
network depends on factors such as the number of computers, their usage, and the technology used for
connectivity.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN): This type of connection is typically limited to an individual person
and their personal devices. PANs often involve wireless technology, allowing devices like
laptops, smartphones, and portable printers to interconnect within a range of around 10
meters.

2. Local Area Network (LAN): In a LAN, a group of computers and devices, such as network printers,
share a common communication line within a specific area like a building or small campus. LANs
are commonly found in schools and offices to secure organizational information. Access to the
LAN may be restricted through a computer server to prevent unauthorized users from accessing
sensitive data. For example, students in a school LAN may need to log in with their student ID to
access the internet, with restrictions in place to block certain websites.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN may be less restrictive than a LAN, as rules and policies can
vary within its coverage. A WAN can be composed of multiple LANs and PANs, and it can also
include other interconnected WANs. The WAN is often synonymous with the internet, providing
connectivity on a larger scale.

Computer networks rely on different technologies and protocols to facilitate communication between
devices. These networks allow computers to exchange data, share resources, and collaborate effectively.

Wired communication plays a crucial role in connecting computer systems to various devices and
networks. Different types of cables are used depending on the specific requirements and technologies
involved. Here are some popular wired connections used in computer systems:

1. USB (Universal Serial Bus): USB is a widely used interface that allows computers to communicate
with system peripherals such as keyboards, mice, printers, digital cameras, and more. It provides
a versatile and standardized connection for various devices.

2. FireWire: FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394, is a high-speed connector used for transmitting
data between devices with high data rates, such as external hard drives. FireWire offers faster
transfer speeds compared to USB.
 3. Ethernet Cable: Ethernet cables are used for wired network connections. They enable
communication between computers, routers, switches, and other network devices. Ethernet is
commonly used in local area networks (LANs) to establish reliable and fast network connections.

4. HDMI (High-definition Multimedia Interface): HDMI is a connector primarily used for

transmitting high-definition audio and video data. It is commonly found in computers,
projectors, and digital televisions, allowing high-quality multimedia content to be displayed.

Older computer units had connections that included:

5. VGA (Video Graphics Array): VGA connectors with 15 pins were commonly used for video output
on graphics cards, computer monitors, laptops, and projectors. However, VGA is being phased
out in favor of the more compact and faster HDMI connector.

6. Serial: RS-232 serial connections were once standard on personal computers and were used for
connecting devices like modems, printers, and mice. Serial connections have largely been
replaced by USB connections.

7. Parallel: Parallel connections were used to connect peripherals such as printers to computers.
Similar to serial connections, parallel connections have been replaced by USB connections.

8. PS/2: The PS/2 connector is a 6-pin port used to connect keyboards and mice to computers. The
connectors are color-coded, with purple typically used for keyboards and green for mice.

9. Audio Jacks: Audio jacks, usually 3.5mm in size, are used for connecting microphones (input) and
speakers (output) to computers. Color codes are often used to indicate different audio channels,
such as pink for microphone input, blue for line input, and green for front speaker output.

These wired connections facilitate communication between computers and peripherals, allowing users
to interact with and utilize various devices effectively.
Wireless communication plays a significant role in connecting computers and devices without the need
for physical cables. Various wireless technologies enable communication over radio waves and include:

1. Bluetooth: Bluetooth technology utilizes radio waves to establish short-range wireless

connections between devices. Devices that are Bluetooth-enabled can be paired together,
allowing them to exchange data and communicate. Bluetooth typically operates within a range
of around 10 meters.

2. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a popular wireless technology used for local area network (LAN)
connectivity. It allows devices to connect to a network wirelessly, providing access to the
internet and local resources. Wi-Fi operates within a specific range and can cover larger areas,
such as homes, offices, or public spaces, depending on the network setup and infrastructure.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has defined standards for these wireless
technologies. Wi-Fi is standardized under the IEEE 802.11 series, while Bluetooth falls under IEEE 802.15.

Wireless communication technologies offer convenience and flexibility by eliminating the need for
physical connections. They enable devices to interact with each other and access network resources,
facilitating seamless data transfer and communication.

Human-computer communication is facilitated through computer software, which is a combination of

instructions, data, and programs that enable computers to perform specific tasks. Computer software,
also known as computer programs, allows humans to interact with the computer and control its
operations.

Software programs are typically designed and written by computer programmers using programming
languages. One commonly used programming paradigm is object-oriented programming, which includes
languages such as C#, Java, and PHP. These programming languages provide a framework for developers
to create software solutions.

There are two main types of computer software: system software and application software.
 1. System software: This includes the operating system (OS), which is the most critical software
running on a computer. The operating system manages the computer’s memory, instructions,
and hardware components. It serves as an interface between the user and the computer
system, controlling all connected hardware devices and installed software applications.

2. Application software: Application programs are designed for specific tasks and are used by
individuals in their day-to-day activities. Examples of application software include word
processors like Microsoft Word, photo editing tools like Adobe Photoshop, web browsers like
Google Chrome, and media players like Apple’s iTunes. Application software enables users to
perform various tasks, such as creating documents, editing images, browsing the internet, and
listening to music.

When interacting with a computer, the operating system allows users to communicate in different ways:

1. Command-line interface: Some operating systems, like DOS (Disk Operating System), use a
command-line interface. In this interface, users interact with the computer by typing specific
text commands, and the computer responds accordingly. Command-line interfaces are text-
based and require users to have knowledge of the specific commands and syntax.

2. Graphical user interface (GUI): Most modern operating systems, such as Windows, use a
graphical user interface. GUIs provide a visual representation of the computer’s functions and
allow users to interact through graphical elements like windows, icons, buttons, and menus.
Users can navigate and control the computer system using mouse clicks, keyboard entries, and
gestures.

The combination of computer hardware and software enables humans to communicate with computers
effectively, making tasks more accessible and intuitive by providing user-friendly interfaces and
interactions.

System Platforms:

Desktop systems and mobile systems treat application software differently. Desktop or laptop
computers typically require application programs to run specific applications, often allowing multiple
applications to run simultaneously. For example, a web browser like Google Chrome can open multiple
websites and applications simultaneously, such as Gmail, YouTube, and Wikipedia.
However, mobile devices offer a different experience. Instead of using a web browser, mobile
applications are used to access specific websites or services. Mobile applications can run directly on the
operating system without relying on web browsers. For example, mobile apps for Facebook, YouTube,
and Gmail provide a more optimized and streamlined experience for mobile users.

System Software:

In desktop systems, two of the most popular operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows and Apple’s
macOS. On the other hand, Apple uses iOS as the system software for their mobile devices. However,
the leading mobile operating system worldwide is Android OS, which holds an 85% market share
according to the International Data Corporation (IDC, 2017).

Applications Software:

Application software encompasses programs designed to perform specific tasks for users. There are
various types of application software, including word processing software (e.g., Microsoft Word),
database software (e.g., Oracle, Microsoft Access), spreadsheet software (e.g., Apple Numbers,
Microsoft Excel), multimedia software (e.g., Real Player, Media Player), presentation software (e.g.,
Microsoft PowerPoint, Keynote), enterprise software, educational software, simulation software, and
more.

Online Applications Software:

With the advancement of internet speed, online application software has gained popularity. Online
application software allows users to access and use software tools and services directly through the
internet. For example, Microsoft Office 365 provides online versions of their productivity suite, and
Google offers online alternatives to Microsoft Office Suite, such as Google Docs, Google Sheets, and
Google Slides.

Online productivity tools are also available for organizations, including data collection and analysis tools
for marketing purposes. Various survey engines are available online, such as Zoho Survey, Survey Gizmo,
SurveyMonkey, and more, which offer features for survey creation, data analysis, and reporting.

Mobile apps also play a significant role in increasing productivity and convenience. Popular apps include
scheduler and reminder apps like Any.do, Microsoft Office apps (Word, Excel, PowerPoint), WPS Office,
Adobe Acrobat Reader, email management apps like Microsoft Outlook and Newton Mail, and creative
apps like Forge for drawing and photo editing.
Furthermore, individuals without a background in IT can now create their own blogs and websites using
website creation tools such as Wix.com and WordPress.com. These platforms provide user-friendly
content management systems (CMS) that simplify website creation and management, eliminating the
need for programming skills.

Computers have had a significant impact on everyday life in various areas:

Education: Computers are commonly found in schools and higher education institutions, benefiting
teachers, students, researchers, and administrators. Teachers can enhance their teaching materials
through research and online collaboration, while students can access information and communicate
with peers. Administrative tasks are also made more efficient through computer systems.

Banking: Computers have revolutionized the banking industry, enabling easier and more secure
transactions. Services such as ATMs, electronic fund transfers, online banking, and mobile payment
systems have made banking more convenient for customers.

Workforce Industry: Computers play a crucial role in the industrial sector, supporting production
planning, inventory management, product design, and control systems. Researchers use computers for
data analysis, while administrators manage operations and detect errors or deficiencies. However, the
use of computers and automation can also pose a threat to certain jobs.

Electronic Commerce: E-commerce has flourished with the help of computers and the internet. Buying
and selling activities are made more efficient and accessible through online platforms. Customers can
communicate with sellers, browse products, and make purchases without physical visits to stores.
Suppliers can also manage transactions and monitor inventory through computer systems.

Hospitals: Computers have transformed healthcare by enabling the creation of patient databases,
electronic health records, and medical applications. Doctors can access and analyze patient data for
research and faster diagnosis. Various medical tests and imaging technologies are facilitated by
computing and monitoring technologies, improving healthcare efficiency and reducing medical errors.

Overall, computers have become an integral part of everyday life, impacting various sectors and
providing convenience, efficiency, and new opportunities for individuals and organizations.

Chapter 3

KEY TERMS
1. OOP – Object-oriented programming

2. OS – Operating system

3. Perl – Practical extraction and reporting language

4. GUI – Graphical user interface

5. HTML – Hypertext markup language

6. HTTP – Hypertext transfer protocol

7. ISO – International Organization for Standardization

8. PHP – Hypertext preprocessor

9. SQL – Structured query language

10. WISP – Wireless internet service provider

11. WMA – Windows media audio

12. WWW – World Wide Web

13. Android OS – Google’s open and free software stack for mobile devices

14. Assembly language – Low-level programming language for hardware manipulation

15. Blog website – Informal website with time-stamped articles or posts

16. C programming language – General-purpose programming language

17. C# - Programming language for Windows and web applications

18. Cable modem – High-speed internet connection through cable television network

19. Chat room – Real-time typed conversation platform

20. Computer programming language – Language used to write computer programs

21. C++ programming language – Intermediate-level language with object-oriented features

22. Database – Collection of data used for automated systems

23. Dial-up access – Internet access through a standard telephone line

24. DNS – Domain name system

25. High-level language – Programming language independent of a specific computer

26. PHP – Hypertext preprocessor

27. Internet – Worldwide collection of networks

28. Internet2 – Networking consortium for improving the internet

29. Interpreter – Executes instructions in a programming language without prior compilation

30. Java programming language – Programming language for creating internet applications

31. Low-level language – Programming language with little abstraction from computer’s instruction set
architecture

32. Netiquette – Etiquette guidelines for internet communication

33. Operating system – Manages computer’s software and hardware

34. Program – Set of instructions for a computer to perform tasks

35. Programmer – Person who writes computer programs

36. System software – Software components for managing computer systems

37. Browser – Tool for accessing the internet

38. Web community – Website for a specific group of people with common interests

39. Web hosting – Technologies and services for website accessibility

40. Web page – Document with text, graphics, audio, and/or video accessible through the internet

41. Web publishing – Process of publishing content on the internet

42. Server – System that delivers web pages to computers

43. Website – Collection of related web pages and associated items

44. WiFi – Wireless network for internet connection

45. Wiki website – Collaborative website where users can create and modify content.

46. Wireless internet service provider (WISP) – A company that provides wireless internet access to
users with wireless modems or web-enabled mobile devices, such as smartphones and personal digital
assistants (PDAs).

47. Wizard – An automated assistant that helps complete a task by asking questions and then performs
actions based on the answers.

48.Word processor – Software that allows the user to write a letter, design a flyer, and create other
types of documents.

49. WWW – World Wide Web, which consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents
accessible via the internet.

• The Internet (capitalized as “Internet” when it first came into widespread use) is defined
as a worldwide network connecting millions of computers via dedicated routers and
servers. When computers are connected to the Internet, end-users can send and receive
different types of information.
• These types of information can be sent and received via electronic mails (emails), text or
video chats, conferencing, and computer programs, among others.
• Nowadays, most telephone companies all over the world also function as internet
service providers.
• In the Philippines, PLDT, Inc. (formerly known as Philippine Long Distance Telephone
Company) is the largest network company, with Smart Communications, Inc. and Digitel
Mobile Philippines, Inc. (commercially known as Sun Cellular) collaborating with PLDT.
Globe Telecom has also acquired Bayan Telecommunications (BayanTel or Bayan).
• These telecommunication companies use high-speed fiber-optic cables to transmit data.
• However, no one actually owns “the Internet.” Large internet service providers own the
infrastructure through which the internet is delivered.
• According to the 2018 Global Digital suite of reports from We Are Social and Hootsuite,
more than 4 billion people around the world connect to the internet for various reasons.
• Even though today’s internet bears little resemblance to its predecessor of almost 50
years ago, it still functions in basically the same way. The internet has evolved into
something different from the special-purpose, restricted-use network its planners
originally envisioned it to be (Norton, 2012).
• The Internet started as the Advanced Research Projects Agency’s Wide Area Network,
known as the ARPANET, established by the U.S. Department of Defense in the 1960s to
facilitate collaboration between the military’s research unit and business and
government laboratories.
• Before it became known as the Internet, ARPA’s network served universities, defense
contractors, and a few government agencies. Source:
https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/computer-history-timeline--67
• Afterward, other universities and U.S. institutions were connected to ARPANET,
resulting in its growth beyond everyone’s expectations. ARPANET then acquired the
name “Internet.”
• The advancement of hypertext-based technology known as the World Wide Web,
WWW, or simply the Web has provided channels for displaying text, graphics,
animations, etc.
• Its other features, such as enabling easy search and offering navigation tools, have
driven the internet’s unprecedented worldwide growth.
• The Internet2 Environment: Future Empowerment – Internet2 is a not-for-profit
networking consortium founded in 1996 by 34 university research institutions in the U.S.
• It provides a collaborative environment where U.S. research and education
organizations work together to develop advanced technologies and innovative solutions
such as telemedicine, digital libraries, and virtual laboratories to support education,
research, and community development.
• Internet2 manages the Internet2 Network, a next-generation optical and internet
protocol network capable of delivering enhanced network services. It is better, faster,
and more efficient than typical internet or broadband connections.
• Internet2 maintains a secure network testing and research environment.
• It operates the Internet2 DCN (dynamic circuit network), an advanced technology that
allows user-based allocation of data circuits over the fiber-optic network.
• As of May 2016, this community comprises 317 U.S. higher education institutions, 81
corporations, 64 affiliates and affiliate members, 43 regional and state education
networks, and more than 65 national research and education networking partners
representing over 100 countries.
• The Philippines, through the Philippine Research, Education, and Government
Information Network (PREGINET), is among the international peers reachable via the
Trans-Eurasia Information Network (TEIN), one of Internet2’s peering relationships.
• In August 2017, a national training course on nuclear neurology was conducted,
enabling nationwide webcast among hospitals through the high-speed connectivity
provided by PREGINET and the locally hosted video conference server at the
Department of Science and Technology-Advanced Science and Technology Institute
(DOST-ASTI).
• By supporting telemedicine or telehealth in the country, this information infrastructure
enables Philippine hospitals to stay updated with new medical diagnostics and world-
class treatment options without the need to travel abroad.
• Today, the internet connects thousands of networks and billions of users worldwide.
• As of January 2018, the number of internet users is 4.021 billion, which means that
more than half of the world’s population is now online, as revealed by We Are Social
and Hootsuite in their 2018 Global Digital suite of reports.
• Despite this significant number, the internet has no central ownership, meaning that no
single person or group controls the network.
• While organizations like The Internet Society and the World Wide Web Consortium
propose standards and guidelines for internet-related technologies and their
appropriate use, they universally support the internet’s openness and lack of centralized
control.
• Internet users may wonder about the various tasks that the internet can perform.
• However, there is only one simple job that the internet does, which is to move, transfer,
or assign computerized information from one location to another.
• This information can be in the form of text documents, images, audio, video, and
software programs.
• All this information is collectively known as data.
• The internet can handle different kinds of information and assist people in various tasks,
from simple activities like handling email, searching websites, and sending chat
messages to more sophisticated functions like creating websites and programming with
various software programs.
• Data and information are transmitted worldwide through wired or wireless transmission
media.
• In the Philippines, the transmission media that make up the internet backbone enable
information or data exchanges between networks at various locations across the
country, such as La Union in the northern part and Batangas, Cavite, and Davao in the
south.
• The high-speed equipment in these sites functions like a highway interchange,
transferring data from one network to another until it reaches its final destination.
• Most of the internet runs on the ordinary public telephone network.
• However, there is a significant difference between how a telephone call works and how
the internet carries data.
• For example, when friend A gives friend B a telephone call, the telephone opens a direct
connection or circuit between their homes.
• This connection is like a direct line running along miles of cable from friend A's
telephone to friend B’s telephone.
• As long as the two friends are on the telephone, that connection or circuit remains open
between the two telephones.
• This method of linking telephones together is called circuit switching.
• Circuit switching is one of the most common schemes used to build a communication
network, such as in the case of ordinary telephone calls.
• Circuit switching, however, is inefficient because if you stay connected with your friend
or relative over the phone all the time, the circuit remains connected and blocks other
people from using it.
• A traditional dial-up connection to the internet, where a computer dials a telephone
number to reach the internet service provider, uses circuit switching.
• This is considered inefficient because browsing the internet and using the telephone
simultaneously is not possible.
• Over time, technologies have been improved and developed.
• Most data transmitted over the internet uses a different method called packet
switching.
• Packet switching involves breaking the message into smaller parts, called packets, which
are sent independently and then reassembled at the destination.
• For example, when an email is sent from the Philippines to various countries, instead of
having a dedicated circuit for each connection, the email is broken into packets that
travel via different routes and reassemble at the destination.
• Compared to circuit switching, packet switching is more efficient because it doesn’t
require a permanent connection and avoids blocking the entire network when sending a
message.

• Computers on the internet perform different tasks. Some act as servers, which are like
electronic filing cabinets that store and deliver information when requested by clients.
• Servers are designed to process data requests and deliver information to client
computers over a local network or the internet.
• Clients, on the other hand, are computers or devices that receive information from
servers.
• Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is a computer that holds user accounts,
computer accounts, organizational units, and applications.
• Another important server is the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server,
which configures IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and assigns names to each IP address using
the domain name system (DNS) server.

• Other servers include file servers for managing documents, web servers for hosting mail
services and web services, and print servers for connecting printers to client computers
over the internet.
• In addition to clients and servers, routers play a crucial role in the internet. They receive,
analyze, and send incoming packets to other networks.
• Routers serve as a gateway or single point of entry to the worldwide network, similar to
a mailbox at the corner of a street connecting all devices to the internet.
• The World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of public websites connected to the
internet worldwide, accessed by client computers such as personal computers, laptops,
iPads, and cell phones.

• The WWW is an application of the internet and computer networks based on three
fundamental technologies:

- Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): A standard markup language used for creating web
pages, with markup symbols or codes appended in a file for presentation on a web browser
page.

- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A set of standards allowing users to interchange

information seen on web pages. Port 80 is the standard port for HTTP connections.

• Web servers and web browsers are software applications used to retrieve, present, and
navigate information resources on the World Wide Web. Various browser applications are
used, such as Microsoft Edge, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and
more.

• The World Wide Web (WWW) celebrated its 28 th anniversary on March 12, 2017,
marking a milestone in the invention of the WWW, which has significantly transformed
humanity and created a new virtual world within a single generation.
• Websites have evolved to accommodate the changing preferences and techniques of
users, adapting from large-screen computers to small-screen mobile phones.
• The functioning of the Web can be simplified into four basic stages: connection, request,
response, and close.
• In the first stage, users access browsers such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, or
Mozilla Firefox to connect to a web server.
• Browsers utilize a unique protocol called HTTP, which requests specific programmed
text from the web server.
• The text, written in HTML format, provides instructions to the browser on how to
display the content on the user’s screen.
• Terminology related to the functioning of the Web includes Uniform Resource Locators
(URLs), which serve as internet addresses.
• A URL consists of four parts: the protocol identifier (indicating the protocol to use), the
domain name (specifying the IP address where the resource is located), the path, and
the file name.
• As of March 2018, the most widely used web browser was Chrome, accounting for
60.6% of the market share, followed by Safari (15.4%), Internet Explorer and Edge
(7.6%), Firefox (7.2%), and Opera (2.9%).
• Websites are maintained by web administrators who can modify the content and add
new information. However, no single organization controls all websites, and additions,
deletions, and changes are distributed across various entities.
• Two primary tools used to locate information on the web are subject directories and
search engines.
• Subject directories are developed and maintained by human editors, while search
engines employ programs called spiders or bots to crawl the internet, follow links, and
index information.
• Using specific techniques can enhance web searches, such as prioritizing important
terms, using quotation marks to search for exact phrases, considering different spellings,
and utilizing various search engine features like searching for images, news articles, or
specific file formats.
• Google is one of the most popular search engines, and it offers several useful search
tricks, including searching for an exact phrase using quotes, using an asterisk to specify
unknown words, excluding certain words using the minus sign, and specifying content
formats in searches.
• Google can also be used to compare words using “vs” or “versus,” search for word
definitions (including slang), and even search for images using your mobile device’s
camera.
• The internet originated with ARPANET, established by the U.S. Department of Defense
in the 1960s to facilitate collaboration between the military’s research unit, business,
and government laboratories.
• Circuit switching and packet switching are the two main modes of data transmission.
• The World Wide Web (WWW) has evolved over nearly three decades, creating a new
virtual world within a single generation and adapting to changing technologies and user
preferences.

Chapter 4

KEY TERMS:
• BSA – Business Software Alliance

• CSS – Content Scramble System

• DRM – Digital Rights Management

• DVD – Digital Versatile Disc

• IPR – Intellectual Property Rights

• NDA – Non-Disclosure Agreements

• NFC – Near Field Communications

• PM – Private Message

• Conceptual resources – These are non-tangible resources that are valuable for what they
represent.

• Copyright – It is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to the creator of an original

work or their assignee for a limited period of time. It includes the right to copy, distribute,
and adapt the work.

• Data scrambling – This process is used to hide sensitive information from unauthorized
users.

• Digital rights – These pertain to the permissions individuals have to perform actions
involving the use of a computer, electronic device, or communications network.

• Digital rights management – This term describes the processes by which the author or
publisher of a work exerts their rights to control what the purchaser of the work is entitled
to do.

• Facts – Facts are considered relevant truths that have been validated and identified.

• Information – It refers to processed data.

• Information control – This involves allowing access to and use of information based on the
authority held by individuals.

• Intellectual property – It refers to a number of distinct types of intangible assets for which
a set of exclusive rights is recognized.

• Knowledge – Knowledge refers to useful information.

• Metadata – It is used to identify information about a resource, such as the owner’s name,
author, and date of purchase.

• Mobile commerce (m-commerce) – It is the delivery of electronic commerce capabilities

directly into the consumer’s hand, anywhere, via wireless technology.

• Patent – It is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor for a limited period
of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention.

• Personal data breach – It is a subset of a security breach that leads to accidental or

unlawful destruction, loss, alteration, unauthorized disclosure, or access to personal data.

• Physical resources – These are tangible resources that can be easily identified.

• Scrambling – It refers to the process of adding components to the original signal or

changing some important components to make the extraction of the original signal difficult.

• Security incident – It is an event or occurrence that affects or tends to affect data

protection, or may compromise availability, integrity, or confidentiality.

• Software piracy – It is the unauthorized copying or distribution of copyrighted software.

• Trade secret – It is any method, formula, device, process, or information that gives a
business a unique competitive advantage over its competitors.
• Trademark – It is a distinctive sign used by an individual, business organization, or legal
entity to identify products or services to consumers.

INTRODUCTION TO RESOURCES:

• Resources are the total means available to a company for increasing production or profit,
including land, labor, capital, and raw materials.

• Physical resources are tangible and easily identifiable, such as buildings, equipment, and
manpower.

• Conceptual resources are non-tangible and valuable for what they represent. For example,
money represents a specific monetary value, and human resources possess unique skills,
knowledge, and job experience.

• Managers use conceptual resources to manage physical resources, or vice versa.

• One example of this is the use of computers in organizations. A computer unit itself may
cost thousands of pesos. However, the content saved in those computer units becomes
even more valuable resources, making the computer unit irreplaceable. Security measures,
such as firewalls, anti-virus software, and biometric access, are implemented on the
computer units to ensure the integrity of the saved files. In this case, the saved computer
files (conceptual resource) determine how the computer units (physical resource) will be
managed.

• The same concept applies to personal assets, such as smartphones. Losing a mobile phone
is considered a tragedy, especially if it contains personal data such as pictures, videos, and
numerous contacts. The pictures, videos, and contact list saved on the phone are conceptual
resources, while the smartphone itself is the physical resource responsible for managing
these conceptual resources. In both instances, the conceptual resources identified are called
information.

• Information can be simply defined as “facts about something or someone that are
provided or learned.” Facts are considered relevant truths that have been validated and
identified. Data, which are considered facts, become information when they are processed
and organized in a way that adds value beyond the facts themselves.

Unlike other organizational resources, information is considered:

• Information can be expanded without compromising its integrity. In fact, having additional
information can provide a deeper understanding. For example, in the HR department,
knowing a person’s name, contact details, and current work may be useful, but having their
full curriculum vitae becomes even more valuable.

• While expanded information can provide a more detailed explanation, it may not always
be necessary. News sites often provide one-liner headlines that convey enough information
about a news story without overwhelming the reader. Similarly, research abstracts offer a
concise summary of an entire research study.

• Information, especially digital information, is easily transportable. It can be sent through

various means, such as email, sharing via social media platforms like Facebook, copying onto
a flash drive, or uploading on platforms like YouTube.

• Information tends to diffuse easily, similar to how gossip or rumors spread. This applies to
any kind of information, whether true or not.

• Information is also considered shareable because of its ease of dissemination. While one
may try to keep information as a secret, once it is shared with someone, control over it is
lost. In some cases, certain parts of a secret can be kept, as exemplified by the secret recipe
of KFC. While it is known that there are 11 secret herbs and spices, the exact ingredients
remain a mystery.

• Information, like physical resources, undergoes a life cycle and requires management. It
starts with transforming raw data into valuable information through data processing.

• Weather forecasting is an example where statistical data is used to predict future weather
conditions.

• Academic grades of students can be analyzed to identify valedictorians and salutatorians

based on their academic standing throughout their years in university.

• Information can be available in different grades and types, with varying prices. Software
applications, for instance, can have free or trial versions with limited functionality, while full
versions require payment. There may also be different editions of software, such as personal
and enterprise editions, with varying costs and functionality.

• Depending on its usage, information can be substituted and its consumption expanded or
capitalized. Contact details, for example, can be obtained through various sources like
telephone books, contacting the phone company, or searching online through social media
platforms. Contact details now include more than just phone numbers, such as email
addresses and social media handles.

• The cost of information can be controlled through accounting techniques. For instance,
DVD prices can vary between countries due to region codes. DVDs can only be played on
DVD players with the same region code, preventing people from buying cheaper DVDs from
other countries.

• Managing information is as crucial as managing other organizational resources like people,

money, and equipment. Information, related activities, technologies, and personnel are all
important resources within an organization.

To determine if the information you find online is valuable and useful for your research on
the different parts of a computer system, you can consider the following criteria:

1. Accuracy: Ensure that the information is error-free and reliable. Be cautious of

inaccurate information that may result from processing inaccurate data. Trust formal
sources like technical websites and academic websites for accurate information, rather
than informal sources such as blogs or forums.

2. Completeness: Look for information that contains all the important facts you need. In
fields like medicine, missing information can have severe consequences, so ensure that
the information you find is comprehensive and covers all relevant aspects.

3. Economy: Consider the cost of producing the information. With the ease of information
dissemination on the internet, information has become more accessible and cheaper to
produce. However, evaluate whether the price of obtaining the information aligns with
its integrity and quality.
4. Reliability: Dependable information is crucial. Consider the validity of the data collection
method or the reputation and credibility of the information source. Avoid sources like
torrent sites that may offer unreliable information or contain malicious content.

5. Flexibility: Look for information that can be used for different purposes and contexts.
Information that can serve multiple needs and applications adds value and versatility.

6. Relevance: Ensure that the information you find is directly related to your research
topic. Avoid irrelevant sources or topics that may divert your focus and provide
information unrelated to your needs.

7. Simplicity: Seek information that is clear and easily understandable. Overly complex
information may lead to confusion and inaccuracies, so prioritize simplicity and clarity.

8. Timeliness: Consider whether the information is delivered when you need it. Some
topics, like weather predictions or stock market forecasts, require up-to-date and timely
information.

9. Verifiability: Check if the information provides references, citations, or sources that can
be verified. Authors who include these elements allow readers to fact-check and ensure
the accuracy and authenticity of the information.

10. Accessibility and Security: Evaluate whether the information is easily accessible to
authorized users and secured from unauthorized access. Consider factors like data
privacy, authentication mechanisms, and secure platforms.

Remember that valuable information contributes to decision-making and knowledge

acquisition. It helps businesses become competitive, keeps them up-to-date with trends,
and supports managers in making informed decisions. Some information may have
entertainment value, while others have business value, and people are willing to pay for
valuable information depending on its perceived worth.

Keep these criteria in mind when evaluating the usefulness and value of the information you
find online for your research.
- Valuable information is essential for businesses to produce quality products and services
and stay competitive in the global market. It helps them stay up to date with the latest
trends and technology and make informed decisions.

- Information can have both entertainment value and business value, and people are willing
to pay for information based on its perceived value.

- Information has certain characteristics, including zero marginal cost (the cost of producing
additional copies is negligible), non-rivalrous consumption (multiple consumers can
simultaneously access the same information), non-exclusivity (it’s difficult to exclude others
from using known information), and limited transparency.

- Evaluating information requires investment in learning how to evaluate it, and the
complexity of the information may impact the time and cost required for evaluation.

- Value-based pricing leads to differential pricing because different individuals assign

different values to specific information goods.

- Strategies like free samples, promotional pricing, testimonials, and previews/trailers are
used to overcome customers’ reluctance to purchase information before experiencing it
fully.

- Branding and reputation play a significant role in building trust and influencing customers’
decision to purchase information.

- In the digital world, virtual goods in mobile games can be exchanged for virtual currency
or, in some cases, real money.

Overall, the value and pricing of information depend on its perceived usefulness, relevance,
reliability, and the strategies employed to communicate its value to consumers.

Indeed, the availability of information has increased significantly with advancements in

technology and the widespread use of the internet. Here are the key points from your
statements:

- Organizations aim to make individuals’ lives easier and better by providing them with
information about products and operations. This includes offering additional information to
assist in decision-making.

- Examples such as Google Search and Amazon demonstrate how information is provided to
users based on their search queries or browsing behavior, suggesting related items or
providing recommendations.
- The amount of information being generated and consumed is growing rapidly. Cisco’s
study highlighted the exponential increase in global internet traffic, with the expectation of
reaching 2 zettabytes per year by 2019.

- Factors contributing to this information growth include easy duplication and transmission,
the proliferation of communication methods (such as smartphones and messaging apps),
and the digitization of historical information in archives and libraries.

- The producers and consumers of information are spread worldwide. Internet penetration
rates vary across countries, with Qatar and the United Arab Emirates leading in internet
usage. The Philippines has shown significant social media engagement, with people
spending an average of four hours a day on social platforms.

- Mobile usage is a major driver of internet traffic, with more than half of the world’s web
traffic coming from mobile phones. Mobile connections are increasingly broadband, and
online shopping has become common, with more than one in five people globally making
online purchases in the past 30 days.

- While the Philippines may have slower fixed internet connections, it compensates with
faster mobile connection speeds, which may explain the high usage of social media among
Filipinos.

- The exponential growth of digital information has led to information overload, where
individuals may struggle to process and absorb the vast amounts of available data.

Overall, the digital landscape has transformed the way information is generated, accessed,
and consumed, impacting individuals and societies in various ways.

The need for information control arises due to several factors, including:

1. Protection of Intellectual Property: Control over information helps protect intellectual

property rights. Intellectual property, such as movies, software, or creative works, is
protected by copyright laws. Unauthorized distribution or sharing of copyrighted
material infringes upon the rights of the creators or owners of that content.

2. Revenue Generation: Information control allows content creators, such as movie studios
or software developers, to generate revenue from their creations. By enforcing
copyright laws and licensing agreements, they can ensure that their work is not
distributed for free or without proper authorization, enabling them to monetize their
products.
3. Quality Assurance: Information control helps maintain quality standards and prevent
unauthorized copies or altered versions of content from being distributed. Unauthorized
distribution of content, such as pirated movies or software, often results in
compromised quality, leading to a poor user experience and potential reputational
damage for the creators.

4. Compliance and Legal Obligations: Information control ensures compliance with legal
obligations and regulations. Many industries have specific regulations regarding the
distribution and use of information, such as healthcare data, financial records, or
personal information. Controlling access to and use of such information helps protect
privacy, prevent data breaches, and comply with legal requirements.

5. Security and Safety: Information control helps protect sensitive or confidential

information from falling into the wrong hands. Controlling access to information
through authentication, encryption, and secure storage mechanisms helps prevent
unauthorized access, data breaches, identity theft, or malicious activities.

While information control is challenging due to factors like convergence, scale, volume, and
individual empowerment in the digital age, efforts are made to establish regulations,
enforce copyright laws, and develop technological solutions to protect information and
ensure responsible use. These measures aim to strike a balance between protecting
intellectual property rights, enabling legitimate access and use of information, and
promoting innovation and creativity.

Controlling information dissemination and protecting intellectual property rights involves

various approaches and efforts. Here are some methods that organizations, industries, and
government entities employ:

1. Legal Frameworks: Governments enact laws and regulations to protect intellectual

property rights and enforce penalties for infringement. These laws define the scope of
intellectual property, establish rights, and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes.
Intellectual property offices, such as IP Philippines, oversee the implementation of these
laws.

2. Copyright and Trademark Protection: Copyright laws protect creative works such as
music, literature, films, and software, while trademark laws protect brands, logos, and
symbols associated with products or services. Obtaining copyright or trademark
registration provides legal protection and exclusive rights over the use of those assets.
3. Enforcement and Anti-Piracy Measures: Organizations and government bodies work
together to enforce intellectual property rights. This includes monitoring and taking
action against copyright infringement, counterfeit products, and piracy. Anti-piracy
efforts involve conducting raids, seizing illegal copies, and prosecuting infringers.

4. Digital Rights Management (DRM): DRM technologies are used to protect digital content
from unauthorized copying and distribution. DRM systems employ encryption, access
controls, and licensing mechanisms to prevent unauthorized use or duplication of digital
media, such as movies, music, and software.

5. Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about intellectual property rights and the
negative impact of piracy is crucial. Educational campaigns aim to inform the public
about the importance of respecting intellectual property, supporting legal distribution
channels, and the consequences of piracy.

6. Collaboration and Partnerships: Collaboration between industry stakeholders,

government agencies, and law enforcement bodies is essential to combat intellectual
property infringement effectively. Partnerships can involve information sharing, joint
enforcement actions, and development of technological solutions to protect intellectual
property.

7. Technological Solutions: Technological advancements are leveraged to protect and

control the dissemination of information. Watermarking, content identification
algorithms, and digital fingerprinting techniques are used to track and monitor
copyrighted material online. Automated systems can identify and remove infringing
content from websites or social media platforms.

8. International Cooperation: Intellectual property rights protection often requires

international cooperation due to the global nature of digital distribution and piracy.
International treaties and agreements, such as the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) treaties, facilitate cooperation between countries in enforcing
intellectual property laws and harmonizing standards.
It's Important to note that controlling information dissemination and protecting intellectual
property is an ongoing challenge, especially with the evolving digital landscape and
emerging technologies. Efforts to enhance information control policies continue to evolve to
strike a balance between protection, innovation, and the free flow of information.

• Copyright is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to the creator of an original work
or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for public disclosure of the
work, and includes the right to copy, distribute, and adapt the work.

• Copyright owners can license or permanently transfer or assign their exclusive rights to
others.

• Digital rights, on the other hand, is the permission granted to individuals to legitimately
perform actions involving the use of a computer, any electronic device, or a
communications network.

• It is particularly related to the protection and realization of existing rights in the context
of new digital technologies, especially the internet.

• Copyright provides protection for original expression which includes literary, artistic,
scholarly, and scientif ic creations such as books, articles, newspapers, lectures, letters,
musical compositions, and paintings.

• It also extends to derivative works such as illustrations, maps, photographic works,

advertisements, computer programs, etc.

• In the Philippines, all copyrighted materials are recorded and stored at the National
Library or the Supreme Court Library (R.A. 10372, 2013)

• Digital rights management (DRM) is used to describe the processes by which the author
or publisher of a work exerts his or her rights to control what the purchaser of the work
is entitled to do.
• This represents the control by which one can prevent a person or an organization from
copying, printing, editing, or otherwise making the privileged information available to
other people.

• With the introduction of technology and the internet, the print age is slowly becoming
obsolete with publishers shifting to the digital age.

• Before, a person needed to copy or re-print a physical book for additional copies. With
digital technologies, copies are made at zero cost with minimal detection. And it is not
just books. Movies, music, software applications, etc. can now be copied and shared
faster, with less cost.

• With this set-up, the prevalence of peer-to-peer (P2P) and torrent sites have made
information control much harder.

• While information gets to be disseminated faster to consumers control as to how it is

shared becomes an issue.

• Downloading pirated music online does not help the music artists as they are deprived
of the royalties they are entitled to.

• At the same time. Getting the music for free does not mean being safe from malicious
software and hacking attacks.

• Thus, companies and organizations have come up with possible solutions to this digital
dilemma The following are techniques designed to control access and reproduction of
online information:
 1. Encryption

• Encryption is the process of converting data or information in such a way that only
authorized parties can understand. Its primary purpose is to protect the confidentiality
of digital data stored on computer systems or transmitted via the internet or other
computer networks.

Encryption occurs every time someone uses an ATM or buys something online with a
smartphone, makes a mobile phone call, or presses a key fob to unlock a car This is done so
that information being sent is kept safe and secure DRM systems for multimedia often
encrypt material in such a way that only a particular device can play or retrieve it, enforcing
constraints on how it is used. DVDs use an encryption scheme to prevent users from viewing
discs on unauthorized players.

• This is the concept of region coding discussed earlier Region coding prevents discs sold
in one part of the world from being used on players sold in another.

3. Serial keys

• Also known as a product key or a software key, it is a series of alphanumeric characters

acting as a key to denote that the product or software is original.

• In some cases, product keys are used for product activation.

• One such example is Microsoft Windows OS.

• A product key is used to activate the operating system online.

• Online activation helps maintain software authenticity by making sure no one else has
used the same product key.
4. Scrambling

Data scrambling is done to hide sensitive information from unauthorized users.

Scrambling is accomplished by the addition of components to the original signal or the

changing of some important component of the original signal in order to make the
extraction of the original signal difficult.

It Is often done with the aid of encryption.

• While region coding identif ies which players can only play certain DVDs,
computers with DVD drives become another option for would-be pirates.

• Thus, the content scramble system (CSS) was introduced to restrict access to
content only for licensed applications. Meaning, even if the DVD was recognized
by the DVD player in a computer, certain applications or programs needed to
play the video might not allow it.

5. Tag embedding

• Similar to how pictures can include watermarks to denote information on the owner of
the picture, tag embedding does the same to information content.
 • Watermarks are not complete DRM mechanisms in their own r ight, but are used as part
of a system for copyright enforcement, such as helping provide prosecution evidence for
legal purposes, rather than direct technological restriction.

• In terms of data embedded into the actual content, the use of metadata is included to
identify the owner’s name, author, and date of purchase, among other pertinent
information.

6. Digital Watermarking

Digital watermarking is the process of embedding information or a digital signature into

multimedia content, such as images, videos, or audio files. This watermark is invisible or
difficult to remove and can be used to identify the copyright owner or trace unauthorized
copies. Digital watermarking is often used in combination with encryption or as a part of a
larger DRM system.

7. Access Controls and Authentication

Access controls and authentication mechanisms are employed to restrict access to digital
content. This can include username/password authentication, digital certificates, biometric
authentication, or other methods to verify the identity of users. By controlling access to
copyrighted material, content creators can ensure that only authorized individuals can
access and use the content.

8. Digital Rights Management Systems (DRMS)

DRMS are comprehensive systems designed to manage and control digital rights. These
systems combine various techniques like encryption, access controls, watermarking, and
authentication to protect digital content. DRMS can be applied to various types of media,
including music, movies, e-books, and software. They often require the use of specialized
software or hardware to enforce access and usage restrictions.

9. Monitoring and Detection

Technological solutions are employed to monitor and detect unauthorized use or

distribution of copyrighted content. This can involve automated systems that crawl
websites, peer-to-peer networks, or other platforms to identify infringing material. Content
recognition algorithms, fingerprinting, and advanced analytics help identify copyrighted
material and detect instances of infringement.
10. Anti-Piracy Measures

Various anti-piracy measures are implemented to deter and combat copyright infringement.
These can include legal actions against infringers, takedown notices to online platforms
hosting infringing content, and campaigns to raise awareness about the negative
consequences of piracy. Anti-piracy efforts often involve collaboration between content
creators, copyright holders, law enforcement agencies, and technology companies.

It’s worth noting that while these techniques and measures aim to control information
dissemination and protect intellectual property rights, there are ongoing debates about
their effectiveness, potential impact on privacy and fair use, and the need for balancing
access and innovation. The digital landscape continues to evolve, requiring continuous
adaptation and new strategies to address the challenges of information control and
intellectual property protection.

Data privacy refers to the protection of an individual’s personal information and ensuring
that it is collected, stored, processed, and shared in a secure and confidential manner. It
involves controlling the access, use, and disclosure of personal data to maintain
confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Data privacy regulations and policies are put in
place to safeguard individuals’ rights and prevent unauthorized access or misuse of their
information.

In the case of online platforms like Yahoo and Facebook, users often provide personal
information when creating accounts or using various services. However, it is crucial to
understand the privacy policies of these platforms and be aware of the information they
collect and how it is used. IP addresses, cookies, and other data can be utilized for various
purposes, including targeted advertising, analytics, and improving user experience. Users
need to be cautious about sharing sensitive information and ensure they are comfortable
with the platform’s privacy practices.

Concerns arise when unauthorized third parties gain access to personal data or when the
data is used for malicious purposes. Data breaches and cyberattacks can compromise
individuals’ privacy, leading to identity theft, fraud, or other harmful consequences. It is
essential for individuals to take steps to protect their data, such as using strong passwords,
enabling two-factor authentication, being cautious about sharing personal information
online, and regularly reviewing and updating privacy settings on platforms.
To enhance data privacy, governments and regulatory bodies have implemented laws and
regulations, such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and
the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). These regulations aim to give individuals more
control over their personal data and require organizations to be transparent about their
data practices, obtain consent for data collection, and provide mechanisms for individuals to
access, rectify, or delete their data.

Overall, data privacy is a fundamental right that individuals should be aware of and actively
protect. By understanding privacy policies, being cautious about sharing personal
information, and staying informed about privacy best practices, individuals can maintain a
greater level of control and security over their data.

The Data Privacy Act of 2012 in the Philippines aims to protect the privacy of Filipino citizens
and regulate the processing of personal data. The law defines sensitive personal information
and prohibits its processing except in certain circumstances, such as with the consent of the
data subject or for necessary purposes like protecting someone’s life and health or for legal
proceedings.

The law also distinguishes between a security incident and a personal data breach. A
security incident refers to an event that affects data protection, while a personal data
breach specifically involves the accidental or unlawful destruction, loss, alteration,
unauthorized disclosure, or access to personal data. The law recognizes the importance of
implementing safeguards to prevent personal data breaches.

One notable data breach incident in the Philippines occurred in 2016 when the Commission
on Elections (Comelec) website was hacked, resulting in the exposure of sensitive personal
data of millions of voters. This breach was considered one of the largest government-related
data breaches in history. The Comelec and its chairman faced criminal charges for violating
the Data Privacy Act.

The National Privacy Commission (NPC) plays a crucial role in enforcing the Data Privacy Act.
The NPC holds organizations accountable for protecting personal data and emphasizes that
data protection goes beyond implementing security measures. Negligence in complying with
the Data Privacy Act can lead to penalties, including imprisonment and fines.

The Incident with Comelec highlights the importance for organizations to prioritize data
security measures and ensure compliance with data protection regulations. Data privacy and
security challenges continue to evolve, making it essential for organizations to invest in
robust data security measures to protect individuals’ personal information.
Chapter Key Points:

1. An organization requires physical, conceptual, and information resources to operate

effectively.

2. Information resources have unique characteristics, including expandability,

compressibility, transportability, diffusibility, and shareability.

3. Information as a resource possesses four key characteristics: zero-marginal cost, non-

rivalry, non-exclusivity, and low transparency.

4. The production of information is rapidly increasing due to the ease of duplication,

transmission, and storage, as well as the growth of historical archives.

5. The proliferation of mobile devices has led to the emergence of mobile social media and
mobile commerce (m-commerce).

6. Information control involves granting appropriate access and usage rights to individuals
based on their authority.

7. Intellectual property encompasses various intangible assets for which exclusive rights are
recognized.

8. Copyright and digital rights protection mechanisms are in place to safeguard intellectual
property.