模拟工程师口袋参考指南

Analog Engineer’s
模拟工程师
Pocket Reference
口袋参考书
ArtArt
作者 Kay and
Kay 和Tim
TimGreen,
GreenEditors
，编辑
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Analog Engineer’s
模拟工程师口袋参考书 Pocket Reference
Fourth
第四版 Edition
Edited by:
第四版
ArtArtKay andTim
Kay和 Green
Tim Green
特别感谢以下人员提供的技术支持和审查工作
Special thanks for technical contribution and review: ：
Kevin Duke
Rafael Ordonez
John Caldwell
Collin Wells
Ian Williams
Thomas Kuehl
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德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 3
编者的话
这本口袋参考书是常用板级和系统级设计公式的实用快速指南。收集的
这些公式是基于50多年的模拟板级和系统级专业知识。数年间，通过参
考和查阅一个装满打印文件的文件夹，我们汇总整理了这本口袋参考书
中的大部分材料。这些磨损严重的纸张已经被精心整理，而这部指南中
提供的信息也都装订成册，不会再轻易遗失了。
以下是所包含的主要领域的简要概述：
• 关键常数与换算
• 分立元件
• AC和DC 模拟方程式
• 运算放大器基本配置
• 运算放大器带宽和稳定性
• 传感器概述
• PCB传输线R，L，C
• 导线R，L，C
• 二进制、十六进制、十进制格式
• A/D和D/A 转换
我们希望这些收集的公式对您同样有用。请将您对于下一版模拟工程师
口袋参考书的意见和 /或想法发至artkay_timgreen@list.ti.com
其它资源：
• 浏览TI Precision Lab (www.ti.com.cn/precisionlabs)，为模拟工程
师准备的综合在线培训课程，将原理应用到实际环境、动手示例中。
• 在TI Designs—高精度参考设计库中搜索全部板级和系统级电路
(www.ti.com.cn/precisiondesigns)。
• 在Precision Hub中阅读TI高精度模拟专家撰写的指导博客
(www.ti.com.cn/thehub)。
• 在德州仪器在线技术支持社区中寻找解决方案、获得
帮助、并与同行工程师和TI专家们分享知识、解决问题
(http://www.deyisupport.com)。
4 Texas Instruments
德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
模拟工程师口袋参考书Pocket Reference
Contents
目录
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
换算....................................................................................................................................................................7
Physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
物理常数....................................................................................................................................................................8
Standard decimal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
标准十进制前缀.........................................................................................................................................................9
Metric conversions
公制换算 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
....................................................................................................................................................................9
Temperature
温度换算 conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
..................................................................................................................................................................10
Error conversions
误差换算（ppm和百分比） (ppm and percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
........................................................................................................................................10
Discrete components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
分立元件............................................................................................................................................................11
Resistor color code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
电阻器色标...............................................................................................................................................................12
Standard resistor values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
标准电阻器值............................................................................................................................................................13
Practical capacitor model
实际电容器模型和技术规格 and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
......................................................................................................................................14
Practical capacitors vs ...................................................................................................................................15
实际电容器与频率之间的关系 frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Capacitor type
电容器类型概述 overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
........................................................................................................................................................16
Standard...............................................................................................................................................................17
标准电容值 capacitance values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Capacitance marking
电容值标记与公差 and tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
.....................................................................................................................................................17
DiodesLED............................................................................................................................................................18
二极管与 and LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Analog
模拟 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
...................................................................................................................................................................19
Capacitor （串联、
电容器方程式 equations 并联、 (series,
电荷、能量） parallel, charge, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
..................................................................................................................20
Inductor equations
电感器方程式（串联、并联、 (series, parallel, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
能量）............................................................................................................................21
Capacitor charge
电容器充电与放电 and discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
....................................................................................................................................................23
RMS与平均电压定义
RMS and mean voltage definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
................................................................................................................................................24
RMS与平均电压示例
RMS and mean voltage examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
................................................................................................................................................24
Logarithmic
对数数学定义 mathematical definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
...........................................................................................................................................................27
dB定义
dB definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
.....................................................................................................................................................................28
Log scale
对数尺度 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
..................................................................................................................................................................29
Pole and zero definitions
极点与零点定义和示例 and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
.............................................................................................................................................30
Time to..................................................................................................................................................................34
相移时间 phase shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Amplifier
放大器 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
...............................................................................................................................................................35
Basic op amp configurations
基本运算放大器配置 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
................................................................................................................................................36
Op amp bandwidth
运算放大器带宽 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
........................................................................................................................................................41
Full power
满功率带宽 bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
...............................................................................................................................................................42
Small signal ........................................................................................................................................................43
小信号阶跃响应 step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Noise equations
噪声方程式 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
..............................................................................................................................................................44
Phase margin
相位裕量 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
..................................................................................................................................................................48
Stability open
稳定性开环 SPICE分析 loop.............................................................................................................................................50
SPICE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Instrumentation
仪表放大器滤波器 Amp filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
....................................................................................................................................................53
PCB
PCB 和导线 and wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
........................................................................................................................................................55
PCB
PCB conductor
导体间距 spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
...........................................................................................................................................................56
Self-heating
内层 PCB传输线的自发热 of PCB.........................................................................................................................................57
traces on inside layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
PCB
1oz trace
和2oz 纯铜的 resistance
PCB传输线阻抗 for 1oz and 2oz Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
.............................................................................................................................58
Package types
封装类型和尺寸 and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
........................................................................................................................................................60
PCB parallel plate
PCB 平行电路板电容 capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
................................................................................................................................................61
PCB微带线电容和电感
PCB microstrip capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
.............................................................................................................................................62
PCB .............................................................................................................................................63
PCB adjacent copper trace capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
邻近铜传输线电容
PCB 过孔电容和电感 ................................................................................................................................................64
PCB via capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
普通同轴电缆技术规格
Common coaxial cable .............................................................................................................................................65
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
同轴电缆方程式.......................................................................................................................................................66
Coaxial cable equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
不同类型导线 (AWG) 单位长度电阻.........................................................................................................................67
Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
不同类型导线的最大电流.........................................................................................................................................68
Maximum current for wire types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Sensor
传感器 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
...............................................................................................................................................................69
Temperature .......................................................................................................................................................70
温度传感器概述 sensor overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
热敏电阻 ..................................................................................................................................................................71
Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
电阻式温度检测器 (RTD)..........................................................................................................................................72
Resistive temperature detector (RTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
二极管温度特性........................................................................................................................................................74
Diode temperature characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
热电偶（J和K）.........................................................................................................................................................76
Thermocouple (J and K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A/D
A/D 转换 conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
............................................................................................................................................................81
二进制 / 十六进制换算
Binary/hex conversions...............................................................................................................................................83
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A/D 和 D/A 转换函数（LSB，数据格式，FSR）...........................................................................................................84
A/D and D/A transfer function (LSB, Data formats, FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
量化误差..................................................................................................................................................................90
Quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
信噪比 (SNR)............................................................................................................................................................91
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
总谐波失真 (THD)....................................................................................................................................................92
Total harmonic distortion (THD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
信噪比与失真 (SINAD).............................................................................................................................................94
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
有效位数 (ENOB).....................................................................................................................................................94
Effective number of bits
无噪声分辨率与有效分辨率 (ENOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
.....................................................................................................................................95
Noise free
建立时间 resolution and effective resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
（原文为setting time）与换算精度.............................................................................................................95
Setting time and conversion accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Texas
德州仪器 Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
(TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书 5
6 Texas Instruments
德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
ti.com/precisionlabs Conversions
换算
标准十进制前缀
换算
公制换算
温标换算
误差换算（ppm和百分比）

Conversions
换算 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Conversions
换算
表1：1:
Table 物理常数
Physical constants
Constant
常量符号 Symbol 值 Value 单位 Units
8
Speed of light in a vacuum
真空中的光速 cc 2.997
2.997 92458
924 58xx 10
10 8 m/s
m/s
-12
Permittivity of vacuum
绝对介电常数 εεo o 8.854
8.854 187817
187 817620
620 xx 10
10 -12 F/m
F/m
-6
Permeability of free space
真空介电常数 µ
μo o
1.256 637 0614 x 10
1.256 637 0614 x 10 -6 H/m
H/m
Plank’s constant h 6.626 069 57 x 10-34 J•s
普朗克常数 h 6.626 069 57 x 10-23 -34
J •s
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.380 648 8 x 10 J/K
玻尔兹曼常数 k 1.380 648 8 x 10 -234 J/K
Faraday’s constant F 9.648 533 99 x 10 C/mol
法拉第常数 F 9.648 533 99 x 10234 C/mol
Avogadro’s constant NA 6.022 141 29 x 10 1/mol
阿伏伽德罗常数 NA 6.022 141 29 x 1023-27 1/mol
Unified atomic mass unit mu 1.660 538 921 x 10 kg
统一原子质量单位 mu 1.660 538 921 x 10-19 -27
kg
Electronic charge q 1.602 176 565 x 10 C
电子电荷 q 1.602 176 565 x 10 -19 C
Rest mass of electron me 9.109 382 15 x 10-31 kg
电子静止质量 me 9.109 382 15 x 10 -31 kg
Mass of proton m 1.672 621 777 x 10-27 kg
质子质量 mp p 1.672 621 777 x 10 -27 kg
Gravitational constant G 6.673 84 x 10-11 Nm 2
/kg2
引力常数 G 6.673 84 x 10 -11 Nm2 /kg2
Standard gravity g 9.806 65 m/s2
标准地心引力 gn n 9.806 65 m/s2
Ice point
冰点 T
Ticeice
273.15
273.15 K
K
1.00 x 103 kg/m3
ρρ
Maximum density of water
最大水密度 1.00 x 10 3 kg/m3
Density of mercury
水银密度 (0°C) (0°C) ρρHgHg 1044
1.3628 8x x10
1.362 kg/m
kg/m 3
3
Gas constant
气体常数 RR 8.314462
8.314 46211 J/(K•mol)
J/(K•mol)
Speed of sound（273°
空气中的声速 in air (atK273°K)
时） cair
cair 3.312 1022
3.312x x10 m/sm/s
Table
表2： 2:标准十进制前缀
Standard decimal prefixes
Multiplier
乘子 Prefix
前缀 Abbreviation
缩写
1012
1012 tera
tera TT
1099 giga
giga GG
1066 mega
mega M
M
1033 kilo
kilo k
–3
–3
10 milli
milli m
m
10–6
–6
micro
micro µ
μ
10–9
–9
nano
nano nn
–12
10
10–12 pico
pico pp
10–15
10 –15 femto
femto ff
–18
10
10 –18 atto
atto aa
8 Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
换算
Conversions
Table
表3： 3:英制到公制换算
Imperial to metric conversions
Unit
单位 Symbol 符号 Equivalent
等量 Unit
单位 Symbol
符号
inches in 25.4 mm/in millimeter mm
英寸 in 25.4mm/in 毫米 mm
mil mil 0.0254 mm/mil millimeter mm
密耳 mil 0.0254mil/mm 毫米 mm
feet ft 0.3048 m/ft meters m
英尺 ft 0.3048m/ft 米 M
yards yd 0.9144 m/yd meters m
码 yd 0.9144m/yd 米 m
miles mi 1.6093 km/mi kilometers km
英里 ml 1.6093km/ml 公里 km
-4 2
circular mil cir mil 5.067x10 mm-4/cir mil2 square millimeters mm2
圆密耳 cir mil 5.067x10 2mm /cir mil 平方毫米 mm22
square yards yd2 0.8361 m square meters m
平方码 yd2 0.8361m2 平方米 m2
pints pt 0.5682 L/pt liters L
品脱 pt 0.5682L/pt 升 L
ounces oz 28.35 g/oz grams g
盎司 oz 28.35g/oz 克 g
pounds lb 0.4536 kg/lb kilograms kg
磅 lb 0.4536kg/lb 公斤 kg
calories cal 4.184 J/cal joules J
卡路里 cal 4.184J/cal 焦耳 J
horsepower hp 745.7 W/hp watts W
马力 hp 745.7W/hp 瓦特 W
表4：
Table 4:公制到英制换算
Metric to imperial conversions
Unit
单位 Symbol
符号 Conversion
换算 Unit
单位 Symbol
符号
millimeter
毫米 mm
mm 0.0394 in/mm
0.0394in/mm inch
英寸 inin
millimeter
毫米 mm
mm 39.4 mil/mm
39.4mil/mm mil
密耳 mil
mil
meters
米 m
M 3.2808 ft/m
3.2808ft/m feet
英尺 ftft
meters
米 m
m 1.0936 yd/m
1.0936yd/m yard码 yd
yd
kilometers
公里 km
km 0.6214 mi/km
0.6241ml/km miles
英里 mi
ml
square
平方毫米 millimeters mm22
mm 1974 cir cir
1974 mil/mm 2
mil/mm2 circular
圆密耳 mil cir
cirmil
mil
square
平方米 meters m22
m 1.1960 yd2/ m22/m2
1.1960yd square
平方码yards yd2
yd2
liters
升 LL 1.7600 pt/L
1.7600pt/L pints
品脱 pt
pt
grams
克 gg 0.0353 oz/g
0.0353oz/g ounces
盎司 oz
oz
kilograms
公斤 kg
kg 2.2046 lb/kg
2.2046lb/kg pounds
磅 lblb
joules
焦耳 JJ 0.239 cal/J
0.239cal/J calories
卡路里 cal
cal
-3 -3
watts
瓦特 W
W 1.341x10
1.341x10hp/Whp/W horsepower
马力 hp
hp
Example
示例
Convert
将 10mm 10换算为密耳值
mm to mil . 。
答案
Answer mil
10 mm x 39 .4 = 394 mil
mm

Conversions
换算 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
表5：温度换算
Table 5: Temperature conversions
Table 5: Temperature conversions
Table 5:5 Temperature conversions
�� F � �2� Fahrenheit
FahrenheittotoCelsius
华氏度到摄氏度 Celsius
9 5
��9� ��F � �2� Fahrenheit to Celsius
9 Celsius
CelsiustotoFahrenheit
Fahrenheit
�F � �� 2 摄氏度到华氏度
5 9
�F � �� 2 Celsius to Fahrenheit
� � �� 52��.15 Celsius
CelsiustotoKelvin
摄氏度到开 Kelvin
� � �� 2��.15 Celsius to Kelvin
�� 2��.15 Kelvin
KelvintotoCelsius
开到摄氏度 Celsius
�� 2��.15 Kelvin to Celsius
Table 6: Error conversions
表6：误差换算
�easured � Ideal
Error�%� � � 100 Error in measured value
Ideal � Ideal
�easured
Error�%� � �easured � Ideal� 100 Errorin
测得值的误差
Error inmeasured
measuredvalue value
Error�% FSR� � Ideal � 100 Error in percent of full-scale range
Full‐scale range
�easured � Ideal
Error�% FSR� � ppm � 100 误差占满量程范围的百分比
Errorin
Error inpercent
percent ofof full-scale
full-scale range
Full‐scale range
% � � � 100 Part per million to percent
10 ppm 百万分率转换为百分比
% � � � 100
ppm Part
Part per million
per million to
to percent
10
m% � � 100 � 1000 Part per million to milli-percent
10�ppm 百万分率转换为千分比
m% � � 100 � 1000 Part per
Part per million
million to
to milli-percent
10�
ppm � % � 10� Percent to part per million
ppm � % � 10� 百分比转换为百万分率
Percent to
Percent to part
part per
per million
ppm � m% � 10 Milli-percent to part per million
ppm � m% � 10 Milli-percent to part per million
Milli-percent
千分比转换为百万分率 million
Example
Example
Compute the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
示例
Example
theCompute
range is 5V.
the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
Compute
range isthe
当理想值为
the 5V.error
0.1V， for 范围为
a measured
5Vvalue
时，of 计算0 .12V when 测量值的误差
0.12V the ideal value is。
0 .1V
and the range is 5V .
Answer
Answer 0.12V � 0.1V
答案
Answer
Error�%� � � 100 � 20% Error in measured value
0.1V � 0.1V
0.12V
Error�%� � 0.12V
0.12
V
� 0.1V � 100 � 20%
Error in measured value
Error in measured value
Error % 0.1V 测量值的误差
Percent FSR
Error�% FSR� � 0.1V � 100 � 0.�%
5V � 0.1V
0.12
V � 100 � 0.�%
Error�% FSR� �
Error % FSR 5V 占Percent
FSR 的百分比
Percent
FSR
FSR
Example 5V
Example
示例
Example
Convert 10 ppm to percent and milli-percent.
将 10ppm
Convert
Convert 10 转换为百分比和千分比
10ppm
ppm totopercent
percentand 。
andmilli-percent.
milli-percent.
Answer
答案
Answer
Answer
10 ppm
�
� 100 � 0.001% Part per million to percent
10
10 ppm
10 ppm
� 100 � 0.001% Part per
permillion
百万分率转换为百分比
Part milliontotopercent
percent
10 ppm 10� � 100 � 1000 � 1 m%
10
�
Part per million to milli-percent
10
10 ppm
10 ppm
� 100 � 1000 � 1 m% Part per
permillion
百万分率转换为千分比
Part milliontotomilli-percent
milli-percent
10�
10
10 Texas Texas Instruments

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分立元件
电阻器色标
标准电阻器值
电容技术规格
电容类型概述
分立元件
标准电容值
电容标记和公差
11 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Discrete Components
分立元件 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Table
表7：7: Resistor color code
电阻器色标
Additional Temperature Failure
颜色代表的数字有效值后0的个数公差温度系数故障率
Color Digit Zeros Tolerance Coefficient Rate
黑色Black 0 0 0 0 250
250
棕色
Brown 1 1 1 1 1%
1% 100
100 11
分立元件
2 22 2% 5050 0.1
Discrete
红色Red 2 2% 0.1
橙色
Orange 3 3 33 1515 0.01
0.01
黄色
Yellow 4 4 44 2525 0.001
0.001
绿色
Green 5 5 55 0.5%
0.5% 2020
蓝色Blue 6 6 66 0.25%
0.25% 1010
紫色Violet 7 7 77 0.1%
0.1% 55
灰色Grey 8 8 88 0.05%
0.05% 11
White
白色 9 9 99
金色Gold -na-
无有效数字 -1-1 5%
5%
银色Silver -na-
无有效数字 -2-2 10%
10%
No Band 无有效数字
无色带 -na- -na-
无有效数字 20%
20%
4色带示例：黄紫橙银表示4、7和3个 0。即，一个47kΩ，10%的电阻器。

4 Band example: yellow violet orange silver indicate 4, 7, and 3 zeros.
i.e. a 47kΩ, 10% resistor.
红、红、绿
3色带
2200000Ω，20%
黄、紫、红、黑
4色带
4700Ω，1%
棕、棕、橙、红、紫
5色带
11300Ω，0.1%
棕、绿、红、黑、蓝、红
6色带 152Ω，0.25%，15ppm/℃
第1个数字温度系数
第2个数字公差
第 3个数字也被用作军用技术规格的故障率
有效值后 0的个数
Figure
图 1: Resistor color code
1：电阻器色标
德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
10至100十进位的标准电阻值
Standard resistance values for the 10 to 100 decade Table
0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2%
表8：8:
德州仪器
0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5%
0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10%
10.0 10.0 10 14.7 14.7 21.5 21.5 31.6 31.6 46.4 46.4 68.1 68.1 68
Texas Instruments
10.1 14.9 21.8 32.0 47.0 47 69.0
10.2 10.2 15.0 15.0 15 22.1 22.1 22 32.4 32.4 47.5 47.5 69.8 69.8
10.4 15.2 22.3 32.8 48.1 70.6
标准电阻器值
10.5 10.5 15.4 15.4 22.6 22.6 33.2 33.2 33 48.7 48.7 71.5 71.5
10.6 15.6 22.9 33.6 49.3 72.3
10.7 10.7 15.8 15.8 23.2 23.2 34.0 34.0 49.9 49.9 73.2 73.2
10.9 16.0 16 23.4 34.4 50.5 74.1
11.0 11.0 11 16.2 16.2 23.7 23.7 34.8 34.8 51.1 51.1 51 75.0 75.0 75
11.1 16.4 24.0 24 35.2 51.7 75.9
Standard resistor values
(TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书
11.3 11.3 16.5 16.5 24.3 24.3 35.7 35.7 52.3 52.3 76.8 76.8
11.4 16.7 24.6 36.1 36 53.0 77.7
11.5 11.5 16.9 16.9 24.9 24.9 36.5 36.5 53.6 53.6 78.7 78.7
11.7 17.2 25.2 37.0 54.2 79.6
Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

11.8 11.8 17.4 17.4 25.5 25.5 37.4 37.4 54.9 54.9 80.6 80.6
12.0 12 17.6 25.8 37.9 55.6 81.6
12.1 12.1 17.8 17.8 26.1 26.1 38.3 38.3 56.2 56.2 56 82.5 82.5 82
12.3 18.0 18 26.4 38.8 56.9 83.5
12.4 12.4 18.2 18.2 26.7 26.7 39.2 39.2 39 57.6 57.6 84.5 84.5
12.6 18.4 27.1 27 39.7 58.3 85.6
12.7 12.7 18.7 18.7 27.4 27.4 40.2 40.2 59.0 59.0 86.6 86.6
12.9 18.9 27.7 40.7 59.7 87.6
13.0 13.0 13 19.1 19.1 28.0 28.0 41.2 41.2 60.4 60.4 88.7 88.7
13.2 19.3 28.4 41.7 61.2 89.8
13.3 13.3 19.6 19.6 28.7 28.7 42.2 42.2 61.9 61.9 62 90.9 90.9 91
13.5 19.8 29.1 42.7 62.6 92.0
13.7 13.7 20.0 20.0 20 29.4 29.4 43.2 43.2 43 63.4 63.4 93.1 93.1
13.8 20.3 29.8 43.7 64.2 94.2
14.0 14.0 20.5 20.5 30.1 30.1 30 44.2 44.2 64.9 64.9 95.3 95.3
14.2 20.8 30.5 44.8 65.7 96.5
14.3 14.3 21.0 21.0 30.9 30.9 45.3 45.3 66.5 66.5 97.6 97.6
14.5 21.3 31.2 45.9 67.3 98.8
分立元件
13
Discrete Components
Discrete
分立元件 Components ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Practical capacitor model and specifications

实际电容器模型和技术规格
Rp
ESR C ESL
Figure 2:图
Model of a practical capacitor
2：实际电容器模型
表 9：电容器技术规格
Table 9: Capacitor specifications
Parameter
参数 Description 说明
The nominal value of the capacitance
电容器的标称值
CC
Table 11 lists standard capacitance values
表11中列出了标准电容值
Equivalent
等效串联电阻 series resistance
Ideally this is zero
理想值为0
ESR
ESR Ceramic capacitors have the best ESR (typically in milliohms). Tantalum Electro-
陶瓷电容器具有最佳的ESR（通常为毫欧级）。钽电解电容器的ESR为
lytic have ESR in the hundreds of milliohms and Aluminum Electrolytic have ESR
数百毫欧而铝电解电容器的ESR为欧姆级。
in the ohms，
Equivalent
等效串联电感 series inductance
ESL
ESL Ideally
理想值为 this is
0 zero
ESL
ESLranges
范围在 from 100 至
100pH pH10nH
to 10 之间
nH
Rp
Rpis为并联泄露电阻
a parallel leakage（resistance
或称为绝缘电阻 (or insulation
） resistance)
Ideally
理想值为无穷大this is infinite
Rp
Rp This can range from tens of megaohms for some ，
其范围可以从某些电解电容器的数十兆欧 electrolytic
至陶瓷电容器的几十千兆capacitors to tens of
gigohms
欧。 for ceramic
The maximum voltage that can be applied to the capacitor
可以施加到电容器上的最大电压
Voltage
电压额定值 rating
Exceeding
超过这个值会损坏电容器this rating damages the capacitor
The change in capacitance with applied voltage in ppm/V
A电容随施加电压的变化值
high-voltage coefficient can ，单位ppm/V
introduce distortion
Voltage 高压系数会引入失真
电压系数 C0G capacitors have the lowest coefficient
coefficient C0G 电容器具有最低的系数
The voltage coefficient is most important in applications that use capacitors in
在把电容器用于信号处理
signal （诸如滤波）的应用中，电压系数最重要
processing such as filtering
The change in capacitance with across temperature in ppm/°C
Temperature 电容值在温度范围内的变化率
Ideally, zero ppm/°C
the temperature coefficient is，单位
coefficient
温度系数
理想情况下
The maximum，温度系数为
specified drift 0
generally ranges from 10 to 100ppm/°C or greater
最大指定漂移值通常在
depending on the capacitor 10 100ppm/°
至(See
type Table 10Cfor
的范围内
details) ，或者更大，这取决
于电容器类型（详细内容请见表10）

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Practical capacitors vs . frequency

实际电容器模型和技术规格
Practical capacitors vs. frequency
10μF 电容器的阻抗与频率之间的关系
电容值所导致的
斜坡
阻抗（欧姆
Impedance (ohms)
）
钽电解电容器
由ESL所导致
的斜坡
陶瓷电容器
频率（HZ）
Figure 3:Figure
Effect 3:
of图Effect
ESR of ESR
and
3：ESR ESL
和 and ESL on capacitor
on对于电容器频率响应的影响
ESL capacitor frequency
frequency responseresponse
德州仪器
Texas (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书
Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 15
Discrete
Table
表1010: Capacitor type overview
：电容器类型概述
Capacitor电容器类型
type Description 说明
C0G/NP0 Use in signal path, filtering, low distortion, audio, and precision
用于信号路径滤波低失真、音频和高精度应用中
(Type 1 ceramic) Limited capacitance range: 0.1、pF to 、 0.47 µF
有限电容范围
Lowest temperature ：0.1pF
coefficient: 至0.47μF
±30 ppm/°C
最低温度系数
Low-voltage coefficient ：±30ppm/° C
C0G/NP0 低压系数
Minimal piezoelectric effect
（1类陶瓷电容器）Good tolerance: 最小压电效应
±1% to ±10%
良好公差
Temperature range: –55°C：±1% 至±10%
to 125°C (150°C and higher)
Voltage range温度范围：-55°
may be limited forClarger
至125° C（150°
capacitance C以及更高温度）
values
对于较大的电容值，电压范围也许会受到限制
X7R Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and
(Type 2 ceramic) low distortion 用于去耦合和其它应用
are not required
，在这些应用中，对精度和低失
X7R is an example of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
真没有要求
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
X7R是2类陶瓷电容器的一个示例
Capacitance range: 10 pF to 47 µF
Temperature coefficient: ±833 ppm/°C (±15% across EIA
其它类型电容器的详细信息请参见公差表
X7R temp range)
电容值范围：10pF至47μF
（2类陶瓷电容器） Substantial voltage coefficient
Tolerance: ±5% 温度系数：±833ppm/°C（在温度范围内±15%）
to –20%/+80%
–55°C to 125°C：±5%至-20%/+80%
实质电压系数公差
Temperature range:
Voltage range温度范围：-55°
may be limited forClarger
至125° C
capacitance values
对于较大的电容值，电压范围也许会受到限制
Y5V Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and
(Type 2 ceramic) low distortion 用于去耦合和其它应用
are not required ，在这些应用中，对精度和低失
Y5V is an example
真没有要求of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
Y5V是2类陶瓷电容器的一个示例
Y5V Temperature coefficient: –20%/+80% across temp range 公差表
其它类型电容器的详细信息请参见 EIA
（2类陶瓷电容器） Temperature range: –30°C to 85°C
温度范围内的温度系数：-20%/+80%
Other characteristics are similar to X7R and other type 2 ceramic
温度范围：-30°C 至85°C
Aluminum oxide Use for bulk decoupling
其它特性与 andX7R
other和其它applications where large
2类陶瓷电容器相似
electrolytic capacitance is required
Note that electrolytic capacitors are polarized and will be damaged, if a
用于需要大电容值的大型去耦合和其它应用
reverse polarity connection is ，
需要注意的是 made
电解电容器是被极化的电容器，如果极性
Capacitance range:
被接反了 1 µF， to就会损坏电解电容器
68,000 µF
Temperature coefficient:
电容值范围 ±30
：1μFppm/°C
至68000μF
氧化铝电解电容器Substantial voltage coefficient Tolerance: ±20%
温度系数：±30ppm/°C
Temperature range: –55°C to 125°C：(150°C
实质温度系数公差 ±20%and higher)
Higher ESR than other types
温度范围：-55°C 至125°C（150°C以及更高温度）
Tantalum Capacitance range: 1 µF to 150 µF
具有比其它类型电容器高的 ESR
electrolytic Similar to aluminum oxide but smaller size
电容值范围：1μF至150μF
Polypropylene
钽电解电容器 Capacitance range: 100 pF to 10 µF
与氧化铝电解电容器相类似，不过尺寸更小
film Very low voltage coefficient (low distortion)
Higher cost than other types
电容值范围 100pF至10μF
Larger size per capacitance： than other types
极低电压系数
Temperature coefficient: 2% across（低失真 temp）range
成本比其它类型电容器要高
聚丙烯薄膜电容器Temperature range: –55°C to 100°C
单位电容值尺寸要大于其它类型电容器
温度系数：在温度范围内为2%
温度范围：-55°C 至100°C

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Table
表 11：11: Standard capacitance table
标准电容值表
Standard capacitance table
标准电容值表
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.7 3
3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1
Example
示例
CK06
223K Translate the capacitor marking
将电容器标记转化为电容值。
2 2 3 K "K" = ±10%
Figure 4: Capacitor 22 000 pF

图4：电容器标记代码
marking code = 22nF = 0 .022µF
表 12：
Table 陶瓷电容器公差标记
12: Ceramic capacitor tolerance markings
Code
代码 Tolerance
公差 Code
代码 Tolerance
公差
B ± 0.1 pF J ± 5%
C ± 0.25 pF K ± 10%
D ± 0.5 pF M ± 20%
F ± 1% Z + 80%, –20%
G ± 2%
Table
表 13： 13:
EIAEIA capacitor tolerance
电容器公差标记 markings (Type 2 capacitors)
（2类电容器）
第一字母 Second
第二数字 Second
第二字母 Max. capacitance
温度额定值范围内的最
First letter Low
低温限值temp number High
高温限值 temp letter change over
符号
symbol limit 符号
symbol limit 符号
symbol 大电容值变化
temperature rating
Z +10°CC
+10° 2 +45°CC
+45° A
A ±1.0%
±1.0%
Y –30°CC
–30° 4 +65°CC
+65° B ±1.5%
±1.5%
X –55°CC
–55° 5 +85°CC
+85° C ±2.2%
±2.2%
6 +105°CC
+105° D
D ±3.3%
±3.3%
7 +125°CC
+125° E ±4.7%
±4.7%
F ±7.5%
±7.5%
P ±10.0%
±10.0%
R ±15.0%
±15.0%
S ±22.0%
±22.0%
T ±22% ~
±22% ~ 33%
33%
U
U ±22% ~
±22% ~ 56%
56%
V ±22% ~~ 82%
±22% 82%
Example
示例
X7R: –55°C 至
X7R：-55℃ to +125℃，±15.0%
+125°C, ±15 .0%

Discrete
Diodes
二极管和andLED LEDs
Anode
阳级 (+) Cathode
阴级 (-)
Anode (+) C
Anode
阳级 (+) Cathode
阴级 (-)
Anode (+) Cat
Long Lead Sho
Cathode (-)
Anode
阳级 (+) Cathode
阴级 (-)
Cathode (-)
Anode
阳级 (+) Cathode
阴级 (-)
Long
长导线Lead Short Lead, Flat
短导线，平头
Figure 5:图Diode and LED pin names

5：二极管和LED引脚名称
颜色
Color 波长 (nm)
Wavelength (nm) 电压
Voltage （大概范围）
(approximate range)
红外
Infrared 940-850
940-850 1.4 至 1.7
1.4 to 1.7
红
Red 660-620
660-620 1.7to
1.7 1.9
至1.9
Orange //黄
橙 Yellow 620-605
620-605 2 至 2.2
2 to 2.2
绿
Green 570-525
570-525 2.1至
2.1 3.0
to 3.0
蓝 /白
Blue/White 470-430
470-430 3.4to
3.4 3.8
至3.8
Table 14: LED forward voltage drop by color

表14：不同颜色LED的正向压降
Note:：此处给出的电压为近似值
注释 The voltages given are approximate,
，其目的是显示 and are
LEDintended to show the general trend for
二极管正向电压压降的一般趋势。
forward voltage drop of LED diodes. Consult the manufacturer’s data sheet for more precise
如需更加精确的值
values. ，请参考厂商数据表。

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
ti.com/precisionlabs Analog
Analog
模拟
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy) •
电容器方程式
Inductor equations（串联、并联
(series, 、充电、
parallel, 能量）•
energy)
电感器方程式（串联and
Capacitor charge 、并联、能量）•
discharge
RMS and mean voltage
电容器充电与放电 definition •
RMS RMS
for common
和平均电压定义 signals •
针对普通信号的laws
Logarithm RMS•
dB definitions
对数律•
Pole and zero definition with examples •
dB定义
用示例定义极点和零点
Analog
模拟

Analog
模拟 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Capacitor
Capacitor
电容器方程式 equations
equations
1
C
1 1 1 (1) Series
（1）串联电容器capacitors
C C C
C C
C （2） 2个串联电容器
(2) Two series capacitors
C
C (3) Parallel capacitors

（3）并联电容器
在这里
Where
Ct == 等效总电容值
C equivalent total capacitance
t
C , C , C …C = component capacitors
C11，C22，C 33…CNN= 元件电容器
Analog
V (4) Charge storage

模拟
（4）电荷存储量
（5）规定电荷
(5) Charge defined
Where
在这里
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
Q = 以库伦为单位的电荷量 (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
C = 以法拉第为单位的电容值 (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
V = 以伏特为单位的电压值 (V)
I = current in amps (A)
I = 以安培为单位的电流值 (A)
t = time in seconds (s)
t = 以秒为单位的时间长度 (s)
dv
(6) Instantaneous
（6）流经一个电容器的即时电流current through a capacitor
dt
在这里
Where
ii = =流经电容器的即时电流
instantaneous current through the capacitor
CC ==以法拉第为单位的电容值
capacitance in farads (F)(F)
dv = 电压的瞬时变化率
the instantaneous rate of voltage change
dt
1
CV (7)储存在电容器中的能量
（7） Energy stored in a capacitor
2
Where
在这里
EE == 储存在电容器中的能量
energy stored in an capacitor
，单位为焦耳 in Joules
(J) (J)
V
V= = voltage in
以伏特为单位的电压 volts
CC==以法拉第为单位的电容值
capacitance in farads (F)(F)

20 德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
ti.com.cn/precisionlabs Analog
模拟
Inductor
电感方程式 equations
Inductor equations
L� � L� � L� � � � L� (8)
（8） Series
(8)串联电感器
Series inductors
inductors
1
L� � Parallel inductors
1 1 1 (9)并联电感器
(9)
（9） Parallel inductors
� � ��
L� L� L�
L� L�
L� � (10) Two
Two
(10)2
（10） parallel
parallel
个并联电感器 inductors
inductors
L� � L�
Where
Where
在这里
LL
Ltt == equivalent
等效总电感total total inductance
inductance
t
LL
L11，,, L
L22,,，
L LLL33…L
…L
…LNN == component
=component inductance
元件电感 inductance
1 2 3 N

di
v�L Instantaneousvoltage
(11)1Instantaneous
(11)
（11）个电感器上的瞬时电压 voltageacross
acrossananinductor
inductor
dt
Where
在这里
Where
vv ==电感器上的瞬时电压
instantaneous voltage across the inductor
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
LL ==以亨利为单位的电感值
inductance in Henries (H)
(H)
L = inductance in Henries (H)
di
� = instantaneous rate of current change
dt = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
��
1
� � LI� Energystored
(12)Energy
(12) storedininananinductor
Inductor
2
Where
Where
在这里
EE
E= == energy
energy stored
stored in
储存在电感器中的能量 in an
an inductor
inductor
，单位焦耳 ininJoules
Joules (J)
(J) (J)
I =current
current in amps
in amps
I = 以安培为单位的电流值 (A)
L = 以亨利为单位的电感值
inductance in Henries (H)
L = inductance in Henries (H) (H)

21
Analog
Equation
RC 电路充电方程式
Equation for charging
for chargingaan
capacitor
RC circuit
��
V� � V� �� (13)
(13) General
General relationship
relationship
Equation for charging a capacitor
Where ��
在这里V�C =�voltage
Where
V V� �� the
across � capacitor(13)
at anyGeneral
instant inrelationship
time (t)
VVCCV===任一瞬时时间点上
voltage across
the source the capacitor
charging at
，电容器的电压
voltage theany
RCinstant
(t) circuit in time (t)
S
VSSt = 为
==timeRCsource
the 电路充电的源电压
in voltage charging the RC circuit
seconds
tt =Where
以秒为单位的时间长度
= =time
RC,inthe
seconds
time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
τ=VRC，C = voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
电容器充放电的时间常数
τ = RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VS = the source voltage charging the RC circuit
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
t = time in seconds
capacitor is 13
图形化方程式生成以下的电容器充电曲线
99.3% 。需要注意的是
charged at five time constants. ，在5 个时间常量时
It is common ，
practice to consider
 = RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
Graphing equation 13
this fully charged.
电容器的充电量达到了 produces
99.3%。在实际应用中the capacitor charging curve below .
，通常认为电容器已充满电。 Note
that the capacitor is 99 .3% charged at five time constants . It is common
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
practice to consider this fully charged.
capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
this fully charged.
充电百分比与时间常量之间的关系
充电量达到99.3%
τ=5xτ时
充电百分比
充电量达到63.2%
τ=1xτ时
Figure 7: RC charge curve

时间常量的数量（τ=RC）

22 Texas Texas
22 Instruments
德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
模拟
Equation for discharging a capacitor

Equation
RC电路放电方程式for discharging an RC circuit
��
V� � V� �� (14) General
(14) General Relationship relationship
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Where
V� � V� ��
Where
在这里
��
(14) General relationship
VCV
V C=C =voltage
voltage
=任一瞬时时间点上 across
across the
， the capacitor
capacitor
电容器的电压 at anyininstant
at any instant
(t) time (t) in time (t)
VVSi = 为 theRCinitial
电路充电的源电压voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
I = the initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
VWhere
tt == 以秒为单位的时间长度
V time in seconds
=C =time
ττ=t=RC， voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
intime
seconds
电容器充放电的时间常数
VIRC,
= thethe
initial constant
voltage of thefor charging
capacitor and discharging capacitors
at t=0s
t == time
RC,in the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
seconds
图形化方程式 14 生成以下的电容器放电曲线。需要注意的是
 = RC, the time constant for charging and ，在5 个时间常量时，
discharging capacitors
Graphing equation 14
电容器放电至总电量的 produces the capacitor discharge curve below . Note
0.7%。在实际应用中，通常认为电容器已完全放电。
Graphing
that equation
the capacitor 14 produces
is discharged to 0 .7%the capacitor
at five discharge
time constants . curve below. N
It is com-
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note that the
mon practiceisto0.7%
capacitor consider this fullyatdischarged .
charged five time constants. It is common practice
capacitor is 0.7% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
this fullydischarged.
this fully discharged.
Percentage Discharged vs. Number of Time Constants
100
Percentage Discharged vs. Number of Time Constants
放电百分比与时间常量之间的关系
100
90
80
90
70
Charged
80 放电量达到36.8%
60
τ=1xτ时
放电百分比
70
Charged
PercentagePercentage
50
40
60
30 放电量达到0.7%
50
20
τ=5xτ时
40
10
0
30 0 1 2 3 4 5
20 Number of time Constants (τ
时间常量的数量（τ=RC = RC)
）
Figure
10 8: RC discharge curve
Figure 7: RC discharge curve
0
0 1 2 3 4
Number of time Constants (τ = RC)
Figure 8: RC discharge curve
Texas Instruments
德州仪器 Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 23
Analog
RMS voltage
RMS
RMS voltage
电压
RMS voltage
RMS voltage1 ��
V�� V�t�� dt (15) General
(15) relationship
��
��
1 ��
V�� 1 � �V�t�� dt (15) General relationship
V�� V�t�� dt (15) General relationship
Where ��
在这里 � � ��
Where
V(t) =连续时间函数
V(t) continuous function of time
V(t) = = continuous function of time
t==Where
t Where time in seconds
以秒为单位的时间长度
t =V(t)
time continuous
in seconds function of time
T1 ≤ =t =≤continuous
T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
TV(t)
1t = time 2in=seconds
≤ t ≤ T function
the time of time
interval that the function is defined over
t = time in seconds
T
Mean 1 ≤ t ≤ T
voltage
2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
T 1 ≤ t ≤ T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
Mean
平均电压 voltage
Mean voltage
1 ��
Mean
V�� voltage
� � V�t�dt (16) General relationship
��
��
1 ��
V�� 1 � V�t�dt (16)(16)
V ��
Where � ��V�t�dt (16) General relationship
��
V(t) = continuous function of time
t=Where
Where time in seconds
Where
在这里
T V(t) =≤ continuous
1 ≤=t continuous
T2 = the time function
intervalofthat
time
V(t)
V(t)==连续时间函数
V(t) continuous function
function of time the function is defined over
of time
t t =time
= timeininseconds
seconds
t
t= = time in
以秒为单位的时间长度 seconds
T1 ≤ t ≤ T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
TT11 ≤≤ t ≤ T22 == the
the time
time interval
interval that
that the
the function
functionisisdefined
definedover
over
V�� RMS for full wave rectified
V�� (17)
√2 sine wave
V�� RMS for full wave rectified
V�� V�� (17) RMS for full (17)
waveRMS for fullsine
rectified wave rectified
wave
V�� 2 √2 � V�� (17) sine
Mean wave
for full wave rectified
V�� √2 (18) sine wave
π sine wave
2 � V�� Mean for full wave rectified
V�� 2 � V�� (18) Mean for full(18) Mean for full wave rectified
V�� π (18)wave rectified
sine wave sine wave
π sine wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave
Figure
Figure 9: Full wave 8: Full
rectified wave
8
图sine rectified sine wave
：正弦波全波整流
wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave

(TI)Engineer's
24
24
模拟
RMS
RMS 电压和平均电压
voltage
RMS voltage andand mean
mean voltage
voltage
τ RMS for a half-wave

V V 2T (19)
(19) RMS for a half-wave
rectified rectified
sine wave sine wave
V τ Mean for a half-wave

V (20)
(20) Mean for a half-wave rectified sine wave
π T rectified sine wave
图9：
Figure 10: Half-wave Figure 9:正弦波半波整流
rectified Half-wave
sine wave rectified sine wave
τ
V V (21)
(21) RMSRMS
for afor a square
square wavewave
T
τ
V V (22) Mean for a square wave
T
放电百分比
Figure 11: Square wave Figure

图10：10:
方波Square wave
Texas
25
Analog
RMS电压和平均电压
RMS voltage and mean voltage
RMS voltage and mean voltage
V (V V V
3
V
(( T (
τ (23) RMS
(23) for afortrapezoid
RMS a trapezoid
τ
V V V (24)
(24) Mean
Mean for afortrapezoid
a trapezoid
2T
Figure 12: Trapezoidal wave

Figure 11:
图Trapezoidal
11：梯形波 wave
τ (25) RMS
V V (25) for
RMSa triangle wave wave
for a triangle
3T
τ
V V (26) Mean
(26) Mean for a triangle
for a triangle wave wave
2T
Figure 13: Triangle wave 12:12

Figure 图 Triangle
：三角波wave

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
26
模拟
对数数学定义 mathematical definitions

Logarithmic
Logarithmic mathematical definitions
A
A B (27)ofLog
(27) Log of dividend
dividend
B
log AB A B (28) Log

(28)ofLog
product
of product
log A A (29)ofLog
(29) Log of exponent
exponent
log
log (30) Changing
(30) Changing the of
the base base
logof log function
function
log
log
log (31) Example changing
(31) Example to logtobase
changing 2
log base 2
log
ln X (32) Natural log is log

(32) Natural log is
base e
log base e
(33) Exponential
(33) Exponential function
function to 6 digits.
to 6 digits
Alternative
Alternative notations
替代表示法 notations
Different
(34) Different notation
notation for exponential
for exponential function
exp x (34)
function
Different notation for scientific

(35) Different notation for scientific notation,
(35) notation, sometimes confused with
sometimes confused with
exponential function
exponential function
Texas Instruments
27
Analog
dB定义
波特图基础知识
dB definitions
针对振幅或增益波特图的频率响应是电压增益随频率变化而产生的变化值。这个变化值
Bode plot basics
在一个波特图上被指定出来，这是一条频率与单位为dB（分贝）的电压增益之间的关系
曲线。通常情况下，波特图被绘制为半对数曲线，频率在x轴上，而对数尺度和增益在y轴
The frequency response for the magnitude or gain plot is the change in voltage gain
上
as，线性刻度频率响应的另外一半是相移与频率之间的关系
frequency。changes. ，绘制的是频率与相移度
This change is specified on a Bode plot, a plot of frequency
versus voltage
数之间的关系 gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are
。相位曲线图通常绘制为半对数曲线图 usually
，频率在 plotted
x轴上 as semi-log
，对数尺度、相移在plots
y
with frequency
轴上 on the x-axis, log scale, and gain on the y-axis, linear scale. The other
，线性刻度。
half of the frequency response is the phase shift versus frequency and is plotted as
frequency versus degrees phase shift. Phase plots are usually plotted as semi-log
plots with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and phase shift on the y-axis, linear
scale.
Definitions
定义
V
((36)
36) Voltage
Voltagegain
gaininindecibels
decibels
V
P
((37)
37) Power
Power gain
gain in
in decibels
decibels
P
Power Measured (W) (38) Used

Powerfor input
gain or
in decibel
Measured (38) output power
1 mW milliwatt
A (V/V) A (dB) Table

表 15：15: Examples of
常见增益值和 dBcommon
等效值表gain
Table 14: Examples of common gain
values and dBvalues and dB equivalent
equivalent
0.001 –60
A (V/V) A (dB)
0.0010.01 –40–60
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
滚降率是增益随频率的减少量
0.010.1 –20–40
0.1 Decade is a tenfold increase or（decrease
–20 十倍频是频率十倍增加量或减少量 in
从10Hz至100Hz 为
1 1 0 0 frequency）
一个十进位 (from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one decade)
10 10 20 20
Octave is the doubling
倍频是频率加倍或减半 or halving
（从10Hz 至20Hzof frequency ）
就是一个倍频
100100 40 40
1,000 60
(from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)
1,000
10,000 60 80
100,000
10,000 80 100
1,000,000 120
100,000 100
10,000,000 140
1,000,000 120
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
10,000,000 140
Decade is a tenfold increase or decrease in frequency.(from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one
decade)
Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency (from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
模拟
Figure
图 13 illustrates a method to graphically ，
13显示的是一种用图形化方式确定对数轴上的值 determine values on a
而这些值没有直接出现在坐标轴网
logarithmic
格线上。 axis that are not directly on an axis grid line .
Figure 14 illustrates a method to graphically determine values on a logarithmic axis
1. thatLare
1 . 假定
Given not
=L1cm； directly
= 1cm;
D =D on an
= 2cm,
2cm， axis grid 。
measured
用尺子测量 line. with a ruler .
2 . L/D=log
2. L/D = log p) (fp)
10 (f10
1.(L/D)
Given
(L/D) L = 1 cm; D = 2cm, measured with a ruler.
3 . ffPP==10
3. 10 = 10 10(1cm/2cm)
= (1cm/2cm)
2. L/D = log10(fP)
= 3.16= 3 .16
4 .针对十倍频范围进行调整
4. Adjust for
3. fP = 10 the decade
(L/D)
= 10 （range
对于此示例
(1CM/2CM) (for this
= 3.16 ，fP =example,
31.6Hz） fp = 31 .6 Hz)
4. Adjust for the decade range (for example, 31.6 Hz)
A (dB)
频率（HZ）
Figure 图 13
Figure14:
13: ：在对数轴上找到未直接显示在网格线上的值
Finding
Finding valueson
values onlogarithmic
logarithmicaxis
axis not
not directly
directly on
on aa grid
grid line
line
Texas
Analog
Bode
波特图： Bode
极点plots:
plots: Poles
Poles
fP
100 0.707*GV/V = –3 dB
Actual
实际
80 函数 Straight-line
直线近似值
function
approximation
-20/十倍频
–20 dB/decade
60
G (dB)
40
20
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
频率（ HZ）
Frequency (Hz)
+90
+45
(degrees)
0°
（度数）
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M

0
fP –45°/decade
-45°十倍频
–5.7° 时为
at
–45 10
–90°
–84.3° 时为
at fP x 10
–45° 时为
at fP
–90
Figure
Figure 15: Pole gain 14:图Pole
and phase gain and phase
14：极点增益与相位
Pole Location
Pole
极点位置 =Location
fP (cutoff
= fP（截止频率freq)
= fP (cutoff
） freq)
Magnitude (f < fP) = Gdc (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f < fP) = GDC (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude振幅(f = (f<f
fP) =P)–3 dB （例如，100dB）
= GDC
MagnitudeMagnitude
(f > fP) = –20 = fP) = –3 dB
(f dB/decade
fP) =(f=f P ) = (f
-3dB
振幅
Phase (f =Magnitude
–45° > fP) = –20 dB/decade
Phase (0.1 fP <(f>f
Phase f <(f10= ffPP) == –45°/decade
–45°
P ) =-20dB/
振幅十倍频
Phase (f > 10 fP) = –90°
Phase (0 .1 fP < f < 10 fP) = –45°/decade
Phase (f <相位
0.1 f(f=f
P) =P )0°= -45°
Phase (f > 10 fP) = –90°
相位 (0.1f
Phase (f P<<f<10f
0 .1 fPP)) =
= -45°
0° /十倍频
相位 (f>10fP) = -90°
相位 (f<0.1fP) = 0°
30 Texas 30
Texas Instruments
德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
模拟
Pole (equations)
极点（方程式）
Pole (equations)
V G
G (39) As (39)
a complex number number
V f As a complex
j
f
V G
G
V (40) Magnitude
f (40) Magnitude
f
f
(41)shift
(41) Phase Phase shift
f
G (42) Magnitude
(42) Magnitude in dB in dB
Where
Gv = voltage gain in V/V
Where
在这里 GdB = voltage gain in decibels
GGV Gv==
dc以
voltage
= gain
the为单位的电压增益
V/V dc or lowin V/V
frequency voltage gain
GGdBfdB=
= frequency
voltageingain
=以分贝为单位的电压增益 Hz in decibels
GGDCfDC
P===frequency
dcthe dc oratlow
或低频电压增益 which the pole occurs
frequency voltage gain
θ频率= phase shift of the signal from input to output
ff== frequency
，单位Hzin Hz
ffP ==极点出现时的频率
frequency at which the pole occurs
P
θ= 从输入到输出的信号相移
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
j = 表示虚数或
j = indicates imaginary number or √ –1
Texas Instruments
31
Analog
Bode plotsplots
波特图Bode
（零点） (zeros)
(zeros)
80
60 Straight-line
直线近似值
approximation
+20dB/ 十倍频
G (dB)
+20 dB/decade
40
实际
Actual
20 函数
function
+3 dB
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
+90°
+90 +45° 时为
at fZ
84.3° at fZ 84.3°
fZx10 时为 x 10
+45 f
(degrees)
5.7° 时为
at Z
（度数）
0° +45°/decade
+45° / 十倍频
10
0
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency
频率（HZ） (Hz)
–45
–90
Figure
Figure 16: Zero gain and 15:：Zero
phase
图15 gain and phase
零点增益与相位
Zero location
Zero =location
fZ = fZ
Magnitude (f < fZ) ==0f dB
零点位置
Magnitude (fZ< fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude fZ) =) =
(f =(f<f +3 dB
Z (f 0dB
振幅
Magnitude = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
振幅 (f=f Z ) =(f +3dB
Phase (f Magnitude
= fZ) = +45° > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
振幅 (f>f
Phase Z )10
f=Z)f+20dB/
= +45° 十倍频
Phase (0.1 fZ < f(f<= Z) = +45°/decade
相位
Phase (f Phase (f=f
> 10 fZ)(0 .1 ) =
=Z +90° +45°
fZ < f < 10 fZ) = +45°/decade
< 0.1(0.1
相位
Phase (f Phase >f Z0°
fZ(f) = <f<10
10 fZ) =f Z+90°
) = +45°/十倍频
相位 (f>10
Phase f Z ) =fZ+90°
(f < 0 .1 ) = 0°
相位 (f<0.1f Z ) = 0°

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
32
模拟
Zero (equations)
零点（方程式）
Zero (equations)
V�� f
G� � � G�� j � � � �� (43) As(43) As a complex
a complex number number
V�� f�
V�� f �
G� � � G�� (44) Magnitude
(44) Magnitude
V�� f�
f
� � �� (45) shift
(45) Phase Phase shift
f�
G�� G� � (46) Magnitude

(46) Magnitude in dB in dB
Where
GV = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GG ==
V dB
voltage
voltage gain
gain in in decibels
V/V
GG
在这里 dB
DC==voltage
the dc or lowinfrequency
gain decibels voltage gain
GGVfDC= frequency
= 以= V/V
in Hz
the 为单位的电压增益
dc or low frequency voltage gain
fZ =
Gf dB = frequency
以分贝为单位的电压增益 at which the zero occurs
= frequency in Hz
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
GfZDC==frequency
dc 或低频电压增益 at which the zero occurs
fθ==频率 phase，单位 Hzof the signal from input to output
shift
fjP == indicates
极点出现时的频率 imaginary number or √ –1
θ= 从输入到输出的信号相移
j = 表示虚数或
Texas
33
Analog
Time to phase shift
时间（ms）
P
S
Figure 17: Time to phaseFigure

shift 图16:16
Time to phase shift
：相移时间
(47) Phase
(47) shift fromshift
timefrom time
θ • 360° Phase
Where
TWhere
在这里S = time shift from input to output signal
TTTSPS===从输入到输出信号的时移
time shift
period from input to output signal
of signal
TθTPP===phase shiftofofsignal
period
信号周期 the signal from input to output
θ=θ = 信号从输入到输出的相移
phase shift of the signal from input to output
Example
Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 17.

Example
示例
Answer
Calculate the phase shift
计算图 16 中相移的度数。 in degrees for Figure 16 .
Answer
答案T 0.225 ms
T Ts 0.225ms
ms
( ) • 360° = 81°
1
θ= • 360° =
Tp 1 ms
34
德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
放大器
基本运算放大器配置
运算放大器带宽
满功率带宽
小信号阶跃响应
噪声方程式
稳定性方程式
稳定开环SPICE分析
Amplifier
模拟
ti.com/amplifiers
Amplifier
放大器 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs

G�� (48) Gain (48)
(48) 针对缓冲器配置的增益 Gain
for buffer for buffer configuration
configuration
G�� (48) Gain for buffer configuration
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
+
+
Figure 17:
图17 Buffer
：缓冲器配置configuration
Figure 18: Buffer configuration
FigureR18: Buffer configuration

�
G��
Amplifier
(49)
(49)Gain forfor
Gain non-inverting configuration
non-inverting configuration
R�
模拟
R�
G�� R1
(49) Gain for non-inverting configuration
R� Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
+
VEE
Figure 18: Non-inverting

图18：同相配置 configuration
Figure 19: Non-inverting configuration
+
Figure 19: Non-inverting configuration
ti.com.cn/amplifiers
德州仪器 Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)
R�
ti.com.cn/precisionlabs Amplifier
放大器
G�� (50) Gain for inverting configuration
R�
基本运算放大器配置（继续）(cont .)
R�
G�� (50) Gain(50) Gain
for inverting for inverting
configuration configuration
+ R�
R1 Rf
VIN VCC
VOUT
+
VEE
Figure 20: Inverting configuration

Figure 图19
19: Inverting
：反相配置 configuration
V� V� V� Transfer function for inver

V�� R � � � � � � � (51) Transfer function
(51) for inverting
R
Figure 20: R
� Inverting
� R summing amplifier summing amplifier
configuration
�
Transfer function for inver

R� VV� �V�
� �V � V Transfer
� Transfer function forsumming function for
V�� V
� � � �V
�� R �R
�
� � � �� (52)
� �� (52) amplifier,
(51)inverting summing assum
� R� R � R � amplifier, assuming R
R1 = Rsumming
= …=R amplifier
1 = R 2 = …=R
2 N
N
RN
Transfer function for
R�
V�� V� � V� � � � V� � (52) summing amplifier, a
R�
VN RN R1 = R2 = …=RN
R 2
V2
VN R2
R Rf
RN1
V1 VCC
V2 R1 Rf
VN R2 VOUT
Vcc
V1
V2 R1 Rf
- + VEE Vout
+ Vcc
V图1 Inverting
Figure 20: summing configuration
20：反向加法配置
-+ Vout
ti.com.cn/amplifiers Vee
Texas Instruments
德州仪器 Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference + 37
Figure 21: Inverting summing configuration
Amplifier

基本运算放大器配置（继续）(cont .)
R� V� V� V� Transfer
(53) Transfer function
function forfor non-
V�� (53)
(53) inverting
noninverting
针对非反向加法放大器的转换函数summing
summing amplifier
amplifier
R �� N N N forforequal
equalinput
inputresistors
resistors
Where
R1 = R2 = … = RN
在这里
Where
R1N===RRnumber
R of input resistors
2 = … = RN
1 2 =…=R N
N = number
N = 输入电阻器的数量 of input resistors
Rin Rf
VCC
R1
VOUT
V1 R2
V2 RN
VEE
VN
Figure 22: Non-inverting summing configuration

Figure 21: Non-inverting
图21：同相加法配置 summing configuration
38 Texas 德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书
38
放大器
Simple
具有 non-inverting
Cf滤波器的简单同相放大器
Simple amp
non-inverting amp withwith Cf filter
Cf filter
R � non-inverting amp with Cf filter

Simple Gain for non-inverting configuration
G�� 1 (54) Gain(54)
for non-inverting configuration for f < fc
R� for f < fc
R� Gain
Gain forfor non-inverting
non-inverting configuration
configuration
G��
G�� 1 �1 (54)
(55) Gain(55)
for non-inverting configuration for f >> fc
R� forfor f <fcfc
f >>
G �11 Gain frequency

for non-inverting configuration
f� �� (56) Cut off(55) Cut off for for non-inverting
(56)frequency
for f >> fnon-inverting
c configuration
2π R � C� configuration
1 Cut off frequency for non-inverting
f� � (56)
2π R � C� Cf configuration
R1 Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 23: Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter

Figure
图22 22:
：具有Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter
C f滤波器的同相放大器
Figure 23: Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter
－20dB/十倍频
来自Cf 滤波器
增益（dB）
来自去处放大器
带宽限制
Figure 24: Frequency response for non-inverting

频率（HZ） op amp with Cf filter
Figure图 23Frequency
24:
23: C f滤波器的同相运算放大器的频率响应
：针对具有response
Frequency response for non-inverting
for non-inverting op
op amp
amp with
with C
Cff filter
Texas
39
Amplifier
具有C f滤波器的简单反相放大器
Simple inverting amp with Cf filter
SimpleRinverting amp with Cf filter
G (57) Gain for inverting configuration for f < fC
R
R Gain for inverting configuration
GG −20dB/decade
-20dB/
R 十倍频（在fC之后，after f直
C (57)
(58) Gainfor
forf inverting
< fC configuration for f > fC
until op amp bandwidth
到达到运算放大器带宽限制）
limitation
G −20dB/decade after fC
1until op amp bandwidth (59) Cutoff frequency for inverting configuration
f
2π Rlimitation
C
1 (59) Cutoff
Cf frequency for inverting configuration
f
2π R C
Cf
R1 Rf
R1 Rf VCC
VIN
Vcc VOUT
Vin
-+ Vout
+
VEE
Vee
Figure 24:图
Inverting
24：具有amplifier with Cf filter
Cf滤波器的反相放大器
Figure 25: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
－20dB/十倍频
增益（dB）
来自Cf 滤波器
－40dB/十倍频来自Cf滤波器
和运算放大器增益带宽限制
频率（HZ）
Figure 图25
Figure
26: 25:
：针对具有
Frequency Cf滤波器的反相运算放大器的频率响应
Frequency response
response for inverting
for inverting op amp
op amp with
with C Cf filter
f filter
放大器
运算放大器带宽
Op amp bandwidth
GBW = Gain
GBW • BW
� Gain��BW (60) Gain
(60) bandwidth product
Gain bandwidth defined
product defined
Where
Where
在这里
GBWGBW
GBW = = bandwidth
= gain
增益带宽积
gain bandwidth product,
product, listedlisted
在运算放大器数据表技术规格中列出 in opinamp
op amp
datadata sheet specification table
sheet
Gain = closed ，loop
specification gain, set by op amp gain configuration
table
增益 BW= 闭环增益，由运算放大器增益配置设定
= the loop
bandwidth limitation of thegain
amplifier
Gain = closed gain, set by op amp configuration
BW = 放大器的带宽限制
BW = the bandwidth limitation of the amplifier
Example
Determine bandwidth using equation 60

Example
示例
Gain � 60
Determine
使用方程式 �100
bandwidth
来确定带宽 using equation 60(from amplifier configuration)
Gain==100（
增益 100 (from amplifier configuration)
从放大器配置中得出）
GBW � �22MHz (from data sheet)
GBW==22MHz（
GBW 22MHz 数据表中给出
(from data sheet)
）
GBW GBW 22MHz22MHz
BW BW
= � Gain=� � 100 � = 220�Hz
220 kHz
Gain 100
Note that the same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve as
需要注意的是
Note shown ，在下方显示的
that thebelow.
same AOL
result can be 曲线中，用图形化的方法可以确定同样的结果
graphically determined using the AOL curve。
as shown below .
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
开环增益和相位与频率之间的关系
Open-loop gain and phase vs . frequency
增益（dB）
相位
相位
增益＝100＝40dB
增益
频率（HZ）
Figure 27: Using AOL to find closed-loop bandwidth

图26：使用AOL找到闭环带宽
Texas
41
Amplifier
Full
满功率带宽 powerbandwidth
Full power bandwidth
Full power bandwidth
SR Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V� � (61) output without slew-rate induced distortion
(61) Maximum
2πfSR distortion
Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V� � (61)
2πf distortion
Where
在这里VP = maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
WhereWhere
VVPSR
P== =maximum
slew ratepeak output voltage
V在由转换率引入的失真出现前 before slew induced distortion occurs
，最大峰值输出电压
P = maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
SR
SR f ===frequency
slew
转换率 rateof applied signal
SR = slew rate
ff== 施加信号的频率
ffrequency of applied
= frequency signal
of applied signal
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency

Maximum output voltage vs. frequency
Maximum 最大输出电压与频率之间的关系
output voltage vs . frequency
输出电压（V PP）
�� . ��/��
�� . �� . ��
��
�� . ��/��
�� . �� . ��
��
频率（HZ）
Figure 28: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion
Figure 27: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion
图27：无转换率引入失真情况下的最大输出
Figure
Notice that28:
theMaximum output
above figure withoutusing
is graphed slew-rate
equationinduced
61 for distortion
the OPA188. The
example
Notice thatcalculation
the above shows
figure the
is peak
graphed voltage
using for the
equationOPA277
61 for at
the40kHz. This can be
OPA277 .
Notice that
需注意的是， the above figure 61
上图是使用方程式 is graphed usingOPA277
绘制出的针对 equation 61 for
的图形 the OPA188. The
。示例计算结果给
determined
The example graphically
calculation or with
shows the
the equation.
peak voltage for the OPA277 at 40kHz .
出了 example
OPA277calculation
在40kHz时的峰值电压shows the peak voltage for the OPA277 at 40kHz. This can be
。这一结果可通过图形化的方法或通过方程式
This
来确定 can
。be determined
determined graphicallygraphically
or with theorequation.
with the equation .
Example
Example
SR 0.8V/μs
Example
示例
V� � � � 3.�8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
2πfSR 2π��0k��
0.8V/μs
V� �
SR � 0 .8V/µs � 3.�8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
VP = 2πf= 2π��0k�� = 3 .18Vpk or 6 .37Vpp
2πf 2π(40kHz)
42
放大器
Small
Small signal
小信号阶跃响应 step
signal step response
response
0.35
τ� � RiseRise
(62)
(62) timetime
for afor a small
small signal
signal stepstep
f� Small signal step response
Where 0.35
τ� �of a small signal step response
R = the rise time (62) Rise time for a small signal step
Where
在这里 f�
f C = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
tR ==the rise time of a small signal step response
τR 小信号阶跃响应的上升时间
fC == the Wherebandwidth of the op amp circuit
closed-loop
fC 运算放大器电路的闭环带宽
Small signal step response waveform
R = the rise time of a small signal step response
fC = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
Small signal step response waveform

Small小信号阶跃响应波形
signal step response waveform
输入小信号
阶跃
输出阶跃
响应
Figure 29: Small signal step response
Figure
Figure 28: 29:
Maximum
图28 Small signal
output step response
without
：无转换率引入失真的最大输出 slew-rate induced distortion
Texas Instruments
43
Amplifier
Op amp noise model

运算放大器噪声模型
Op amp noise model
Figure 30: Op amp noiseFigure

model
图29： 29: Op amp noise model
运算放大器噪声模型
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:

 Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:
运算放大器固有噪声
 Resistor noise ：
• Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
• 由运算放大器导致的噪声（电流噪声+电压噪声）
• Resistor noise
• 电阻器噪声
44
放大器
Noise bandwidth calculation

Noise
噪声带宽计算 bandwidth
Noise bandwidth calculation
calculation
NoiseBW � � � � f� calculation
bandwidth (63) Noise bandwidth
BW� � � � f� Noise
(63)Noise
(63) bandwidth
bandwidth
BW Where
�� f (63) Noise bandwidth
Where� BW � =� noise bandwidth of the system
N
Where
BWN = noise
在这里 Where KN = bandwidth of the
the brick wall systemfactor for different filter order
correction
BWK N==the
noise bandwidth
brick wall of the factor
correction system for different filter order
BW N =
N 系统的噪声带宽
BWN f=C = –3 dB
noise bandwidth
bandwidth of of
thethe system
system
KNfC ==针对不同滤波器阶数的砖墙校正因数
the
–3 brick
dB wall correction
bandwidth of the factor for different filter order
system
K N = KN = the brick wall correction factor for different filter order
f = –3 dB bandwidth 带宽 of the system
fCC= 系统的 fC = –3-3dB
dB bandwidth of the system
带宽
增益（dB）
Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for 频率（HZ）

three different filters orders
Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for three different filters orders
Figure 30: Op amp bandwidth
图30：针对3个不同滤波器阶数的运算放大器带宽 for three different filters orders
Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for three different filters orders
Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
Table
16： 16:ofBrick KN brickfactors
wall correction wall for noise bandwidth
Table表15: 针对噪声带宽的砖墙校正因数
Brick
Number wall correction
poles KN brick factors for noise
wall bandwidth
Number of poles correction factor
Number of correction factorKN brick wall
poles correction factor
Number 1极点数 1.57 KN
KN brick wall 砖墙校正因数
1 of poles1 1.57
correction factor 1.57
2 1.22
2 1 2 1.221.57 1.22
3 1.13
3 2 3 1.131.22 1.13
4 1.12
4 3 4 1.121.13 1.12
4 1.12
Broadband
Broadband total noise calculation
totalcalculation
noise calculation
宽频带总体噪声计算
Broadband total noise
Broadband
E� � �� total
�BWnoise
� calculation Totalfrom
(64) noise
(64) Total rms rmsbroadband
noise from broadband
E� � �� BW� (64) Total rms noise from broadband

E � Where �� BW� (64) Total rms noise from broadband
�
Where 在这里 Where
EN = total rms noise from broadband noise

Where EEeNNBB
EN = total ===来自宽频带噪声的总
rms total
noiserms noise
from
broadband
fromrms
broadband broadband
noise
噪声
noise spectral
noise
density (nV/rtHz)
eBB = broadband
e = noise
broadband spectral
noise density
spectral (nV/rtHz)
EN =eBW BB =
total
BB = noise
宽频带噪声频谱密度
N rms bandwidth
noise (Hz)
from broadband noise (nV/rtHz)
density
(nV/rtHz)
BWN = noise
BW bandwidth
= noise (Hz)
bandwidth (Hz)
eBB =BW broadband
N
N = 噪声带宽 noise(Hz)
spectral density (nV/rtHz)
BWN = noise bandwidth (Hz)
Texas
45
45
Amplifier
1/f total
1/ftotal
1/f 总体噪声计算 noise
noise calculation
calculation
1/f total noise calculation
E�_�� f� (65) Normalized1/f
(65) Normalized 1/fnoise
noiseatat11Hz
Hz
E�_�� f� (65) Normalized 1/f noise at 1 Hz
Where
Where
在这里
E Where = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
EENN_NORMAL
_NORMAL ==1Hz1/f noise normalized
1/f噪声 to 1 Hz
EN_NORMAL
eN_NORMAL
BF = noise = 1/f时的标准
noise
spectral normalized
density to 1 in
measured Hzthe 1/f region
e
efOBF =
=the
e=BF 在noise
1/f
= noise spectral
区域内测得的噪声频谱密度
spectraldensity measured in thethe1/f
1/fregion
BF
frequency thatdensity
the 1/f measured
noise eBF isinmeasured region
at
ff Of=
= the frequency that the 1/f noise e is measured at
O O = the1/f eBF
frequency that the 1/f noise eBFBF is measured at
测得噪声时的频率
f�
E�_�� E�_�� f� (66) 1/f total noise calculation
f � 1/fnoise
total noise calculation
E�_�� E�_��
f� (66)(66)
1/f total calculation
Where
Where = total rms noise from flicker
EN_FLICKER
EN_FLICKER= =1/ftotal
EN_NORMAL
Where
在这里 noise rmsnormalized
noise fromtoflicker
1 Hz
E E
fEHN_FLICKER
=N_NORMAL ==total
upper=cutoff 1/f frequency
由抖动所导致的总noise normalized
rms noise orfrom to 1 Hz
flicker
rms bandwidth
noise
噪声
N_FLICKER
E f=H =
fELN_NORMAL upper
lower = cutoff
cutoff
1/f frequency
frequency,
noise or noise
normally
normalized to bandwidth
set
1Hz to 0.1 Hz
N_NORMAL = 1Hz 1/f
时的标准噪声
f = lower cutoff frequency, normally set to 0.1 Hz
ffHH == 上限截止频率或噪声带宽
upper cutoff frequency or noise bandwidth
L
ffLL == 下限截止频率
lower cutoff frequency,
，通常情况下被设定在 normally set0.1Hz to 0 .1Hz
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Number of Percent chance
17：峰值到峰值换算
表standard
Table 17:Number
Peak-to-peak
deviations
of conversion
reading
Percentis inchance
range
2σstandard
(same as deviations
Number ±1σ)
of standard deviations
标准偏差的数量
reading68.3%is in range
Percent chance reading is in range
读数在范围内的概率
2σ (same as ±1σ) 68.3%
3σ (same as 2σ ±1.5σ)
(same as ±1σ) 86.6% 68.3%
3σ (same as ±1.5σ) 86.6% 86.6%
4σ (same as3σ (same as ±1.5σ)
±2σ) 95.4%
4σ (same as 4σ ±2σ)
(same as ±2σ) 95.4% 95.4%
5σ (same as ±2.5σ) 98.8%
5σ (same as 5σ ±2.5σ)
(same as ±2.5σ) 98.8% 98.8%
6σ (same as ±3σ) 99.7%
6σ (same as
6σ±3σ)
6.6σ (same as ±3.3σ)
(same as ±3σ) 99.7%
99.9%
99.7%
6.6σ (same as(same
6.6σ ±3.3σ)
as ±3.3σ) 99.9% 99.9%
46
放大器
热噪声计算
En_R = (67) Total rms Thermal Noise

Thermal noise calculation
√ 4kTR�f
en_R = √ 4kTR (68) Thermal Noise Spectral Density
E�_� � √4 kTRΔf (67) Total rms thermal noise

在这里
Where
E
En_R
n_R= 电阻导致的总rms噪声，也被称为热噪声 (V rms)= Total rms noise from resistance, also called thermal noise (V rms)
Where
een_R
n_R==电阻的噪声频谱密度
Noise spectral density from resistance,
，也被称为热噪声 () also called thermal noise (V/√Hz )
EkN_R = total rms noise1 .38from resistance, also called thermal noise
k ==玻尔兹曼常数 1.38 x 10 -23 J/Kx 10-23J/K -23
Boltzmann’s constant
kTT===温度
Boltzmann’s
Temperature constant 1.38 x 10 J/K
，单位开 in Kelvin
T = temperature
∆f = 噪声带宽
Δf Noise bandwidth
，单位Hz ininKelvin
Hz
∆f = noise bandwidth in Hz
1000
Noise Spectral Density (nV/rtHz)
100
喊声频谱密度（nV/rtHz）
10
‐55C
25C
1
125C
0.1
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Resistance (Ω)
电阻值（Ω）
Figure图
32: Noise
31： spectral density vs. resistance
噪声频谱密度与电阻值之间的关系
Texas
Amplifier
Ac response
Ac responseversus
AC 响应与频率之间的关系 frequency (Dominant 2-Pole System)
（主导2极点系统）
versus frequency
Ac response versus frequency
Figure 32 illustrates
Figure a bode
33 illustrates a bodeplot
plotwith four different
with four differentexamples
examples of peaking.
of ac ac peaking .
Figure 33 illustrates a bode plot with four different examples of ac peaking.
峰值
峰值相位裕量
相位裕量峰值
相位裕量
ac响应
峰值
相位裕量
频率
Figure
Figure 33: 32:
图32
Stability Stability
：稳定性—
– ac – ac peaking
peaking relationship
ac 峰值关系示例
relationship exampleexample
Figure 33: Stability – ac peaking relationship example
Phase margin versus ac peaking
Phase
Phase marginversus
margin versus ac
acpeaking
peaking
相位裕量与 ac 峰值之间的关系
This graph illustrates the phase margin for any given level of ac peaking.
This This
graphgraph illustrates
illustrates thephase
the phasemargin
margin for
for any
anygiven
given。level of of
level ac ac
peaking.
peaking .
这个曲线图显示的是针对任一指定 ac 峰值水平的相位裕量需要注意的是，稳定运
Note that 45° of phase margin or greater is required for stable operation.
Note thatthat
Note
行需要大于等于 45°45°of
45° phase
phasemargin
of的相位裕量。 or
margin or greater isrequired
greater is requiredforfor stable
stable operation .
operation.
相位裕量（度数）
ac 峰值（dB）
Figure 34: Stability – phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
Figure 34:
图33 Stability
：稳定性—针对 – phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
2极点系统的相位裕量与峰值之间的关系
Figure 33: Stability – phase margin vs . peaking for a two-pole system
48
放大器
Transient
瞬时过冲（主导 overshoot
2极点系统） (Dominant 2-Pole System)
Transient overshoot
Figure
图 34 35
34Figure illustrates
illustratesa atransient
显示的是两个具有不同过冲百分比的示例 transient response
response 。withtwo
with two different
different examples of
examples
percentage
of overshoot .
percentage
Transient overshoot.
overshoot
过冲百分比
Figure 35 illustrates a transient response with two ＝50%
different examples
of percentage overshoot. 相位裕量＝24.3°
过冲百分比＝20%
相位裕量＝48.1°
输出响应
时间（ms）
Figure 35:Figure
Stability 图 34：稳定性—瞬时过冲示例
34:–Stability
transient overshootovershoot
– transient example example
Phase margin versus percentage overshoot

Figure 35: Stability – transient overshoot example
Phase margin
This graph versus
illustrates the percentage overshoot
phase margin for any given level of
Phase margin
transient
相位裕量与过冲百分比之间的关系 versus
overshoot. Notepercentage
that 45° of overshoot
phase margin or greater is required
Thisforgraph
stableillustrates
operation. the phase margin for any given level of transient
This graph
overshoot . Noteillustrates
这幅图显示的是针对任一指定瞬时过冲级别的相位裕量 theof
that 45° phase
phasemargin for any
margin given level
。需要注意的是
or greater of
is required，稳定运行
for
transient overshoot.
需要大于等于 45°的相位裕量 Note。that 45° of phase margin or greater is required
stable operation .
for stable operation.
相位裕量（数量）
Figure 36: Stability – phase过冲百分比

margin vs.
（%）percentage overshoot
Note:
FigureThe
Figure 36:curves
35: 图 35： assume
Stability a two-pole
––phase margin system.
marginvs .
稳定性—相位裕量与过冲百分比之间的关系
Stability phase vs.percentage
percentageovershoot
overshoot
Note: The curves assume a two-pole system.
Texas
49
Amplifier
VFB
R1 RF C1 1T
VIN
L1 1T
V+
VO
VOUT
Riso
CL
V–
Figure 36:图Common spice test circuit used
36：用于实现稳定性的常见 for测试电路
spice stability
Figure 37: Common spice test circuit used for stability
V�
A��_�� (68)
(69) Loaded Loaded
open-loop open-loop gain
gain
V��
β � � V�� (70) Feedback Feedback factor

(69) factor
1 1
�� (71) Closed-loop
(70) noise gain noise gain
Closed-loop
β V��
A��_�� β � � V� (71)
(72) Loop gain Loop gain
Where
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
Where
在这里
VVVOOOUT = the
== 运算放大器输出上的电压
the voltage
voltage at output delivered
the output 。of thetoop the load, which may be important to the
amp .
Vapplication
= the but is not
voltage considered
output deliveredin stability
to the analysis.
load, which may be important to
OUT
VVOUT = = feedback
传送至负载的输出电压，也许对应用比较重要，但是在稳定性分析中不将其考虑在内。
FB the voltage
application but is not considered in stability analysis .
R , R
V FBF = 反馈电压1 , R ISO and C L = the op amp feedback network and load. Other op amp
VFB = feedback voltage
topologies will have different feedback networks; however, the test circuit will be the
RF R1 RiS0 CL = 运算放大器反馈网络和负载。其它运算放大器拓扑将具有不同的反馈
，，和
Rsame
F , R1for, RiS0 andcases.
most CL = the op amp
Figure feedback
38 shows network and
the exception load .
to the rule (multiple feedback).
网络；
C1 and
然而，op
Other 在大多数情况下
amp topologies
L1 are components ，测试电路是相同的
thatwill have different
facilitate
图 37显示的是例外情况
SPICE。analysis.
feedback networks;
They are large
多个反馈）。
（(1TF, 1TH)
Cto 和 Lhowever,
make是使 theSPICEthe
circuittest circuit
closed-loop
分析更加便捷的组件 will
forbe the
dc,。 butsame
open
它们的值大到 for most
loop for cases .
ac
(1TF, frequencies.
1TH) 能够在 SPICE
dc 频率上实现电
1 1
Figure
requires 37 showsoperation
closed-loop the exception
at dc to forthe rule (multiple feedback) .
convergence.
路闭合，但是不能在 ac 频率上实现电路打开。为了实现收敛，SPICE在dc 频率上需要闭环
C
运行 1 。and L 1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis . They are large
(1TF, 1TH) to make the circuit closed-loop for dc, but open loop for ac
frequencies . SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc
for convergence .
放大器
VFB
VFB
R1 RF
R1 RF
CIN CF
Cin CF
L1 1T V+
V-
VIN C1 1T
- Riso
- Riso VOUT
C1 1T
Vin +
VO Vout
C
+ L
+
Vo CL
V–
V+
Figure 37:
图Alternative (multiple feedback)
37：用于实现稳定性的其它 SPICE test
（多个反馈） circuit
SPICE used for stability
测试电路
Figure 38: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
A��_�� V� LoadedLoaded
(73) (72) open
open loop loop gain
gain
V��
β � (74) (73) Feedback
Feedback factor factor
V�
1 V�
� (75) (74) Closed-loop
Closed-loop noise gain
noise gain
β V��
A��_�� β � V�� (76) (75) Loop gain

Loop gain
Where
在这里
Where
V = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
O
VV
V O==运算放大器输出上的电压
O OUT
the voltage at the output 。of thetoop
= the voltage output delivered
amp .
the load. This may be important to the
VV OUT =传送至负载的输出电压
application
OUT =
the voltage output
but is not delivered
considered to the load .
in stability
，也许对应用比较重要 This
analysis. may be important to
，但是在稳定性分析中不将其考虑在
the application but is not considered in stability analysis .
内V。FB = feedback voltage
RFB
V F, R , RISO and voltage
=1feedback CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two paths for
Vfeedback,
FB =
反馈电压 the loop is broken at the input.
RF, R1, Riso and CF = the op amp feedback network . Because there are two
RC 1 and
，RLiS01 和
F R1 paths
， areCLcomponents
for = 运算放大器反馈网络
feedback,
that facilitate SPICE
。由于有
the loop is broken
analysis. They
at2the
条反馈路径 are large (1TF, 1TH)
input . ，此环路在输入上被断开。
to make the circuit closed loop for dc, but open loop for ac frequencies. SPICE
CC 和L1是使
1 1 and SPICE 分析更加便捷的组件
L1closed-loop
are components 。它们的值大到
thatatfacilitate (1TF, They
SPICE analysis . 1TH) are
能够在 dc频率上实现电
large
requires operation dc for convergence.
路闭合(1TF, ，但是不能在1TH) to make
ac the circuit
频率上实现电路打开 closed 。loop for
为了实现收敛 dc, but
， open
SPICEloop
在dcfor频率上需要闭环
CIN = the equivalent input capacitance taken from the op amp datasheet. This
运行。ac frequencies .
capacitance
SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc for
normally does not need to be added because the model includes it.
convergence .
CHowever,
IN =
when using this simulation method the
运算放大器数据表中得出的等效输入电容 capacitance is isolated by ，所以通
。由于此模型已经将其包括在内
C
the = theinductor.
IN 1TH equivalent input capacitance taken from the op amp datasheet .
常情况下无需增加这个电容值。然而，当使用这个仿真方法时，此电容被1TH电感器所隔
This capacitance normally does not need to be added because the
离。 model includes it . However, when using this simulation method the
capacitance is isolated by the 1TH inductor .
Texas
Amplifier
R1 RF
+Vs
- VOUT
+
Voffset
-Vs
+
VIN
Volts
VOUT
Voffset 50mVpp
Figure 38:
图Transient real world stability test
38：瞬时真实环境稳定性测试
Test tips
测试小窍门
• Choose test frequency << fcl
• 选择测试频率
•• Small signal
小信号 (Vpp ≤（
() ac输出方波 50例如
mV) ac output square wave (for example, 1 kHz)
，1kHz）
•• Adjust
调节 VIN amplitude to 50mVpp
V IN振幅来产生输出≤ yield output ≤ 50 mVpp
•• 最差情况通常出现在 Voffset
Worst cases is usually = 0的时候
when Voffset（I
= 0OUT = 0A时，
(Largest R,Ofor
RO 最大） = 0A) .
IOUT
•• 在需要时使用Voffset来检查所有输出工作点，以确保稳定性
Use Voffset as desired to check all output operating points for stability
• 设定范围 = ac耦合并扩大垂直范围寻找VOUT上的过冲量、下冲量和振铃
• Set scope = ac couple and expand vertical scope scale to look for
• 为了实现最佳分辨率，在VOUT上使用1x 衰减范围探针
amount of overshoot, undershoot, and ringing on VOUT
• Use 1x attenuation scope probe on VOUT for best resolution
放大器
+15V
CCM1 1nF
RIN1
VIN- 1kΩ RG VOUT
CDIF Rg
10nF Out
1kΩ Ref
RIN2 RG
U1 INA333
VIN+ 1kΩ
CCM2 1nF -15V
Figure 40: Figure

40: Input
Input 图39:
filter 39Input
for filter for instrumentation
instrumentation
：针对仪表放大器的输入滤波器 amplifier amplifier
Figure filter for instrumentation amplifier
Figure 40: Input filter for instrumentation amplifier
(77) Differential Differential

filter is sized filter is sized
10 is sized
times the10
Select C��
Select C � 1�C
1�C�� (76) Differential
(76)
filter 10
�� common-mode times
filter the
Differential
times common-mode
filter is sized 10
the common-mode filter
filter
RSelect C� R
�� 1�C�� (76) Input resistors must be equal
(77)
R �� R ��
�� times the common-mode
(77) Input resistors must be equal filter
(78) Input resistors must be equal
Common-mode capacitors
R
C��
�� C R
C��
�� (77)
(78) Input
Common-moderesistors must be
capacitorsequal
C �� (78) must be equal
equal capacitors
Common-mode
must be
C�� C��1 (79) Common-mode
(78) capacitors must be equal
1 must
(79) Differential be
Differential equal
filter cutoff
cutoff
ff��
��
2πR �� 1 C�� (79) filter
2πR C
��
f�� (79) Differential
(80) Differential filter cutoff filter cutoff
2πR �� C��
1
1
ff��
��
1 (80) Common-mode
(80) Common-mode filter filter cutoff
cutoff
2π�2R ��C ��C1�� 1C C��
f�� 2π�2R �� 2 ��
2 (81) Common-mode
(80) Common-mode filter cutoff filter cutoff
1
2π�2R �� C�� C��
2
Where
Where
ffWhere
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
Where
在这里
ffCM = = common-mode
=differential
differentialcutoff
common-mode cutoff cutoff frequency
frequency
cutoff frequency
fDIF
fDIF
DIF=
CM
= 差分截止频率 frequency
RfCM = input resistance
R IN = common-mode
input resistancecutoff frequency
IN
fCM
C ==common-mode
common-mode cutoff frequency
filter capacitance
capacitance
fCM
C RCM
= ==input resistance filter
common-mode
IN 共模截止频率
CM
C
R DIF = differential
= =input resistance
common-mode filter capacitance
filter filter capacitance
RINCIN= differential capacitance
DIF
CM 输入电阻
CCCM DIF== common-mode
differential filter filter
capacitance
capacitance
CCMNote:
Note: Selecting C
= 共模滤波器电容
Selecting CDIF ≥ ≥ 10
10 C CCM sets
sets the
the differential
differential mode
mode cutoff
cutoff frequency
frequency 10 10 times
times
DIF CM
Clower
DIF = differential
than the filter capacitance
common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
Note:
lower
CDIF Selecting
than
= 差分滤波器电容 CDIF ≥ 10 CCM sets
the common-mode cutoffthe differential
frequency. mode
This cutoff common-mode
prevents frequency 10 times noise
from
lower being
than converted
the common-modeinto differential
cutoff noise due
frequency. to component
This
from being converted into differential noise due to component tolerances. prevents tolerances.
common-mode noise
请注意
Note: ：选择将把差分模式截止频率设定为比共模截止频率低 10frequency
倍。这就防止了因元件
from Selecting CDIF ≥ 10
being converted intoCdifferential
CM sets thenoise
differential
due to mode
component cutoff tolerances. 10 times
lower than the common-mode cutoff frequency .
公差所导致的共模噪声被转换为差分噪声。 This prevents common-mode noise
from being converted into differential noise due to component tolerances .
53
53
Texas
53
Amplifier
Notes
ti.com/precisionlabs PCB and
PCB Wire
和导线
1oz和2oz纯铜的PCB传输线电阻 •
实现PCB安全运行的导体间距 •
纯铜导体的载流能力 •
封装类型与尺寸 •
PCB传输线电容与电感 •
PCB过孔电容与电感 •
常见同轴电缆技术规格 •
同轴电缆方程式 •
不同类型导线单位长度电阻 •
不同类型导线最大电流 •
和导线
PCBand
PCB wire

PCB and Wire
PCB 和导线 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Table 18: Printed circuit board conductor spacing

导体之间的最小间距
电压（dc或裸板组装
ac 峰值） B1 B2 B3 B4 A5 A6 A7
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm
0-15
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in]
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.25 mm 0.13 mm
16-30
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00984 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 0.6 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.4 mm 0.13 mm
31-50
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.024 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.016 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 1.5 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.5 mm 0.13 mm
51-100
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.0591 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.020 in] [0.00512 in]
0.2 mm 0.6 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
101-150
[0.0079 in] [0.024 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
151-170
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 6.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
171-250
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.252 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 12.5 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm
251-300
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.492 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in]
0.25 mm 2.5 mm 12.5 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm 1.5 mm 0.8 mm
301-500
[0.00984 in] [0.0984 in] [0.492 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in] [0.0591 in] [0.031 in]
B1内部导体
Internal conductors
B2 External conductors
B2无涂层外部导体，海平面 uncoated
3050米以下sea level to 3050m
B3 External conductors uncoated above 3050m
和导线wire
B3无涂层外部导体，3050米以上
B4 External conductors coated with permanent polymer coating (any elevation)
B4覆盖有永久聚合物涂层的外部导体
PCBand
A5 （任一海拔
External conductors with conformal coating ）
over assembly (any elevation)
A6 External component lead/termination,
A5 在组装时具有保形涂层的外部导体（任一海拔 uncoated,
） sea level to 3050m
PCB
A7 外部元件引线
External component lead termination, with conformal coating (any elevation)
A6 /端接、无涂层、海平面3050米以下
A7外部元件引线端接
Extracted ，具有保形涂层
with permission （任一海拔
from IPC-2221B, ） 6-1.
Table
经许可摘自IPC-2221B，表6-1。
www.ipc.org
如需额外信息，请在www.ipc.org中下载完整技术规格。

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
ti.com.cn/precisionlabs PCBPCB
and和导线
Wire
内层PCB导体的自发热
电流值（A）
横截面面积（平方密耳）
将PCB传输线宽度换算为横截面面积
导体宽度（英寸）
横截面面积（平方密耳）
Figure
Figure 41: Self 40: Self of
heating heating of PCB
PCB traces on traces on inside layer
inside layer
图 40：内层 PCB传输线的自发热
Example
Example Find the current that will cause a 20Ԩ temperature rise in a PCB trace that is 0.1 inch
示例
2
wide and
Find the current useswill
that 2 oz/ft copper.
cause (Assume
a 20°C traces on outside
temperature rise in of
a PCB.)
PCB trace
找到使PCB传输线（宽度0.1英寸，并使用2oz/ft
inch wide and uses 2 oz/ft2 copper .）(Assume20° C的电流值。
2纯铜温度上升
（
that is 0 .1 Answer traces on
假定传输线在 PCB
outside of PCB .) 的外部。）
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find the current
Answer associated with 10Ԩ and 250 sq. mils. using top chart (Answer = 5A).
答案
First translate 0 .1 inch to 250 sq . mils . using bottom chart . Next find
the currentExtracted with
0.1 permission250
from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
top chart10°C
首先使用下方图表将英寸转化为平方密耳。然后使用上部图表找到与
associated with 10°C
For additional information the
and 250
entire
sq . mils .can
specification
using
be downloaded at www.ipc.org
和 250
(Answer平方密耳相关的电流
= 5A) . （答案 = 5A）。
Extracted IPC-2152，
经许可摘自 with permission
图5-1。 from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1 .
For additional information the entire specification can
如需获得其它信息，请在www.ipc.com内下载完整技术规格。
be downloaded at www .ipc .org 57
Texas Instruments
PCB and Wire
PCB 和导线 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
针对1oz铜覆区的PCB传输线电阻oz-Cu
PCBtrace
trace resistance for 1
PCB
PCB traceresistance
resistancefor
for11oz
ozCu
Cu
11 5mil
5mil
10mil
10mil
25mil
25mil
100m
100m 50mil
50mil
100mil
100mil
10m
电阻（Ω）
10m
1m
1m
100µ
100µ
10µ
10µ
1µ
1µ
11 10
10 100
100 1000
1000 10000
10000
Trace
Trace length
length(mils)
(mils)
传输长度（密耳）
Figure图42:
41PCB
Figure
Figure 42:
：
41:
PCB trace
25PCB
℃时， resistance
对于
trace
trace vs.
1oz铜覆区，vs.length
resistance
resistance vs .PCB
length and width for
for11
传输线电阻与长度和宽度的关系
length
andand width
width oz-Cu,
for 25°C
1 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 25°C25°C
电阻（Ω）
Figure 4242:
图43:
Figure
：125
PCB ℃时，
trace
PCB
对于
trace 1oz铜覆区，
resistance
resistance PCB
vs. length 传输线电阻与长度和宽度的关系
and
vs . length width
and for 1
width oz-Cu,
for 125°C
1 oz-Cu, 125°C
Figure 43: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 1 oz-Cu, 125°C
Example
Example
Example
What
Whatisisthe
示例
theresistance
resistanceof
ofaa2020mil
millong,
long,55mil
milwide
widetrace
tracefor
foraa11oz-Cu
oz-Cuthickness
thicknessat
at
What
25°C is
and
25°C和and the resistance
125°C?
125°C? of a 20 mil long, 5 mil wide trace for a
25℃ 125℃ 时，20密耳长、5密耳宽传输线对于1oz 铜覆区厚度的电阻是多少？
1 oz-Cu thickness at 25°C and 125°C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
答案
R25C
R25C==222mΩ,
R25C mΩ,R125C
mΩ, R125C
R125C ==33mΩ.
= mΩ. The
3 mΩ . points
TheThe are
arecircled
points
points on
onthe
are circled
circled curves.
theon the curves .
curves.
R25C = 2mΩ，R125C = 3mΩ。 2 这个点已在曲线上圈出。

德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
58
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and和导线
Wire
PCB trace resistance for 2 oz Cu
针对2oz铜覆区的PCB传输线电阻
1 resistance for 2 oz Cu
PCB trace 5mil
10mil
1 25mil
5mil
100m
10mil
50mil
100m 25mil
100mil
10m 50mil
100mil
10m
1m
电阻（Ω）
1m
100µ
100µ
10µ
10µ
1µ
1µ 1 10 100 1000 10000
1 10Trace length
100 (mils) 1000 10000
Trace length（(mils)
传输长度密耳）
图Figure
4344:
Figure ：2543: PCB
℃时，
PCB trace
对于
trace resistance
2oz 铜覆区，
resistance vs.vs .
PCB length and width
forfor
传输线电阻与长度和宽度的关系
length and width 2 oz-Cu,
2 oz-Cu, 25°C
25°C
电阻（Ω）
44：125
图Figure
Figure 45: ℃时，
44:
PCB 对于
PCBtrace 2oz
trace 铜覆区，vs.
resistance
resistance PCB 传输线电阻与长度和宽度的关系
vs .length
length and width
and width for
for 2
2 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 125°C
125°C
Example
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
Example
示例What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
25°Cisand
What the125°C?
resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a
25°C
25℃ and 125°C?
和125℃ 时，200密耳长、25密耳宽传输线对于2oz铜覆区厚度的电阻是多少？
2 oz-Cu thickness at 25°C and 125°C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
答案
R25C
R25C= =22mΩ,
mΩ,R125C
R125C == 3 mΩ . The
3 mΩ. Thepoints
pointsare
arecircled
circled
onon
the curves.
theR25C = 2 mΩ, R125C = 3 mΩ.
R25C = 2mΩ， R125C = 3mΩ。这2The points are circled。on the curves.
个点已在曲线上圈出
curves .
Texas Instruments
PCB
PCB和导线
and Wire ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
Common package
Common
常见封装类型和尺寸packagetypetype
and dimensions
and dimensions
120.2mil
3.05mm
公制公制公制
公制公制公制

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PCB parallel
PCBparallel
PCB 平行板电容 plate
plate capacitance
capacitance
k ∙ ℓ ∙ w ∙ εr Capacitance for parallel copper

(82) Capacitance
(81) for parallel copper planes
planes
Where
PCB parallel plate capacitance
在这里
Where
kkk=== Permittivity
Permittivity
真空电容率 of free space .
of free space.
。
Both k ∙ ℓ version
the metric and imperial ∙ w ∙ εofr the constant are given. Capacitance for parallel copper
Both
k =给出了公制和英制常数 the
8.854·10-3 metric
pF/mm, and imperial
or 2.247·10-4 pF/mil
。 version of (81) the constant are given .
planes
ℓ =PCB parallel plate
length (metric in mm, or capacitance
imperial in mil)
wk==width8.854 in 10
mm,-3
pF/mm，
or -3
k = 8 .854∙10 pF/mm, or 2 .247∙10 pF/mil
(metric imperial in 或
mil) 2.247 10 -4-4pF/mil
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
ℓ=Where长度（公制为 dielectricmm，
constant英制为 mil）
ℓε ==
r PCB relative
length (metric k ∙ in w(εr∙ ≈ε4.5
ℓ ∙ mm, for FR-4)
r or imperial in mil) Capacitance for parallel copper
w = 宽度（公制为mm，英制为mil） (81)
wh = width (metric
k = Permittivity of free space.
in mm, or imperial in mil) planes
= Both平面之间的间隔（公制为 mm，英制为
the metric and imperial version of the constant are given. mil）
hεr= k =
=length
PCB8.854·10-3
ℓ = separation
相对介电常数 pF/mm,
betweenor 2.247·10-4
（对于
or imperial inplanes
pF/mil
FR-4， εr =
(metric in4.5） w
mm, or imperial in mil)
Where (metric in mm, mil)
εrwhk ====Permittivity
width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
PCB relative
separation dielectric
between planes
of free space.
(metric in mm, or imperial in(ε
constant r
mil) ≈ 4 .5 for FR-4)
εr = PCB relative dielectric constant (εr ≈ 4.5 for FR-4)
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
k = 8.854·10-3 pF/mm, or 2.247·10-4 pF/mil
ℓ = length (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
l or imperial in mil)
w = width (metric in mm, A
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil) w
εr = PCB relative dielectric constant (εr ≈ 4.5 for FR-4)
w
h l A εr
A
Figure 45: PCBl parallel plate capacitance
h εr
Example Calculate the total capacitance for ℓ=5.08mm,
h
Figure w=12.7mm,
45: PCB parallel plate capacitance εr = 4.5
h=1.575mm, εr
图 45：PCB 平行板电容
Example(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF⁄mm)

Calculate ∙ (5.08mm)
the total ∙ (12.7mm)
capacitance ∙ (4.5)
for ℓ=5.08mm,
C(pF) = 45: PCB parallel plate capacitance
Figure = 1.63pF
w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm, ε = 4.5
1.575mm
r
Example ℓ=5.08mm，
示例计算Calculate w=12.7mm，
–3 the total h=1.575mm，
capacitance εr = 4.5
for ℓ=5.08mm,
(8.854 ∙ 10 pF⁄mm) ∙ (5.08mm) ∙ (12.7mm) ∙ (4.5)
C(pF)
时的总电容
Example= Calculate
w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm,
the1.575mm εr = 4.5
total capacitance = 1.63pF
for ℓ=200mil,
w=500mil, h=62mil, εr = 4.5
(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF⁄mm) ∙ (5.08mm) ∙ (12.7mm) ∙ (4.5)
C(pF) = –4 = 1.63pF
C(pF) = (2.247
Example ∙ 10 pF⁄mil)
Calculate ∙ (200mil)
the1.575mm
total ∙ (500mil)
capacitance for ∙ℓ=200mil,
(4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil ε = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil, r
Example
示例 =计算
C(pF) (2.247 Calculate
the total
∙ 10 pF⁄mil)
–4 capacitance
ℓ =200mil，w=500mil，h=62mil，εr
∙ (200mil) for∙ (4.5)
∙ (500mil) ℓ=200mil,
= 4.5 时
= 1.63pF
的总电容 w=500mil, h=62mil,
62mil rε = 4.5
–4
C(pF) = (2.247 ∙ 10 pF⁄mil) ∙ (200mil) ∙ (500mil) ∙ (4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil
Texas Instruments
61
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Microstrip capacitance and inductance

微带线电容与电感
L(nH) = kL ∙ ℓ ∙ ln ( 0.85.98∙ w∙ +h t ( (83) Inductance for microstrip
kC ∙ ℓ ∙ (εr + 1.41)
C(pF) =
ln ( 0.8 ∙w+t (
5.98 ∙ h (84) Capacitance for microstrip
在这里
Where
kkLL==单位长度
PCB inductance
PCB电感per 。 unit length .
Both the metric and 。
给出了公制和英制常量 imperial version of the constant are given .
kLk=
L= 2nH/cm,或or
2nH/cm， 5 .071nH/in
5.071nH/in
kkCC==单位长度
PCB capacitance
PCB电容。 per unit length .
Both the metric and imperial
给出了公制和英制常量。 version of the constant are given .
kC = 0 .264pF/cm,
kC = 0.264pF/cm， or 0 .67056pF/in
0.67056pF/in
ℓℓ == 微带线长度
length of microstrip
（公制为mm， (metric in cm,
英制为 mil）or imperial in inches)
ww = 微带线宽度
width of microstrip mm，英制为
（公制为(metric mil）
in mm, or imperial in mil)
对于英制来说：For imperial:
tt = 铜覆区厚度（公制为 mm，英制为 mil）
= thickness of copper (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
铜覆区厚度 (mil)Copper thickness (mils) =
= 1.37•（盎司数量）
hh = mm， mil） 1 .37 • (number of ounces)
= 平面之间的间隔（公制为
separation between planes 英制为in
(metric mm, or imperial in mil)
即，1oz Cu = 1.37mil
i .e . 1oz Cu = 1 .37mils
εεr == 相对介电常数，对于FR-4，大约为4.54 .5 for FR-4 PCB
r relative permittivity, approximately i .e . ½oz Cu = 0 .684mils
即，1/ 2oz Cu = 0.684mil
ℓ
W
t
h
Figure
图48：PCB46: PCB Microstrip capacitance and inductance
微带线电容与电感
示例计算 ℓ=2.54cm，w=0.254mm，t=0.0356mm，h=0.8mm，εr = 4.5 时，
Example
Calculate
FR-4 the total inductance and capacitance for ℓ=2 .54cm, w=0 .254mm,
类型电路板的总电感和电容
t=0 .0356mm, h=0 .8mm, εr = 4 .5 for FR-4
5.98 ∙ 0.8mm
L(pF) = (2 nH⁄cm) ∙ (2.54cm) ∙ ln ( 0.8 ∙ 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
) = 15.2nH
C(pF) = (0.264pF/cm) ∙ (2.54cm)(4.5 + 1.41) = 1.3pF
ln ( 5.98 ∙ 0.8mm
0.8 ∙ 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
)
Example
示例计算Calculate the total inductance and capacitance
ℓ =1in，w=10mil，t=1.4mil，h=31.5mil，εr= for时ℓ=1in,
4.5 ，FR-4w=10mil,
类型电
t=1 .4mil, h=31 .5mil, εr = 4 .5 for FR-4
路板的总电感和电容
LL =
= 15 .2nH,
15.2nH， C=1 .3pF .
C=1.3pF。 Note:
注释： this is the same problem as above
这个问题与上面的问题一样 with imperial units . 。
，只不过采用的是英制

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
l = length of copper trace (mils)
t = thickness of copper trace (mils)
copper thickness (mils) = 1.37 * (number of ounces)
and和导线
Wire
ex: 1 oz. copper thickness = 1.37 mils
ex: ½ oz. copper thickness = 0.685 mils
Adjacent copperbetween
相邻纯铜传输线 d = distance tracestraces (mils)
r =∙ tPCB
k ∙ ℓ dielectric constant ((85)
r ≈ 4.2 for FR-4)
C(pF) ≈ w = width of copper trace (mils) Same layer
d
h = separation between planes (mils)
εr ∙ w ∙ ℓ
k∙ (86) Different layers
C(pF) ≈ Example
h
l = 100 mils
Where t = 1.37 mils (1 oz. copper)
在这里
ℓℓ == 纯铜传输线的长度
length
d of themils
= 10 copper
（mil，trace
或mm）(mil, or mm)
ε = 4.2
-3
k=2 .247*10-4-4 pF/mil
kk== 8.854*10
8 .854*10 -3pF/mm，
r pF/mm, or或k=2.247*10 pF/mil
w = 25 mils
tt == 传输线厚度
thickness of trace或(in
（mil， mil, or mm)
mm）
h = 63 mils
dd== 同一层传输线之间的距离
distance between traces（mil， if on same
或mm） layer (mil, 对于英制来说
or mm) ： For imperial:
ww= = 传输线的宽度
widthAnswer
of trace .。(mil, or或mm)
（mil， mm）铜覆区厚度 (mil) =Copper1.37• （盎司数量
thickness (mils) =）
1 .37 • (number of ounces)
hh == 平面之间的间隔
separation between
（mm， planes .
或mil） (mil, or mm) 即，1oz Cu = 1.37mil
C (same layer) = 0.003 pF i .e . 1oz Cu = 1 .37mils
εεr r==PCB
PCB介电常数
dielectric
（对于constant
FR-4， (εεrr == 4 .5
4.5） for FR-4) 即，1/2oz Cu = 0.684mil
i .e . ½oz Cu = 0 .684mils
C (different layers) = 0.037 pF
同一层
不同层
Figure图47:
47：Capacitance
相邻纯铜传输线的电容 for adjacent copper traces
Figure 48: Capacitance for adjacent copper traces
示例计算两个情况下的总电容值
Example: ： ℓ=2.54mm，t=0.0348mm，
Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: ℓ=2 .54mm,
t=0 .0348mm, d=0 .254mm, w=0 .635mm,
d=0.254mm，w=0.635mm， h=1.6mm，εr = 4.5 时ε，FR-4
h=1 .6mm, r = 4 .5 类型电路板的值
for FR-4
(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF/mm) (0.0348mm) (2.54mm)

63
C(pF) ≈ = 0.0031pF Same
0.254mm layer
(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF/mm) (4.5mm) (0.635mm) (2.54mm)
C(pF) ≈ = 0.04pF
1.6mm Adjacent
layers
Example: Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: ℓ=100mil,
示例计算两个情况下的总电容值： ℓ=100mil，t=1.37mil，d=10mil，
t=1 .37mil, d=10mil, w=25mil, h=63mil, εr = 4 .5 for FR-4
w=25mil， h=63mil，r = 4.5 时，FR-4 类型电路板的值
C = 0 .0031pF
0.0031pF（(Same
同层）layer), C=0 .4pF
，C=0.04pF（邻层 (Adjacent
）。注释： layers) . Note: this is the
这个问题与上面的问题一样，
same problem as above
只不过采用的是英制。 with imperial units .
Texas Instruments
PCB and Wire
PCB过孔电容和电感
[
L(nH) ≈ kL ∙ h 1 + ln (4hd )] (87) Inductance for via
kC ∙ εr ∙ h ∙ d1 (88) Capacitance for via

C(pF) ≈
d2 — d1
在这里
kL = 单位长度PCB电感。
给出了公制和英制常量。
kL = 0.2nH/mm，或5.07610 -3nH/mil
kC = 单位长度PCB电容。
给出了公制和英制常量。
kC = 0.0555pF/mm，或1.4110 -3pF/mil
h =平面之间的间隔
d = 过孔直径
d1 = 过孔周围垫片的直径
d2 = 到内部层接地平面的距离
εr = PCB介电常数（对于FR-4，εr = 4.5）
d1
d 顶层
传输线
中间层
GND
h 平面
d2
底层
传输线
图48：过孔的电感和电容
示例计算 h=1.6mm，d=0.4mm，d1=0.8mm，d2=1.5mm 时的总电感和电容
L(nH) ≈ (0.2 nH⁄mm) ∙ (1.6mm) 1 + ln[ (40.4mm

∙ 1.6mm
)] = 1.2nH
(0.0555pF/mm) ∙ (4.5) ∙ (1.6mm) ∙ (0.8mm)
C(pF) ≈ = 0.46pF
1.5mm — 0.8mm
示例计算 h=63mil，d=15.8mil，d1=31.5mil，d2=59mil 时的总电感和电容
L = 1.2nH，C=0.46pF。注释：这个问题与上面的问题一样，只不过采用的是英制。

德州仪器 Analog
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Wire
同轴电缆信息
Table 19: Coaxial cable information
ft at 750 MHz
/ length (pF/feet)
Outside diameter (inches)
每100英尺的 dB衰减
/100
（pF/英尺）
attenuation
Dielectric type
Capacitance
外径（英寸）
时，
电介质类型
750MHzdB
电容/长度
Type ZO Application
Test equipment and RF power to a few
RG-58 53.5Ω 28.8 0.195 13.1 PE
hundred watts, and a应用
couple hundred MHz
类型 Z0
RG-8 52Ω 29.6 0.405 5.96 PE
RG-58 53.5Ω 28.8 0.195 13.1 PE 测试设备并且RF功率为几百瓦，数百MHz
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-214/U 50Ω 30.8 0.425 6.7 PE
RG-8 52Ω 29.6 0.405 5.96 PE hundred MHz
9914 50Ω 26.0 0.405 4.0 PE
RG-214/U 50Ω 30.8 0.425 6.7 PE RF功率几kW，最高几百MHz
RG-6 75Ω 20 0.270 5.6 PF Video and CATV applications. RF to a few
9914 50Ω 26.0 0.405 4.0 PE hundred watts, up to a few hundred MHz,
RG-59/U
RG-6 73Ω
75Ω 29
20 0.242
0.270 9.7
5.6 PE
PE sometimes to higher frequencies if losses
视频和CATV应用。RF功率几百瓦，最高几百MHz，
can be tolerated
RG-59/U 73Ω 29 0.242 9.7 PE 如果可以接受损耗的话，有时频率会更高
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-11/U 75Ω 17 0.412 3.65 PE
RG-11/U 75Ω 17 0.412 3.65 PE hundred
RF MHz最高数百MHz
功率几kW，
RG-62/U 93Ω 13.5 0.242 7.1 ASP Used in some test equipment
在某些测试设备中使用， and 100Ω
以及100 Ω视频应用
RG-62/U 93Ω 13.5 0.242 7.1 ASP
video applications
RG-174 50Ω 31 0.100 23.5 PE 微型同轴电缆主要用于测试设备互连。由于损耗较
RG-174 50Ω 31 0.100 23.5 PE Miniature coax used primarily for test
高，所以通常长度较短。
RG-178/U 50Ω 29 0.071 42.7 ST equipment interconnection. Usually short
RG-178/U 50Ω 29 0.071 42.7 ST runs due to higher loss.
Texas
PCB and Wire
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable
同轴电缆方程式 equations
equations
C 2πε
ℓ D (89) Capacitance
(84)Capacitance per length
per length
Coaxial
d cable equations
L μC D2πε
ℓ 2πℓ d D
(90) (84) Inductance
(85)Inductance per per length
length
Capacitance per length
d
LL μ1 μD (91) (85) Characteristic

(86)Characteristic impedance
impedance
Inductance per length
ℓ C 2π
2π εd
L 1 μ
(86) Characteristic impedance
Where
Where
在这里 C 2π ε
LL==inductance
inductance in in henries
henries (H)(H)
L = 电感，单位亨利 (H)
CC= = capacitance
电容，单位法拉第 in farads
(F) (F)
Z = impedance in ohms (Ω)
阻抗 Where
Zd == impedance
，单位欧姆 in ohms
(W) (Ω)
diameter of inner conductor
L = inductance in henries (H)
d = 内部导体的直径
dD==diameter
inside diameter
of innerofconductor
shield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
Dε == dielectric
屏蔽层内径 constant
，或介电绝缘体的直径of insulator (ε = εr εo )
D = inside diameter ofinshield,
Z = impedance ohms or (Ω)diameter of dielectric insulator
εµ==绝缘体的介电常数
magnetic permeability
d = diameter of inner (e=e(µ eo=
) µ r µo )
rconductor
εμl ==length
dielectric constant
of the cable
(m=m of insulator (ε = εr εo )
r m o)
导磁系数D = inside diameter of shield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
μℓ == 电缆长度
magnetic permeability
ε = dielectric constant (μof
= insulator
μr μo ) (ε = εr εo )
ℓ = length µ = magnetic
of the cablepermeability (µ = µr µo )
l = length of the cable
Insulation
隔离层
屏蔽层
介电绝缘导
中心导体
Figure 49: Coaxial cable cutaway
Figure 49: Coaxial cable cutaway

Figure图 49Coaxial
49: ：同轴电缆剖视图cable cutaway

德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
65
and和导线
Wire
表 20：
Table 不同类型导线
20: (AWG)
Resistance per 单位长度电阻
length for different wire types (AWG)
Outside
外径diameter Area
面积 dc dc
resistance
电阻
AWG
AWG Stds
标准 2
in mm circular
圆密耳 mils mm Ω / 1000 ft Ω / km
36 Solid 0.005 0.127 25 0.013 445 1460
36 7/44 0.006 0.152 28 0.014 371 1271
34 Solid 0.0063 0.160 39.7 0.020 280 918
34 7/42 0.0075 0.192 43.8 0.022 237 777
32 Solid 0.008 0.203 67.3 0.032 174 571
32 7/40 0.008 0.203 67.3 0.034 164 538
30 Solid 0.010 0.254 100 0.051 113 365
30 7/38 0.012 0.305 112 0.057 103 339
28 Solid 0.013 0.330 159 0.080 70.8 232
28 7/36 0.015 0.381 175 0.090 64.9 213
26 Solid 0.016 0.409 256 0.128 43.6 143
26 10/36 0.021 0.533 250 0.128 41.5 137
24 Solid 0.020 0.511 404 0.205 27.3 89.4
24 7/32 0.024 0.610 448 0.229 23.3 76.4
22 Solid 0.025 0.643 640 0.324 16.8 55.3
22 7/30 0.030 0.762 700 0.357 14.7 48.4
20 Solid 0.032 0.813 1020 0.519 10.5 34.6
20 7/28 0.038 0.965 1111 0.562 10.3 33.8
18 Solid 0.040 1.020 1620 0.823 6.6 21.8
18 7/26 0.048 1.219 1770 0.902 5.9 19.2
16 Solid 0.051 1.290 2580 1.310 4.2 13.7
16 7/24 0.060 1.524 2828 1.442 3.7 12.0
14 Solid 0.064 1.630 4110 2.080 2.6 8.6
14 7/22 0.073 1.854 4480 2.285 2.3 7.6
Texas
PCB and Wire
Table
表21： 21: MaximumAWG
最大电流与 current
的关系 vs . AWG
℃
乙烯（半刚性），80℃
Kynar 聚乙烯热塑塑
聚乙烯氯丁橡胶聚氯
Thermoplastic at 125°C
Nylon
聚丙烯聚乙烯（高密
聚氯乙烯尼龙，105
90℃ 时at 90°C
at 80°C
Kapton Teflon
硅薄膜，200℃
Polyvinylchloride
Polyvinylchloride
Silicon at 200°C
料，125℃ 时
Polypropylene
density)
(semi-ridged)
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Wire gauge
Neoprene
at时105°C
度），
Kapton
线规
Teflon
Kynar
(high
时
时
号数
AWG Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A)
30 2 3 3 3 4
28 3 4 4 5 6
26 4 5 5 6 7
24 6 7 7 8 10
22 8 9 10 11 13
20 10 12 13 14 17
18 15 17 18 20 24
16 19 22 24 26 32
14 27 30 33 40 45
12 36 40 45 50 55
10 47 55 58 70 75
Note:
注释： Wire is in free air
导线处于 25C at 25°C
的大气环境中。
Example
示例
What is the maximum
在室温环境中，可以施加到 current
30 that
线规can be 导线的最大电流是多少
Teflon applied to a ？自发热将为
30 gauge Teflon wire in a room temperature environment?
多少？will the self-heating be?
What
答案
Answer
Imax == 4A
Imax 4A
Wire
导线温度 temperature
= 200℃= 200°C

德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
Sensor ti.com/precisionlabs
传感器
热敏电阻 •
电阻式温度检测器 (RTD) •
二极管温度特性 •
热电偶（J和K） •
Sensor
传感器
69 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

传感器
Sensors
70
热敏电阻
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor RTDRTDRTD
RTD RTD Diode
Diode Diode
Diode 二极管 Thermocouple 热电偶
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
和导线
PCBSensor
表21：最大电流与
–55°C –200°C –55°C –250°C

Table 21: Temperature
Temp
Temp range
Temp
range
Temp –55°C
range
range < –55°C
T<T
–55°C 150°C
<<<T150°C 150°C
T< <150°C –200°C <–200°C
T<T
–200°C 850°C
<<<T850°C 850°C
T< <850°C –55°C < –55°C
T<T
–55°C 150°C
<<<T150°C 150°C
T< <150°C –250°C <–250°C
T<T
–250°C 1800°C
<<<T1800°C1800°C
T< <1800°C
温度范围 -55° C<T<150° C -200°C<T<850°C -55°C<T<150°C -250°C<T<1800°C
Cost
Cost Cost
Cost LowLow Low
Low HighHighHigh
High LowLow Low
Low LowLow Low
Low
成本 Accuracy Good
AccuracyGood
Accuracy accuracy
Good
accuracy at one
低accuracy
at one at one Excellent
Excellent
Excellent accuracy
高
accuracy
accuracy PoorPoor accuracy
Poor
accuracyaccuracy
without
低
without calibration.
without calibration.
calibration. Good Good accuracy
Good
accuracyaccuracy polynomial
低with
withwith polynomial
polynomial
Accuracy Good accuracy at one Excellent accuracy Poor accuracy without calibration. Good accuracy with polynomial
temperature.
temperature.
temperature.
temperature. correction.
correction.
correction.
correction.
单个温度准确度较好accurate
Less accurate over range. range.
在使用多项式校正的情况
准确度 LessLess
accurate
Less overover
accurate range.
fullover
full full
fullrange. 出色的准确度在不校准的情况下，准确度差
在整个范围内准确度较差下，准确度较好
Linearity
Linearity VeryVery
Linearity
Linearity nonlinear.
Very
Very Follows
nonlinear.
nonlinear. Follows
nonlinear. Follows
Follows Fairly
Fairly linearlinear
Fairly
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal logarithmic
ofoflogarithmic Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity < 4.5%
Nonlinearity < 4.5% 4.5%
full full
of scale.
<of<4.5% scale.
ofoffull scale. Slope
Slope
fullscale. ≈ -2mV/C
Slope
-2mV/C
≈Slope
线性相当好 -2mV/C
≈ ≈-2mV/C 斜率≈-2mV/C Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity < 10%
Nonlinearity < 10% 10%
full
<of<10%
线性相当好 full
of scale scale
ofoffull scale
fullscale
function.
function.function.
function. Relatively
Relatively 线性相当好
simple
Relatively
simple
Relatively quadratic
simple
quadratic
simple quadratic Slope
quadratic Slope varies
Slope
varies
Slope according
varies
according
varies to current
according
to current
according current Complex
Complex
totocurrent Complex
10th10th
Complex order order
10th
10th polynomial
order
polynomial
order polynomial
polynomial
满量程范围内非线性
Table 21: Temperature sensor overview
斜率根据电流激励、二极
AWG的关系sensor overview

极其非线性。遵循倒数lof对 function.
function. function.
function. excitation,
diodediode
excitation,
excitation, type,type,
diode
diode and and
type,
diode
type, diode
and diode
anddiode
线性满量程范围内非线性
70
70
<4.5%excitation,
70
数函数 processing.
管类型
processing.
processing.
processing. 、以及二极管工艺发 <10%
相对简单的二次函数
Construction LessLess
Construction
Construction
Construction rugged
Less
rugged
Less rugged
rugged Depends
Depends Depends
on Type
Depends Type
on
on on(can(can
Type
Type (can
be(can Rugged
be bebe Rugged Rugged
Rugged 生变化 MostMostMost
rugged
Most
复式
rugged
rugged 10 阶多项式
rugged
rugged)
rugged) rugged)
rugged)
构造不太坚固耐用视类型而定可以很坚固耐用
（）坚固耐用最坚固耐用
Output
Output range
Output
range
Output range
range Typically
TypicallyTypically
10s 10s
Typically to
10s 100s
10s
to 100s toof 100s
kΩ
to100s kΩ
of full full
ofofkΩ 18 to18
fullto18390
kΩfull 18 390
Ωtofor
to Ω
390
390 for
PT100PT100
ΩΩfor PT100
forPT100 0.4 to
0.40.8V
0.4 0.8V
to0.4 0.8V
toto0.8V 10s 10s of
10s millivolts
of millivolts
10s millivolts
ofofmillivolts
Texas Instruments
通常为几十到几百
scale.
scale. VeryVery
scale.
wide
scale. wide
Very
Very wide kW
variation
variation
wide variation
variation
in in inin180 180 to
180
3.9
to 180 3.9
kΩ kΩ
3.9
for
toto3.9 for
PT1000
kΩ PT1000
kΩfor PT1000
forPT1000
德州仪器
resistance.
resistance.
resistance. PT100 为 18 至 390W 0.4至0.8V
输出范围 resistance.
满量程几十毫伏
PT1000为180至3.9kW
Analog
Applications 电阻非常宽的变话范围
Applications
Applications
Applications General
General purpose
General
purpose
General purpose
purpose Scientific
ScientificScientific
and and industrial
industrial
Scientific and industrial
andindustrial LowLow
costcost
Low
Low temperature
cost
temperature
cost monitor
temperature
monitor
temperature Industrial
monitor Industrial
monitor temperature
Industrial temperature
temperature
Industrial temperature
LowLow
costcost
Low
Low linear
cost
linear
cost response
linear
response
linear response
response measurement
measurement
measurement
measurement
低成本温度监视器
应用范围General
General General
General Requires 通用
Requires excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Requires 科学和工业应用
Requires excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Requires
Requires excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Self-powered工业温度测量
Self-powered
Self-powered
Self-powered
低成本线性响应 Requires
Requires Requires
coldcold junction
cold
junction comp
junction
comp comp
Requires cold junction comp
(TI) Engineer's
自供电
通性需要激励需要激励需要激励
需要冷端补偿
模拟工程师口袋参考书
Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs
传感器
Sensor
Thermistor:
热敏电阻： ResistanceSteinhart-Hart
电阻到温度转换， to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation
方程式
Thermistor: Resistance to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation
1 Convert resistance to
Thermistor: RResistance
R to temperature, (87)
(92) Convert Steinhart-Hart
resistance to temperature
T
equation
temperature for for a thermistor
a thermistor
1
Where Convert resistance to
Where R R (87)
在这里
T
T = temperature in Kelvin temperature for a thermistor
TTa,
== 温度
temperature in Kelvin
b, c =，单位开
Steinhart-Hart equation constants
a,
a， b,
Wherecc =
= Steinhart-Hart equation constants
Rb， Steinhart-Hart
= resistance in ohms方程式常数
RT==电阻 temperature
resistance in in Kelvin
ohms
R= ，单位欧姆
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart
Thermistor: Temperatureequation constants Steinhart-Hart equation
to resistance,
R = resistance in ohms
[ [
Thermistor:
热敏电阻： x Temperature
温度到电阻转换， x to resistance,
Steinhart-Hart Steinhart-Hart
方程式 equation
Convert temperature to
y Temperature
Thermistor: y+ (88)
to resistance, Steinhart-Hart equation
2 2 resistance for a thermistor
[ [
1y x x Convert temperature to
y+ (93) Convert(88)
x T 2 2 (89)temperature
Factor to resistance
resistance
usedforinaEquation
thermistor
88
c for a thermistor
1
x T (94) Factor(89) Factor
used in used93
Equation in Equation 88
y cb x
(90) Factor used in Equation 88
3c 4
b x (95) Factor(90)
used in Equation
Factor used93
in Equation 88
y
3c 4
Where
R = resistance in ohms
T = temperature in Kelvin
Where
Where
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
在这里
R==resistance
Rx, resistanceininΩohms
R = y电阻值= Steinhart-Hart
，单位 Ω factors used in temperature to resistance equation
T =
T = 温度 temperature
temperature ininKelvin
Kelvin
T a,
= b, c =，Steinhart-Hart
单位开 equation constants
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart 方程式常数
equation constants
a，x,b，
y c= = Steinhart-Hart
Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
x，y = 温度到电阻换算方程式中用到的Steinhart-Hart因子
Texas Instruments
71
Sensor
传感器 ti.com.cn/precisionlabs
RTD equation
RTD温度与电阻换算方程式
RTD equation temperature
temperature to resistance
to resistance
RTD resistance for

R 0 0 0T 0 T (91)
(96) RTD resistance for T<0°C
RTD equation temperature to resistance T<0°C
RTD resistance for

R 0T T (97) RTD resistance
(92)
(91) for T>0°C
0 0 0 T>0°C
T<0°C
Where RTD resistance for

Where
R
在这里 0 T over temperature range of (–200°C (92)
R = resistance
0
rtd
0 of RTD < T < 850°C) T>0°C
RRrtd== 温度范围内resistance of RTD over temperature
(-200℃<T<850℃) 的RTDrange
电阻 of (–200°C < T < 850°C)
Rrtdo = 100 Ω for PT-100, 1000Ω for PT-1000
RRWhere
A00O==,B 100Ω
对于 for PT-100,
PT-100 为100W， 1000Ω
对于 for PT-1000
PT-1000 为1000W
O, C O = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Rrtd = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (–200°C < T < 850°C)
AT00， ,=Btemperature
， 0=
0 , C0
0 in degreesDusen
= Callendar-Van
Callendar-Van Celsius
Dusen ( )
coefficients
常数
Ro = 100 Ω for PT-100, 1000Ω for PT-1000
TT = 温度，单位摄氏度 (℃) Celsius (°C)
A=O,temperature in degrees
BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
RTD电阻与温度换算方程式
RTD equation resistance (T>℃) to temperature (T>0°C)
T = temperature in degrees Celsius ( )
R
RTD equationA resistance to temperature RTD resistance
RTD
RTD温度与电阻换算方程式
equation resistance toRtemperature
0 (T>0°C) (T>0°C) (93)
for T>0°C
2B
R
A (98) RTD resistance RTDfor resistance
T>0°C
Where R0 (93)
for T>0°C
RRTD = resistance2B of RTD over temperature range of (–200°C < T < 850°C)
Ro = 100 Ω
Where
AO, BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Where
在这里
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (–200°C < T < 850°C)
R T
RRTD == temperature
resistancein
=温度范围内 ofdegrees
RTD overCelsius
(-200℃<T<850℃) ) 电阻
( RTD
temperature
的 range of (–200°C < T < 850°C)
RRTDo = 100 Ω
RRA00O== 100Ω
100W
, B , C = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
TableO22:OCallendar-Van Dusen coefficients for different RTD standards
AAT00，,=BBtemperature
0
，C00 =
0, C in degreesDusen
= Callendar-Van
Callendar-Van Celsius
Dusen 常数 ( )
coefficients
TT = 温度，单位摄氏度 IEC-751 (℃)
= temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) US Industrial
表 Table
23：针对不同 22: DIN 43760
Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
RTD标准的Callendar-Van Dusen系数 for different RTD standards
BS 1904 Standard US Industrial
IEC-751 D-100 Standard
表23： ASTM-E1137
Table 针对不同
23: RTD标准的
Callendar-Van
DIN 43760 Dusen Callendar-Van
coefficients forDusen
US Industrial 系数
different RTD standardsITS-90
American
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American
A0 +3.9083E-3
IEC-751 DIN 43760 +3.9739E-3 +3.9787E-3
US Industrial +3.9692E-3
美国工业标 US Industrial +3.9888E-3
美国工业
Standard
ASTM-E1137 D-100
B0 BS –5.775E-7
1904 ASTM-E1137 –5.870E-7
EN-60751 JISC 1604
Standard –5.8495E-7
–5.8686E-7
American
Standard –5.915E-7
American ITS-90
D-100 D-100
准标准
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American American ITS-90
C0
A0 –4.183E-12
+3.9083E-3 –4.4E-12
+3.9739E-3 –4.167E-12
+3.9787E-3 –4.233E-12
+3.9692E-3 –3.85E-12
+3.9888E-3
A0 +3.9083E-3 +3.9739E-3 +3.9787E-3 +3.9692E-3 +3.9888E-3
B0 –5.775E-7 –5.870E-7 –5.8686E-7 –5.8495E-7 –5.915E-7
B0 –5.775E-7 –5.870E-7 –5.8686E-7 –5.8495E-7 –5.915E-7
C0 –4.183E-12 –4.4E-12 –4.167E-12 –4.233E-12 –3.85E-12
Example
C –4.183E-12 –4.4E-12 –4.167E-12 –4.233E-12 –3.85E-12
0
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 Ω?
Example
Answer
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 Ω?
Example
示例
What is the temperature3.9888
given∙ an 120
10 ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120Ω?
Answer 60 的 ITS-90 PT-100 温度是多少？
电阻值为 100
Answer
答案
120
120
3.9888 ∙ 10
100
100
72 Texas Instruments
(TI)Engineer's
传感器
Sensor
RTD
RTD equation
RTD 电阻与温度换算方程式
equation resistance
resistance to temperature
to temperature (T<0°C) (T<0°C)
�
RTD resistance
� � � �� (99) RTD resistance for T<0°C
(94)
for T<0�
��
Where
Where
在这里
T= = temperature in degrees (�)
T 温度，单位摄氏度 (℃) Celsius (°C)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0�)
RRTD ==resistance
RRTD 温度范围内 of (T<0℃)
RTD over 的temperature
RTD电阻 range of (T<0°C)
αI = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0�
αi ==polynomial
αi T<0℃时，将 RTD电阻换算为温度的多项式系数
coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0°C
th
Table 23: Coefficients for 5 order RTD resistance to temperature
IEC-751
Table
表24： 24:
针对 Coefficients
DIN 543760 for 5th orderUS
阶RTD电阻至温度换算的系数 RTD resistance to temperature
Industrial
IEC-751 Standard
ASTM-E1137 D-100
DIN 43760
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American American
BS 1904 US Industrial
美国工业标准美国工业标准 ITS-90
α0 –2.4202E+02
ASTM-E1137 –2.3820E+02 –2.3818E+02
Standard –2.3864E+02
US Industrial –2.3791E+02
D-100
α1 EN-60751 JISC 1604 D-100
2.2228E+00 2.1898E+00 2.1956E+00 American Standard American
2.1973E+00 ITS-90
2.2011E+00
αα2
0 –2.4202E+02 –2.3820E+02
2.5857E-03 2.5226E-03 –2.3818E+02
2.4413E-03 –2.3864E+02
2.4802E-03 –2.3791E+02
2.3223E-03
αα3
1 –4.8266E-06
2.2228E+00 –4.7825E-06
2.1898E+00 –4.7517E-06
2.1956E+00 –4.7791E-06
2.1973E+00 –4.6280E-06
2.2011E+00
αα4
2
–2.8152E-08
2.5857E-03 –2.7009E-08
2.5226E-03 –2.3831E-08
2.4413E-03 –2.5157E-08
2.4802E-03 –1.9702E-08
2.3223E-03
αα5
3
1.5224E-10 1.4719E-10
–4.8266E-06 –4.7825E-06 1.3492E-10
–4.7517E-06 1.4020E-10
–4.7791E-06 1.1831E-10
–4.6280E-06
α4 –2.8152E-08 –2.7009E-08 –2.3831E-08 –2.5157E-08 –1.9702E-08
α5 1.5224E-10
Example 1.4719E-10 1.3492E-10 1.4020E-10 1.1831E-10
Find the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 60 Ω.
Answer
示例
Example
� � �� 0�� ∗ �60�� 0�� 00� ∗ �60�� 0�� ∗ �60��
Find the temperature
电阻值为 given
60Ω 的 ITS-90 an
PT-100
� �� ITS-90
∗ �60�PT100
温度是多少
� 0�� ？ resistance of 60 Ω .
� ��6�
答案
Answer
• 60 • 60 • 60
• 60
Texas
73
Sensor
Diode equation vs . temperature

二极管方程式与温度
Diode equation vs. temperature
nkT I nkT I
V� � �n � � �� n � � (100) Diode(95)
voltage
Diode voltage
q I� q I�
Diode equation vs. temperature
Where
Where
在这里VD = diode
nkT voltage I vs. nkT
temperature
I and current
VVV nD�= diode
=�diode voltage
�n � � �� vs .�temperature
�n � �fromand1 current (95) Diode voltage
D q ideality
相对于温度和电流的二极管电压 I-23
�
factor (ranges
q I�
to 2)
nn= k == 1.38
diode
二极管理想因子 x 10
ideality J/K, Boltzmann’s
factor
（范围从 (ranges
1 2）
至 constant
from 1 to 2)
T =1.38temperature in Kelvin
k Where
= 1 .38 x 10-23 -23
J/K，
-19 J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
玻尔兹曼常数
q D= =1.60 x 10 C, charge of an electron
TTV= = 温度 diode
，单位开 voltage vs. temperature and current
In==temperature
forward
diode diode
ideality
in current
Kelvin in amps
factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
q = 1.60 x 10-19C，
-19 一个电子的电量
qkIS===1 .60
saturation
1.38 xx10 10 current
-23 C, charge of an electron
J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
I= 正向二极管电流，单位安培
I= T forward
= temperature
diode currentin Kelvinin amps
IS = 饱和电流 -19 qV�
q = 1.60�T x 10
��⁄ �� C, charge� of an electron (96) Saturation current
ISI�=�saturation ��
currentnkT
I = forward diode current in amps
IS = saturation current
Where
IS = saturation current
qV�
α �T ��⁄��
I� =�constant related
�� to�the cross sectional area of the
(101) junction
Saturation Saturation current
(96) current
nkT
VG = diode voltage vs. temperature and current
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
Where -23
IkS == 1.38
Where
x 10 current
saturation J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
在这里T = temperature in Kelvin
ISα==saturation
constant -19 related
currentto the cross sectional area of the junction
ISq = 饱和电流
VG= =1.60diodex 10voltage C, charge of an electron
vs. temperature and current
ααn== constant
与结横截面面积有关的常数related to the cross sectional area of the junction
= diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
VkG == 1.38
G =
diodex voltage
相对于温度和电流的二极管电压 -23
10 J/K, vs .Boltzmann’s
temperatureconstant
and current
n T = = temperature
二极管理想因子 in（Kelvin
范围从
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2) 1至 2）
-19
q==1.381.60 x10 10-23
-23 C, charge of an electron
kk = 1 .38 xx 10 J/K，玻尔兹曼常数
J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
T = 温度，单位开
T = temperature in Kelvin
q = 1.60 x 10 -19C，一个电子的电量
q = 1 .60 x 10-19 C, charge of an electron
德州仪器 Analog
(TI)Engineer's
74
传感器
Sensor
二极管电压与温度之间的关系
Diode voltage versus temperature
Figure
图 50 shows an example of the。根据二极管特性以及正向电压的不同
50显示的是一个二极管温度漂移示例 temperature drift for a diode . ，这条
Depending on the characteristics
曲线的斜率和偏移将会发生变化。然而， of二极管漂移的典型值大约为
the diode and the forward current
-2mV/° C。在室
the Diode
温下 slope
，通常会出现
voltage versus temperature
and offset of this curve
0.6V的正向压降。 will change . However, typical diode drift
is about –2mV/°C . A forward drop of about 0 .6V is typical for
Figure 50 shows an example of the temperature drift for a diode. Depending on the
room temperature .
characteristics of the diode and the forward current the slope and offset of this curve
will change. However, typical diode drift is about –2mV/°C. A forward drop of about
0.6V is typical for room temperature.
斜率斜率
二级管电压（V）
斜率
温度（℃）
图50drop
Figure 50: Diode voltage
：二极管压降与温度之间的关系
vs. temperature
Figure 50: Diode voltage drop vs . temperature
75
Texas
Sensor
将温度转换为电压的J型热电偶（ITS-90标准）
Type J thermocouples translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)
�
Thermoelectric
V� � � �� (102) Thermoelectric voltage (97)
voltage
��

Where
Where
在这里
V VT==thermoelectric
thermoelectricvoltage
voltage
VTT = 热电电压
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
T = temperature
温度，单位摄氏度 in degrees Celsius
ci = translation coefficients
c = 转换系数
cii = translation coefficients
Table 24: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
表Type
25：
Table JJ型热电偶温度到电压转换系数
25:
thermocouple temperature to voltage
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
–219� to–219°C
760�至 to 760°C 760� to 1,200� 760°C 至
to 1,200°C
c0
c0 0.0000000000E+00 2.9645625681E+05 2.9645625681E+05
0.0000000000E+00
c1
c1 5.0381187815E+01 –1.4976127786E+03
5.0381187815E+01 –1.4976127786E+03
c2
c2 3.0475836930E-02 3.1787103924E+00 3.1787103924E+00
3.0475836930E-02
c3 –8.5681065720E-05 –3.1847686701E-03
c3 –8.5681065720E-05 –3.1847686701E-03
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c5 –1.7052958337E-10 –3.0691369056E-10
c5 –1.7052958337E-10 –3.0691369056E-10
c6 2.0948090697E-13 --
c 2.0948090697E-13 —
c76 –1.2538395336E-16 --
c
c87 –1.2538395336E-16
1.5631725697E-20 -- —
c8 1.5631725697E-20 —
德州仪器 Analog
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76
传感器
Sensor
将电压转换为温度的 J型热电偶
Type J thermocouples （ITS-90标准）
translating voltage to temperature
(ITS-90 standard)
Type J thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
� � � �� V� �� (103) Temperature (98) Temperature

��
Table 25: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients

表 26：
Table J型热电偶电压到温度转换系数
26: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature
–219°C 至
to 0°C 0°C 至
to 760°C 760°C 至
to 1,200°C
–219°C to 0°C 0°C to 760°C 760°C to 1,200°C
c0 0.000000000E+00 0.000000000E+00 –3.113581870E+03
c0 0.000000000E+00 0.000000000E+00 –3.113581870E+03
c1 1.952826800E-02 1.978425000E-02 3.005436840E-01
c1 1.952826800E-02 1.978425000E-02 3.005436840E-01
c2 –1.228618500E-06 –2.001204000E-07 –9.947732300E-06
c2 –1.228618500E-06 –2.001204000E-07 –9.947732300E-06
c3 –1.075217800E-09 1.036969000E-11 1.702766300E-10
c3 –1.075217800E-09 1.036969000E-11 1.702766300E-10
c4 –5.908693300E-13 –2.549687000E-16 –1.430334680E-15
c4 –5.908693300E-13 –2.549687000E-16 –1.430334680E-15
cc5
5 –1.725671300E-16
–1.725671300E-16 3.585153000E-21
3.585153000E-21 4.738860840E-21
4.738860840E-21
cc6
6 –2.813151300E-20
–2.813151300E-20 –5.344285000E-26
–5.344285000E-26 -- —
cc7
7 –2.396337000E-24
–2.396337000E-24 5.099890000E-31
5.099890000E-31 -- —
cc8
8 –8.382332100E-29
–8.382332100E-29 -- — -- —
Texas Instruments
Sensor
Type K thermocouples
将温度转换为电压的 K型热电偶translating
（ITS-90标准）temperature to voltage
(ITS-90 standard) translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples
V� � � �� (99) Thermoelectric

(104) Thermoelectric voltage
voltage for T<0°C
�� for T<0�
�
�
V� � �� e�� (105) Thermoelectric voltage forT>0°C
(100) Thermoelectric voltage
�� forT>0�
Where
VT = thermoelectric voltage
Where
在这里
VTT==
T
V =temperature
热电电压 in degrees
thermoelectric voltage Celsius
c i = translation coefficients
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
温度，单位摄氏度
α0, α1 = translation coefficients
Cii == translation
c 转换系数 coefficients
α
Table
α ，α =translation
转换系数
0, α 1=26: Type K thermocouple
coefficients temperature to voltage coefficients
0 1
–219°C to 760°C 760°C to 1,200°C
表27c0 ：
Table 27: 0.0000000000E+00
K型热电偶温度至电压转换系数
Type –1.7600413686E+01
K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
c1 3.9450128025E+01 3.8921204975E+01
–219°C 至
to 760°C 760°C 至
to 1,200°C
c2 2.3622373598E-02 1.8558770032E-02
c 0.0000000000E+00 –1.7600413686E+01
c0 3 –3.2858906784E-04 –9.9457592874E-05
cc41 3.9450128025E+01 3.1840945719E-07 3.8921204975E+01
–4.9904828777E-06
cc52 2.3622373598E-02 –5.6072844889E-10 1.8558770032E-02
–6.7509059173E-08
cc6 –5.7410327428E-10
–3.2858906784E-04 5.6075059059E-13 –9.9457592874E-05
3
c7 –3.1088872894E-12 –3.2020720003E-16
c4 –4.9904828777E-06 3.1840945719E-07
c8 –1.0451609365E-14 9.7151147152E-20
c –6.7509059173E-08 –5.6072844889E-10
c9 5 –1.9889266878E-17 –1.2104721275E-23
cc
106
–5.7410327428E-10
–1.6322697486E-20 -- 5.6075059059E-13
αc07 –3.1088872894E-12
-- 1.1859760000E+02 –3.2020720003E-16
αc1 --
–1.0451609365E-14–1.1834320000E-04 9.7151147152E-20
8
c9 –1.9889266878E-17 –1.2104721275E-23
c10 –1.6322697486E-20 —
α0 — 1.1859760000E+02
α1 — –1.1834320000E-04
德州仪器 Analog
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78
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Sensor
将电压转换为温度的 K型热电偶
Type K thermocouples （ITS-90标准）
translating voltage to temperature
(ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
� � � �� V� �� (106) Temperature (101) Temperature

��
Table 27: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients

表 28：
Table K型热电偶电压到温度转换系数
28: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
–219°C to 0°C 0°C to 760°C 760°C to 1,200°C
–219°C 至
to 0°C 0°C 至
to 760°C 760°C 至
to 1,200°C
c0 0.0000000E+00 0.0000000E+00 –1.3180580E+02
c0 0.0000000E+00 0.0000000E+00 –1.3180580E+02
c1 2.5173462E-02 2.5083550E-02 4.8302220E-02
c1 2.5173462E-02 2.5083550E-02 4.8302220E-02
c2 –1.1662878E-06 7.8601060E-08 –1.6460310E-06
c2c3 –1.1662878E-06
–1.0833638E-09
7.8601060E-08
–2.5031310E-10
–1.6460310E-06
5.4647310E-11
c3c4 –1.0833638E-09
–8.9773540E-13 –2.5031310E-10
8.3152700E-14 5.4647310E-11
–9.6507150E-16
c4c5 –8.9773540E-13
–3.7342377E-16 8.3152700E-14
–1.2280340E-17 –9.6507150E-16
8.8021930E-21
c5c6 –8.6632643E-20
–3.7342377E-16 9.8040360E-22
–1.2280340E-17 –3.1108100E-26
8.8021930E-21
c6c7 –1.0450598E-23
–8.6632643E-20 –4.4130300E-26
9.8040360E-22 --
–3.1108100E-26
c7c8 –5.1920577E-28
–1.0450598E-23 1.0577340E-30
–4.4130300E-26 — --
c9 -- –1.0527550E-35 --
c8 –5.1920577E-28 1.0577340E-30 —
c9 — –1.0527550E-35 —
Texas
Sensor
Table
表2929:：Seebeck coefficients for different material
不同材料的塞贝克系数
材料 Seebeck
塞贝克系数材料 Seebeck
塞贝克系数材料 Seebeck
塞贝克系数
Material coefficient Material coefficient Material coefficient
铝 4 金 6.5 铑 6
Aluminum 4 Gold 6.5 Rhodium 6
锑 47 铁 19 硒 900
Antimony 47 Iron 19 Selenium 900
铋 -72 铅 4 硅 440
Bismuth –72 Lead 4 Silicon 440
镉
Cadmium 7.5
7.5
水银
Mercury 0.6
0.6
银
Silver 6.5
6.5
碳
Carbon 33 镍铬铁合金
Nichrome 25
25 钠
Sodium -2.0
–2.0
铜镍合金
Constantan -35
–35 镍
Nickel -15
–15 钽
Tantalum 4.5
4.5
铜
Copper 6.5
6.5 铂
Platinum 00 碲
Tellurium 500
500
Germanium
锗 300
300 Potassium
钾 -9.0
–9.0 Tungsten
钨 7.5
7.5
Note:
注释 Units
：单位均为are μV/°C .
V/℃。All data at temperature
所有数据均在 0℃下测得of 0°C 。
德州仪器 Analog
(TI) Engineer's
A/D Conversion A/D
ti.com/precisionlabs 转换
二进制 /十六进制换算 •
A/D和D/A 转换函数 •
量化误差 •
信噪比 (SNR) •
信噪比和失真 (SINAD) •
总谐波失真 (THD) •
有效位数 (ENOB) •
无噪声分辨率与有效分辨率 •
conversion
A/D
A/D 转换
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A/D转换
A/D Conversion ti .com.cn/precisionlabs
Numbering
计数系统：二进制、 systems: Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal
十进制和十六进制
Numbering systems: Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

Numbering systems: Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal
Binary
二进制（基数 -2）
(Base-2) 0 1
Decimal
十进制（基数(Base-10)
-10） 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hexadecimal
十六进制（基数 (Base-16)
-16） 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341

MSD = Most significant digit
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341
换算示例：
二进制转换为十进制
Example conversion:
Example conversion: Binary todecimal
Binary to decimal
MSD = Most significant digit

Example conversion: Binary to decimal
Binary
二进制 Decimal
十进制
Binary Decimal
=
=
LSD LSD
8 + 4 + 0 + 1
8 + 4 + 0 + 1
Example conversion: Decimal to binary
Example conversion:
Example
换算示例： conversion:
十进制转换为二进制 Decimal
Decimalto binary
to binary
Decimal Binary
Decimal
十进制 Binary
二进制
LSD
=
=
LSD
128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 = 236
MSD 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 = 236
A/D conversion
传感器
LSD＝
LSD = 最低有效位
Least Significant Digit
MSD = 最高有效位
Most Significant Digit
MSD＝
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传感器
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Example
换算示例： conversion:
二进制转 Binary
[转换为
Example to hexadecimal
]十六进制
conversion: Binary to hexadecimal
Binary
二进制
Example conversion: Binary

MSD to hexadecimal LSD
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
Hexadecimal
十六进制换算
Conversion
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
8 + 4 + 1 = 13 (D) 8 8++14=+91 = 13 (D) 8+1=9
161 160
161 160
Hexadecimal
十六进制
D 9
D 9 MSD LSD
MSD 208 + 9 = 217
208 + 9 = 217
Example
换算示例： Conversion:
十六进制转[转换为 Hexadecimal
]十进制以及 to decimal
十进制转and
Example Conversion: decimal totohexadecimal
Hexadecimal
[转换为 ]十六进制 binary
十进制（基数
Decimal -10） 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(Base-10)
十六进制（基数
Hexadecimal -16） 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
(Base-16)
Hexadecimal
十六进制 Decimal
十进制
x16 3 x16 2 x16 1 x16 0 16 9903 R = 15 (F)

LSD
16 618 R = 10 (A)
=
2 6 A F 16 38 R = 6 (6)
16 38 R = 2 (2)
MSD LSD
LSD MSD
2(4096) + 6(256) + 10(16) + 16(1) = 9903
LSD＝
LSD = 最低有效位
Least Significant Digit
MSD = 最高有效位
Most Significant Digit83
MSD＝
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A/D转换
Conversion ti .com.cn/precisionlabs
A/D Converter
具有PGA 的A/D转换器with PGA
5V
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
数字
0至
to 2.5V x2 12位bits
12 ADC I/O
ADC
处于 0至5Vin电
0 to 5V
压范围内的
ADC
图51
Figure ：单极性输入
51: ADC
ADC full-scale 满量程范围
range (FSR)]
(FSR) unipolar
单极性输入ADC满量程范围(FSR)]
Full Scale Range (FSR) Unipolar
VREF
FSR =
PGA
FSR
1LSB =
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above .
针对以上电路的计算示例。
VREF 5V
FSR = = = 2.5V
PGA 2
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35µV
2n 212
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德州仪器 Analog
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传感器
A/D Converter
具有PGA 的A/D转换器with PGA
2.5V
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
数字
0至
to ±1.25V x2 12位
bits
ADC I/O
处于ADC
0至5Vin电
0压范围内的
to ± 2.5V
ADC
52 52: ADC full-scale

图
Figure
：双极性输入 ADC range (FSR)(FSR)]
满量程范围
Bipolar
ADC满量程范围
Full Scale Range
双极性输入 (FSR)
(FSR) Bipolar
VREF
FSR =
PGA
FSR
1LSB =
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above .

针对以上电路的计算示例。
±VREF ±2.5V
FSR = = = ±1.25V ⇒ 2.5V
PGA 2
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35µV
2n 212
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Texas Instruments
A/D转换
Table
表30： 30: Different data formats
不同的数据格式
Code
编码 Straight
标准二进制 binary Offset binary
偏移二进制 2’s complement
二进制补码
Binary
二进制 Decimal
十进制值 value Decimal value
十进制值 Decimal value
十进制值
11111111 255
255 127127 -1 –1
Table 29: Different data formats
11000000
11000000
Code
192
192Straight binary 64 64 binary
Offset – 64
–64
2’s complement
Binary
10000000
10000000 128Decimal value
128 Decimal
0 0 value Decimal
–128 value
–128
Table 29: Different data formats
11111111 255 127 –1
01111111
01111111 127
127 –1 –1 127 127
11000000
Code 192
Straight binary Offset 64
binary –64
2’s complement
01000000
01000000
10000000
Binary 64Decimal
64 128value –64–640value
Decimal 64
–128
Decimal 64
value
01111111
11111111
00000000 127
255 –1
127 127 0
–1
00000000 00 –128–128 0
01000000
11000000 64
192 –64
64 64
–64
00000000
10000000 1280 –128
0 –1280
01111111 127 –1 127
Converting two’s complement to decimal:
01000000 64 –64 64
Negative number example
将二进制补码换算为十进制数：
00000000 0 以负数为例 –128 0
SIGN x4 x2 x1
Step
步骤 1: 1：
Check sign bit
检查符号位
This case is negative
这一情况下为负 1 x40
SIGN 1 x11
x2
MSD LSD
Step 1: Check sign bit
This case is negative 1 0 1 1
Step
步骤2： 2: Invert
将所有位反转 all bits 0 1 0 0
MSD
Step 2: Invert all bits 0 1 0 0

Step步骤
3: Add 1
3：+1 0 1 0 1
Step 3result
最终结果
Final : Add 1 0–(4+1) =
1 0 –51
Final result –(4+1) = –5
Positive number example
Converting two’s complement to 以正数为例
将二进制补码换算为十进制数： decimal:
Positive number example
Positive number exampleSIGN x4 x2 x1
Just add bit weights 0 x41

SIGN 0 x11
x2
MSD
只需将每一位的权重相加
Just add bit weights
Final result
0 4+1 = 5
1 0 1
MSD LSD
Final result
最终结果 4+1 = 5
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(TI) Engineer's
84
传感器
表31：
Table LSB
31: 电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
LSB voltage vs . resolution and reference voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
FSR（满量程范围）
1.024V 1.25V 2.048V 2.5V
8 4 mV 4.88 mV 8 mV 9.76 mV
10 1 mV 1.22 mV 2 mV 2.44 mV
12 250 µV 305 µV 500 µV 610 µV
14 52.5 µV 76.3 µV 125 µV 152.5 µV
Resolution
分辨率
16 15.6 µV 19.1 µV 31.2 µV 38.14 µV

18 3.91 µV 4.77 µV 7.81 µV 9.53 µV
20 0.98 µV 1.19 µV 1.95 µV 2.384 µV
22 244 nV 299 nV 488 nV 596 nV
24 61 nV 74.5 nV 122 nV 149 nV
表32：
Table LSB
32: 电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
LSB voltage vs . resolution and reference voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
FSR（满量程范围）
3V 3.3V 4.096V 5V
8 11.7 mV 12.9 mV 16 mV 19.5 mV
10 2.93 mV 3.222 mV 4 mV 4.882 mV
12 732 µV 806 µV 1 mV 1.221 mV
14 183 µV 201 µV 250 µV 305 µV
Resolution
分辨率
16 45.77 µV 50.35 µV 62.5 µV 76.29 µV

18 11.44 µV 12.58 µV 15.6 µV 19.07 µV
20 2.861 µV 3.147 µV 3.91 µV 4.768 µV
22 715 nV 787 nV 976 nV 1.192 µV
24 179 nV 196 nV 244 nV 298 nV
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A/D转换
DAC definitions
DAC定义
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
Resolution
Codes===n2n
分辨率 n
The The number
用来量化输出的位数
number of bits used
of input codetocombinations
quantify the output
n
Number of Codes
编码数量 n =2
= 2voltage = V The number
输入编码组合数量 of input code combinations
Reference Sets the LSB voltage or current size and
Full-Scale Range output = FSRREF Sets the converter output range and the LSB voltage
满量程输出范围 n = FSR rangestep size of eachLSB
设定转换器输出范围和
converter 电压
LSB = FSR / 2 The voltage LSB
LSB
LSB = =FSR
Full-scale V / 22
output
n n
REF / voltage = (2n – 1) • 1LSB 每个
The output LSB 的电压步进大小
voltage
Full-scale or current
output voltage of thestep
DAC size of each
Full-scale input code==(2
满量程输出电压 2nn -1)
– 11LSB codeDAC 的满量程输出电压
Largest code that can be written
n n
Transfer Function:
Full-scale
满量程输入编码 code Vout
==2=2nNumber
-1– 1 of Codes • (FSR/2
The ) largest
Relationship
可被写入的最大编码code between output
that can bevoltage
writtenand input code
Full-scale
转换函数 voltage
：Vout = 编码数量 – 1LSBn)
= VREF (FSR/2 Full-scale output voltage of the DAC
输出电压与输入编码之间的关系
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
FSR = 5V
Full-scale
满量程电压＝4.98V
voltage = 4.98V
Output voltage (V)
Resolution
分辨率
1LSB = 19mV Full-scale
满量程
code
编码 = 255
编码
Resolution
分辨率＝8位
= 8bits
Number编码数量
of codes = 2n
Figure
Figure 51: DAC transfer 53: DAC
function transfer
图53 function
：DAC转换函数
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ADC definitions
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
31：
DAC
ADC
表 LSBn 电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
definitions
定义
Codes = 2 The number of input code combinations
Reference
Resolution
分辨率 = =n nvoltage = VREF Sets the LSB
The voltage
number
用来量化输入的位数 of bitsorused
current sizethe
to quantify and
input
Number of Codes n=2
n converter The range
number of output code combinations
编码数量 =2 n 输出编码组合数量
Full-Scale
LSB = VRange
REF / (2input = FSR
– 1) The voltageSets the converter
step size of input rangecode.
each and the LSB voltage
Note that
满量程范围输入 = FSR 设定转换器输入范围和 n LSB
电压
LSB = FSR / 2n some The voltage step
topologies may size
use of 2
eachasLSB
opposed to
LSB = FSR
Full-scale input/ 2voltage
n
= (2n – 1) • 1LSB 2n – 1 每个 LSB的电压步进大小
inFull-scale input voltage of the ADC
the denominator.
n
Full-scale output code
满量程输入电压 = =
n 2
(2n
-1)–1LSB
1 DAC
Largest code that can be read
的满量程输入电压
Full-scale code = 2 – 1 The largest code that can be written.
n
Transfer Function: Number
满量程输出编码 == 2nV-1 of Codes = Vin / (FSR/2 ) 可被读取的最大编码
Relationship between input voltage and output code
Full-scale voltage REF Full-scale output voltage of the DAC. Note that
转换函数：编码数量 = Vin/(FSR/2 ) the full-scale n 输入电压与输出编码之间的关系
voltage will differ if the alternative
definition for resolution is used.
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
满量程
Full-scale
编码＝255
code=255
编码数量
分辨率＝8位
Input voltage (V)
输入电压（V）
分辨率＝19mW 满量程电压＝4.98V Full-scale
满量程范围
Range
FSR＝5V
FSR = 5V
Figure
Figure 52: ADC transfer 54:
图 54ADC
function transfer
：ADC 转换函数 function
87
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A/D转换
Quantization
ADC的量化误差error of ADC
Quantization error of ADC
Quantization
量化误差 error
Figure 53: Quantization
图55error
：一个 of A/D
an A/D converter
转换器的量化误差
Figure 55: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Quantization error
The error introduced as a result of the quantization process. The amount of this error
is a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization error of an A/D
Quantization
图一个A/Diserror
55：converter 转换器的量化误差
½ LSB. The quantization error signal the difference between the actual
The error introduced
此误差由量化过程引入and
voltage applied as
theaADC
result of the
output quantization
(Figure 53). The rmsprocess .
of the The 转换器的量化
amount
quantization signal of
is
。这个误差的数量是转换器分辨率的函数。一个 A/D
this error
1LSB is
⁄ a function of the resolution of the converter . The quantization
√12
误差为1/2LSB。量化误差信号是实际施加的电压与ADC 输出之间的差异（如图55所示）。
error of an A/D converter is ½ LSB . The quantization error signal is the
量化信号的rms为。
difference between the actual voltage applied and the ADC output
(Figure 55) . The rms of the quantization signal is 1LSB ⁄√12
88
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表 31：LSB电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
只与量化噪声相关的信噪比
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
(SNR) from quantization
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) from quantization noise only noise only
FSR/2 1LSB � 2��

MaxRMSSignal � � (102)
(107)
√2 √2
1LSB
RMSNoise � from quantization only (103)
(108)
√12
MaxRMSSignal 1LSB � 2�� /√2

SNR � � � 2�� √6 (109)
(104)
RMSNoise 1LSB⁄√12
√6
SNR�dB� � 2�log�SNR� � �2� log�2��N � 2�log � � (110)
(105)
2
SNR�dB� � 6��2N � 1��6 (106)

(111)
Where
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
Where
在这里 n
1LSB = the voltage of 1LSB, VREF/2
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
N ==
FSR the
A/Dresolution
转换器的满量程范围 of the A/D converter
MaxRMSSignal
1LSB
1LSB = the
= 1LSB = the
voltage
的电压 of rms/2equivalent
，V1LSB, n V
REF/2 of the ADC’s full-scale input
n
REF
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
NSNR
= the
= resolution
A/D the ratio ofofrms
转换器的分辨率 thesignal
A/D converter
to rms noise
MaxRMSSignal == the
MaxRMSSignal ADC 满量程输入信号的
rms rms
equivalent of the 等效值
ADC’s full-scale input
RMSNoise = 量化噪声的rms等效值
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
Example
SNR = 输入信号的rms值与量化噪声的rms值之比
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
What is the SNR for an 8-bit A/D converter with 5V reference, assuming only
quantization noise?
Answer
Example
示例
SNR �is2��
What the√6 � 2� ��
SNR for√6an具有
�8-bit
314 A/D converter with 5V reference,
假定只有量化噪声， 5V 电压基准的 8 位 ADC 的
assuming only quantization noise?
SNR 是多少
SNR�dB� � 2�log�314� � 4�� dB
Answer
答案
SNR = 2N-1
SNR�dB� √6 = 28-1
� 6��2�8� � 1��6
√6 =�314
4�� dB
SNR(dB) = 20log(314) = 49 .9 dB
SNR(dB) = 6 .02(8) + 1 .76 = 49 .9 dB
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Total harmonic
ADC的量化误差distortion (Vrms)
Total harmonic distortion (Vrms)
RMSDistortion V V V V (112)
% • 100 • 100 (107)
MaxRMSSignal V
RMSDistortion (113)
THD dB (108)
MaxRMSSignal
Total harmonic distortion (Vrms)
Where RMSDistortion V V V V
THD = total harmonic % distortion, the• 100
ratio of the rmsVdistortion to the • 100rms(107)
signal
在这里
Where MaxRMSSignal
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
THD
THD == 总谐波失真
total harmonic
MaxRMSSignal =，the distortion,
rmsrms
失真与 value
rmsthe ratio
of信号的比
the
RMSDistortion of the
input rms distortion to the rms signal
signal
THD dB (108)
V1 = the fundamental,
RMSDistortion
RMSDistortion = the rms
所有谐波分量的generally
sum of the
rms
all input
MaxRMSSignal总和 signal
harmonic components
V2, V3, V4, …Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
MaxRMSSignal
MaxRMSSignal =
Where= 输入信号的
the rms valuermsof值the input signal
V1 = 基波，通常为输入信号 THD = total harmonic distortion, the ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
V1 = the fundamental,
RMSDistortiongenerally
= the rmsthe
suminput signal components
of all harmonic
V2, V 3, V4, …Vn = 基波的谐波 = the rms value of the input signal
MaxRMSSignal
V2, V3, V4, …V = harmonics of the fundamental
V n= the fundamental, generally the input signal
1
V2, V3, V4, …Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
振幅（Vrms）
频率（Hz）
Figure 56: Fundamental and harmonics in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental 56：
图and 以Vrms 为单位的基波和谐波
harmonics in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental and harmonics in Vrms
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表 31：LSB
Total
总谐波失真 (dBc) distortion (dBc)
harmonic
电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
Total harmonic distortion (dBc)
Total harmonic distortion (dBc)
ୈమ ୈయ ୈర ୈ౤
ൌ ͳͲ ൤ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൨
THD(dBc) (114) (109)
ୈమ ୈయ ୈర ୈ౤
ൌ ͳͲ ൤ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൅‫ڮ‬൅ ͳͲቀ ଵ଴ ቁ ൨ (109)
Where
Where
在这里 THDWhere
= total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
THD
THDD == total
总谐波失真harmonic，波分量的distortion .
rmsThe值与信号的ratio of rms
the rms distortion
值之比 to the rms to signal
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. This
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rmsisdistortion
normalizedto the 0rms
dBc
signal
D
D11=
D
=the
基波,
2 DD , D , …D
fundamental,
3，通常为输入信号 = harmonics
generally of the fundamental
the input signal . 0dBc
。这个基波被标准化为 measured
This isThis relative
normalized to
to 0 dBc the
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. is normalized to 0 dBc
4 n
fundamental
D2, D…Dn
3, D4,=
…D n = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to the
D2,
D D3, D4, 相对于基波测得的基波的谐波
2, D3, D4, …Dn = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to
fundamental
the fundamental
振幅（Vrms）
频率（Hz）
Figure Figure 57:

55: 55:
Fundamental
图57 Fundamental
and
： andin
harmonics
dBc
以and harmonics
为单位的基波和谐波 dBc in dBc
Figure Fundamental harmonics in dBc
Example
Example
Determine THDTHD
Determine for the example
for the above.
example above.
Example
示例
Answer
Answer
确定上面示例中的
Determine THD。
THD for the example above .
ିଽଶ ିଽଶ ି଻ହ ି଻ହ ିଽହିଽହ ିଵଵ଴
ିଵଵ଴
ቀ ቁ ቀ ቀ ቁ ቀ ቁ ቀ ଵ଴
ቁ ቁ

ൌ ͳͲ ൤ͳͲቀ൤ͳͲ
ൌ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ቁ ଵ଴
൅ ͳͲ ଵ଴ ቁଵ଴
൅ ͳͲ ൅ ͳͲ൅ ቀͳͲ
ଵ଴ ቁଵ଴൅ ‫ڮ‬൅൅
‫Ͳͳ ڮ‬ ቀ ଵ଴
൅ ͳͲ ൨ ൨
答案
Answer
) -75
) -95
) -110
)
-92
) ) ) )
10 10

ൌ=
THD(dBc) ൌ െ͹ͶǤ͹͸10
െ͹ͶǤ͹͸
10 log 10 +10
10
+10 + . . . +10
THD(dBc) = -74 .76 dB
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A/D转换
Ac
AC signals
信号
Ac signals
Signal-to-noise(SINAD)
信噪比和失真 and distortion
以及有效位数(SINAD) and effective number of bits (ENOB)
(ENOB)
MaxRMSSignal
SINAD�dB� � 20 log � � (110)
(115)
√RMSNoise� � RMSDis�or�ion�
��
SINAD�dB� � �20log ��10 (116)
� � � �
�� 10 �� (111)
SINAD�dB� � 1.76dB (117)

�N�B � (112)
6.02
Where
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADC’s full-scale input
Where
在这里
RMSNoise = the=
MaxRMSSignal
MaxRMSSignal =rms
the noise
ADC rms integrated
equivalent
满量程输入的 ofacross
rms the
等效值 the A/D
ADC’s converters
full-scale input
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
RMSNoise
RMSNoise the
ratiorms
= A/D
SINAD = the noise
转换器中的噪声的
of the integrated
full-scale rmsacross
等效值the A/D
signal-to-noise ratioconverters
and distortion
THD = total harmonic
RMSDistortion
RMSDistortion = the distortion.
所有谐波分量的
rms sum of The
rms
all ratio of the
总和
harmonic rms distortion to the rms signal.
components
SNR = =the
SINAD ratio of rms signal to rms noise
满量程信噪比与失真的比
SINAD = the ratio of the full-scale signal-to-noise ratio and distortion
THD = 总谐波失真。谐波分量的rms值与信号的rms值之比。
THD = total harmonic distortion . The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal .
SNR = 输入信号的rms值与量化噪声的rms值之比
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
Example
Calculate the SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Example
示例
RMSDistortion
Calculate the = 50 µVrms
SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following
根据以下指定信息计算
RMSNoise = 100 µVrms
information: SNR，THD，SINAD 和 ENOB：
MaxRMSSignal= =
MaxRMSSignal 1.76Vrms
1 .76 Vrms
Answer
RMSDistortion ==
5050µVrms
μVrms
RMSDistortion
RMSNoise = 100 1.76 Vrms
μVrms
RMSNoise = 100µVrms
SNR�dB� � 20 log � � � ��.� dB
100 μVrms
Answer
答案
50 μVrms
1.76 Vrms
THD�dB�
SNR dB � 20 log � � � � �0.� dB
1.76 Vrms
1.76V rms
SINAD�dB�
THD dB � 20 log � � � ��.� dB
��100 μVrms� � � �50 μVrms��
1.76 Vrms
��.�1.76V
� rms�
�� .� ��
SINAD dB � �20 log ��10�
SINAD�dB� �� 10 ��
�
� ��.� dB
��.�dB � 1.76dB
�N�B
SINAD�dB � 1�.65
10
6.02
6.02
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Dc
表 31 ：LSB电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
signals
总谐波失真
Dc signals (dBc)
Noise free resolution and effective resolution

无噪声分辨率与有效分辨率
2�
Noise�ree�eso��tion � �o� � � � (118)(113)
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB
2�
��e�ti�e�eso��tion � �o� � �
rmsNoiseinLSB
� (119)(114)
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB � 6.6 � rmsNoiseinLSB (120)(115)
��e�ti�e�eso��tion � Noise�ree�eso��tion � 2.7 (121)(116)
Note: The maximum effective resolution is never greater than the ADC resolution.
For
注释example,
Note:：The a 24-biteffective
maximum
最大有效分辨率永远不会大于 converter cannot
ADChave
resolution is分辨率an effective
never。greater
例如，一个 resolution
than24
the greater
ADC than
resolution .
位转换器的有效分
For
24 example, a 24-bit
bits.
辨率不可能大于 24位。converter cannot have an effective resolution greater
than 24 bits .
Example
Example
示例
What is the noise-free resolution and effective resolution for a 24-bit converter
What is the
assuming the noise-free
peak-to-peakresolution
noise那么is 7 and effective resolution for a
LSBs?
假定峰峰值噪声为 7LSB， 24 位转换器的无噪声分辨
24-bit converter assuming the peak-to-peak noise is 7 LSBs?
率和有效分辨率分别是多少
Answer ？
Answer 2��
答案
Noise�ree�eso��tion � �o� � � � � 2�.2
72
7
2��
��e�ti�e�eso��tion � �o� � � � � 2�.�
7
2
6.6
7
6.6
��e�ti�e�eso��tion � 2�.2 � 2.7 � 2�.�
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A/D转换
Time 时间常数＝τ＝
Constant RC
R VIN A/D
VIN C
Figure 58:图
Settling
58：与A/Dtime转换器相关的
for RC circuit-related
RC电路的建立时间to A/D converters
Figure 56: Settling time for RC circuit-related to A/D converters

表3333:
Table ：指定时间后实现的转换精度
Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Table 32: Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Settling time in time
以时间常数为单位的以位数表示的精以时间常数为单位的稳 Settling time in time 以位数表示的精
Settling time
constants (NTC)in
(N Accuracy (N)bits (N)Settling constants
度 in time in (N
(NTC)) Accuracy in bits
TC)
稳定时间定时间度 (N)
time constants Accuracy in time constants Accuracy in
TC
1 )
(N 1.44
bits (NTC) 10 bits 14.43
TC
21 2.89
1.44 10 11 14.43 15.87
32 2.89
4.33 11 12 15.87 17.31
3 4.33 12 17.31
4 5.77 13 18.76
4 5.77 13 18.76
55 7.21 14 14 20.20
7.21 20.20
66 8.66
8.66 15 15 21.64 21.64
77 10.10
10.10 16 16 23.08 23.08
88 11.54
11.54 17 17 24.53 24.53
9 12.98 18 25.97
9 12.98 18 25.97
ൌ ଶ ሺି୒౐ి ሻ (122) (117)
Where
在这里
Where
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
N == the
N time N TC number of bits
个时间常数后 of accuracy
，RC the RC circuit。has settled to after NTC number of
电路已稳定的精度位数
constants.
time constants .
N TC
NTC = =RC 时间常数的数量
the number of RC time constants
NTC = the number of RC time constants
注释：针对FSR步进。针对无PGA前端的单端输入ADC
FSR（满量程范围）= V REF
Note: For a FSR step . For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
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表3134：
Table ：LSB
建立至特定转换精度所需的时间
34: Time电压与分辨率和基准电压之间的关系
required to settle to a specified conversion accuracy
Table in
Accuracy
以位数表示的精 33: Time以时间常数为单位的稳
bits required to settle
Settling time in timeto a specified
Accuracyconversion
以位数表示的精 accuracy
in bits 以时间常数为单位的稳
Settling time in time
度(N)(N)) constants
Settling
定时间 (NinTC)
(N
time TC
度(N)
(N)Settling timeconstants
in
定时间 (N(NTC) )
TC
Accuracy
8 time constants
5.5 Accuracy 17 time constants 11.78
in bits (N) (NTC) in bits (N) (NTC)
9 6.24 18 12.48
8 5.55 17 11.78
10 9 6.93
6.24 18 19 12.48 13.17
11 10 6.93
7.62 19 20 13.17 13.86
11 7.62 20 13.86
12 8.32 21 14.56
12 8.32 21 14.56
13 13 9.01
9.01 22 22 15.25 15.25
14 14 9.70
9.70 23 23 15.94 15.94
15 15 10.40
10.40 24 24 16.64 16.64
16 11.09 25 17.33
16 11.04 25 17.33
N�� (123) (118)
Where
在这里NTC = the number of time constants required to achieve N bits of settling
Where
NNTC
TC==N实现
= the
the number
number
N ofof bitsconstants
time
位稳定所需的时间常数的数量 of accuracy
required to achieve N bits of settling
NN == 精度位数
the number of bits of accuracy
注释：针对FSR步进。针对无PGA前端的单端输入ADC
FSR
Note: （满量程范围
For ）=
a FSR step . V REF
For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
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Analog Engineer’s

德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 7

8 Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments

德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书

10 Texas Texas Instruments

11 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

4色带示例：黄 紫 橙 银表示4、7和3个 0。即，一个47kΩ，10%的电阻器。

Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Practical capacitor model and specifications

14 Texas Texas Instruments

Practical capacitors vs . frequency

Practical capacitors vs. frequency

16 Texas Texas Instruments

Figure 4: Capacitor 22 000 pF

德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书

Figure 5:图Diode and LED pin names

Table 14: LED forward voltage drop by color

18 Texas Texas Instruments

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 19

C (3) Parallel capacitors

V (4) Charge storage

20 Texas Texas Instruments

德州仪器 (TI) 模拟工程师口袋参考书

Figure 7: RC charge curve

Figure 6: RC charge curve

Equation for discharging a capacitor

Figure 8: RC discharge curve

Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave

24 Texas Texas Instruments

τ RMS for a half-wave

V τ Mean for a half-wave

Figure 11: Square wave Figure

Figure 12: Trapezoidal wave

Figure 13: Triangle wave 12:12

26 Texas Texas Instruments

对数数学定义 mathematical definitions

log AB A B (28) Log

ln X (32) Natural log is log

Different notation for scientific

Power Measured (W) (38) Used

A (V/V) A (dB) Table

Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency (from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)

28 Texas Texas Instruments

10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M

32 Texas Texas Instruments

G�� � �������G� � (46) Magnitude

Figure 17: Time to phaseFigure

Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 17.

Basic op amp configurations

Figure 18: Buffer configuration

FigureR18: Buffer configuration

Figure 18: Non-inverting

Figure 19: Non-inverting configuration

Figure 20: Inverting configuration

V� V� V� Transfer function for inver

Transfer function for inver

Basic op amp configurations

Figure 22: Non-inverting summing configuration

R � non-inverting amp with Cf filter

G �11 Gain frequency

Figure 23: Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter

Figure 24: Frequency response for non-inverting

Determine bandwidth using equation 60

4色带示例：黄紫橙银表示4、7和3个 0。即，一个47kΩ，10%的电阻器。

G�� G� � (46) Magnitude

Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for 频率（HZ）

A��_�� β � V�� (76) (75) Loop gain

� � � �� V� �� (103) Temperature (98) Temperature

V� � � �� (99) Thermoelectric

� � � �� V� �� (106) Temperature (101) Temperature

FSR/2 1LSB � 2��

MaxRMSSignal 1LSB � 2�� /√2