HOLINESS IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Daniel C Marvin

CONTEXT FOR MEDIEVAL HOLINESS

The medieval ages were a formative time for the Church. As at all times in history, the

Middle Ages came with mixed baggage. In the visible Church, this was no different. The

period was characterized by great stumbling in the church, such as the Crusades. The

Church also eventually became divided into the Eastern and Western churches. This is

often called the great “Schism.” The schism was due to theological and political concerns

and differences raised by both the Eastern and the Western churches. However, there was

great enthusiasm for being a “religious” person and exploring what it meant to be a

follower of Christ. There was also an emphasis made on Christian leaders having a strong

education due to the rise of Scholasticism. Monasticism and interests in Christian

mysticism was also a point of emphasis in theology. The Medieval church also had

figures that were towers of the Christian faith, such as Pope Gregory the Great , Thomas

Aquinas, Saint Francis of Assissi, and many others. The concern for holiness was present

just as it had been before, but perhaps in different ways, methodology, and emphases.

Questions

1. What key emerging themes (based on our readings) of holiness do you see in this

period? 2. What are some similarities with the earlier periods we have studied and what

are some differences? 3. What are some edifying practices of holiness by the church in

the Middle Ages? What are some non-edifying and destructive practices of attempted

holiness?
 THE LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI

Saint Francis of Assisi’s life and teachings have inspired many Christians for centuries.

Saint Francis himself was an odd sort of fellow. He took the words of Christ when said to

the rich young ruler, “Go sell your possessions and give to the poor” literally. " He

decided to abandon the pursuit of wealth, considering it to be “as so much sand”.1 He

wanted to do the work of God.2 Francis decided to wander from Assisi and found the

church of St. Damian. He was so moved when he arrived and saw the great need of the

church that he found a poor priest and offered him all the riches he had brought with

him. The priest was somewhat unsure if he should accept the gift because he had heard

how wildly Francis lived among his friends. Yet because of Francis' persistence, he

decided to take him in. 3 He did not take the money that Francis offered. Thomas of

Celano describes Francis as a person who longed to “possess wisdom which is more

precious than silver.”4 Francis longed for the wisdom found in the person of Jesus Christ

which caused him to even bless his persecutors.5 He would joyfully be singing the

praises of God even after he was beaten by robbers.6 In order to be like Christ, he even

ministered to and touched lepers. He would go as far as to kiss them. Francis wanted to

make sure his followers would not give into desires of the flesh. He wanted them to be in

the world, but not of it. For instance, when Emperor Otto V passed by, Francis did not

want his followers to go out and greet the emperor, as the people of the surrounding area

were doing. He and his followers did not go out to see him (except one who went to

1
Thomas Celano, Spirituality and Theology in the Latin West, 354.
2
ibid
3
ibid
4
ibid
5
ibid, 355.
6
ibid, 356.
 announce the arrival of the emperor).7 Thomas Celano asserts that for Francis and his

disciples “holy simplicity had so filled them, innocence of life was so teaching them,

purity of heart so possessed them, that they were utterly ignorant of duplicity of mind.

They were one in faith and one in spirit, one in charity, agreement in disposition,

harmonious behavior, the practices of virtues, conformity of mind and piety in action

always prevailed among them.”8 Saint Francis also allegedly experienced stigmata. He

was told in a vision he had, that he was like Christ in his active life, and now it was time

for him to be like Christ in the afflictions of his passions.9

Questions and Saint Francis of Assisi prayer: O divine Master, grant that I may not so

much seek to be consoled as to console, to be understood as to understand, to be loved as

to love. For it is in giving that we receive, it is in pardoning that we are pardoned, and it

is in dying that we are born to eternal life. Amen.

1. What is it about the life of Saint Francis that makes him such a compelling example of

holiness? 2. Is Francis' attempt to conform to Christlikeness extreme? 3. What lessons

can the church learn about the practices of Saint Francis and his followers in their pursuit

of holiness? Is the experience of Francis of having the literal marks of Jesus’ body an

experience to be sought? If that would happen to you or anyone you know what would be

your response?

JULIAN OF NORWICH AND CHRISTIAN MYSTICISM

Julian of Norwich experienced stigmata just as Saint Francis did. However, from our

readings it seems that she desired these things whereas it just happened to Francis.

Holiness for Julian seemed to be wrapped up in the person of Christ. She wanted to

7
ibid, 359.
8
ibid
9
Bonaventura, trans. by Bernard McGinn, Essentials Writings of Christian Mysticism, 228.
 identify with the passion of Christ. Julian also asked to be given a sickness. She refers to

it as a blessing. Finally she wanted three wounds. God granted these “blessings.”10 Julian

repeatedly called herself a wretch and a worm. She wanted the reader to not focus on who

she is or what she has done but hoped that the reader would want to contemplate God

themself. She recognized her sinfulness, although she disliked herself for it, she pursued

Christ anyways. In her writings, she confessed her sins and continued in her relationship

with Him.

Julian of Norwich was a Christian Mystic. Mystics and Christianity have been linked

from almost the beginning of the Christian faith. In fact, the practices of the Christian

mystics are done in order to have an experience with the Divine. In the book, The Idea of

Holy, Rudolf Otto offers the concept of the mysterium tremendum, that is the mystery of

the awful (as in the word awe), as the the goal of what Christian mystics are trying to

contemplate and have an experience of the wholly other.11

Bauerschmidt speaks of the “dramatic quality of the theology of Julian of Norwich”.12 He

offers that Dorothy Day was a person to look to if one wants to see the practical

implications of Julian’s theology13.

Questions

1. How do visions from the Lord impact a person’s holiness? 2. What place does

mysticism have in having a relationship with a holy God? 3. 4. Did Julian of Norwich

experience what Otto described or was it something different? Do we all need a mystic

experience in order to experience God’s holiness? What makes Julian of Norwich

10
Julian of Norwich, Showings, 125.
11
Rudolf Otto, The Idea of Holy, ch. 5.
12
Frederick Christian Bauerschmidt, Julian of Norwich and the Mystical Body Politic of Christ, 191.
13
Ibid, 200-201.
 different from other mystics in the history of the Christian faith, specifically what is

different about her quest for holiness ? What are the “dramatic” practical implications in

regard to holiness?

AQUINAS: MAN’S LAST END AND HAPPINESS

The reading from the Summa Theologica came from the beginning of volume II. Aquinas

is asking questions relating to man’s last end. Not necessarily what will happen at the end

of a human's life, but what is the goal of humankind’s actions? That is, what makes a

human perform a task or what is a human being trying to get out of their existence.

Aquinas’ first question is “What is Man's last end?”. He divides it into Eight articles:

Article 1.“Whether it belongs for man to act for an end?” Article 2. Whether it is proper

to the rational nature to act for an end? Article 3. Whether human acts are specified by

their end? Article 4. Whether there is one last end of human life? Article 5. Whether one

man can have several last ends? Article 6. Whether man will all, whatsoever he wills, for

the last end? Article 7. Whether all men have the same last end? Article 8. Whether other

creatures concur in that last end?14 Aquinas' second question in this section is: Things in

which man's happiness consists. Once again he divides this section into eight articles:

Article 1. Whether man's happiness consists in wealth? Article 2. Whether man's

happiness consists in honors?Article 3. Whether man's happiness consists in fame or

glory? Article 4. Whether man's happiness consists in power? Article 5. Whether man's

happiness consists in any bodily good?Article 6. Whether man's happiness consists in

pleasure? Article 7. Whether some good of the soul constitutes man's happiness? Article

14
Thomas of Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 583-589.
 8. Whether any created good constitutes man's happiness?15 Aquinas’ third question in

this section is “Question 3. What is happiness?” He then divided it into eight articles:

Article 1. Whether happiness is something uncreated? Article 2. Whether happiness is an

operation? Article 3. Whether happiness is an operation of the sensitive part, or of the

intellective part only?Article 4. Whether, if happiness is in the intellective part, it is an

operation of the intellect or of the will? Article 5. Whether happiness is an operation of

the speculative, or of the practical intellect? Article 6. Whether happiness consists in the

consideration of speculative sciences? Article 7. Whether happiness consists in the

knowledge of separate substances, namely, angels? Article 8. Whether man's happiness

consists in the vision of the divine essence?16

The fourth question that Aquinas attempts to answer is Question 4: Things that are

required for happiness. Aquinas breaks this down into eight articles: Article 1. Whether

delight is required for happiness? Article 2. “Whether in happiness vision ranks before

delight?” Article 3. Whether comprehension is necessary for happiness? Article 4.

Whether rectitude of the will is necessary for happiness? Article 5. Whether the body is

necessary for man's happiness? Article 6. Whether perfection of the body is necessary for

happiness? Article 7. Whether any external goods are necessary for happiness? Article 8.

“Whether the fellowship of friend is necessary for happiness?”17 Aquinas comes to the

fifth and final question of Man’s last end, Question 5: The attainment of happiness. Again

he has eight articles that he brings into the discussion: Article 1. Whether man can attain

15
ibid, 589-595.
16
ibid, 595-602.
17
ibid, 602-608.
 happiness? Article 2. Whether one man can be happier than another? Article 3. Whether

one can be happy in this life? Article 4. Whether happiness once had can be lost? Article

5. Whether man can attain happiness by his natural powers? Article 6. Whether man

attains happiness through the action of some higher creature? Article 7. Whether any

good works are necessary that man may receive happiness from God? Article 8. Whether

every man desires happiness?18

Question 1. Aquinas and other Scholastics were heavily influenced by Aristotle. This

emphasis on Aristotle is different from some of the neo-platonist theologians we

encountered earlier this semester in our readings. Although the neo-platonists used both

Aristotelian and Platonic ideas, medieval higher education focused much more on

Aristotle than Plato. Aquinas was no different. His thinking about the beginning and the

end was most definitely Aristotelian. While the early church fathers focused on

perfection both as a goal off in the distance to strive for (Platonic), as well as something

that is around us (Aristotelian). Aquinas seemed to be more influenced by Aristotle as

opposed to Plato. Is there something important Plato offers in regard to Christian

holiness? Or is Aquinas’ development in Christian thought a better representation of what

holiness really is? Question 2. Aquinas tackles the issue of happiness in relation to

existence. When Aquinas is using the term happiness he is not using the term as one

18
ibid, 609-615.
would in the postmodern world. Aquinas is asking questions about attaining joy in the

present life, or what joy looks like in humanity's existence. What is the correlation of

happiness, (in the Aquinas sense) to holiness? Is it possible for a human to be truly happy

and holy in the present life? Or does holiness produce a sorrow within us that causes us

not to be fully joyful in the present life? Is there an illumination where we realize

happiness is not in this life when we seek the holy?