Manufacturing Processes

Powder Processing Technology (Powder Metallurgy) (P/M)

Powder metallurgy is a metal-forming process in which mixing the alloy
powder, compacting the mixture in a die and then sintering or heating the
resultant shape in a controlled atmosphere.
 Manufacturing Processes
Powder Processing Technology (Powder Metallurgy) (P/M)
 net-shape manufacturing process
 refractory materials (resistant to decomposition by heat, pressure,
wear; eg. tungsten, molybdenum, alumina, silica, chromite, zirconia)
 complicated shapes with high precision
 ease of automation
 low-cost, high production quantity
 novel compositions
 unique microstructures
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Powder Processing Technology (Powder Metallurgy) (P/M)
Tungsten filament

W: Tm=3422 ᵒC
 Manufacturing Processes
Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Method:
• Make fine metal powders and sort
• Mix powders to get “alloy”
• Iron alloys most common, also Bronze
• Compaction
• Powder is pressed into a “green compact”
• 20,000-100,000psi pressure
• Still very porous, ~70% density SEM images of powders, (a) titanium, (b) Ti6Al4V alloy powders
• May be done cold or warm (higher density)

• Sintering
• Controlled atmosphere: no oxygen
• Heat to 0.7 to 0.9* Tm Net-shape gears are common - save
• Particles bind together machining time
• Part shrinks in size
• Density increases, up to 95%
• Strength ~ Density
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
P/M vs Casting
• Mass produce small steel parts, net-shape Range of particle sizes
• Less waste
• Unusual “alloys”
• Range of densities, porosity (adv. and disadv.)
• Less energy use
• But: Smaller parts and less complexity (2.5D)

Slightly porous
appearance is common
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
• Highly developed method of manufacturing precision metal parts

• Made by mixing elemental or alloy powders then compacting the mixture in a die.

• The resulting shape is sintered in an atmosphere controlled furnace to convert

mechanical bonds into metallurgical bonds.

• Basically a “chip-less” process, P/M uses roughly 97% of the starting material in the
finished part.
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Advantages
• Versatile in numerous industries
• Eliminates or minimizes machining
• Minimizes scrap
• Maintains close dimensional tolerances
• Permits a wide variety of alloy systems
• Facilitates manufacture of complex shapes which would be impractical with other
processes
• Provides excellent part to part repeatability
• Cost Effective
• Energy and environmentally efficient
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Cermet cutting tools
(Ceramic-Metal composite) Cermet cutting inserts for
lathe

Microstructure: ceramic particles

in metal matrix

Cermet-tipped saw blade for

long life
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Porous Metals
Metal filters

Oil-impregnated Porous Bronze Bearings

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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Production of Metal Powders

Powder
Blending Compaction Sintering
production

Finishing
operations
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Conventional powder metallurgy route

Rotation in a double-
cone container
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
P/M Parts manufacturing
Pressing
Atomization Isostatic pressing
Reduction Rolling
Electrolytic deposition Extrusion
Carbonyls Injection moulding Atmosphere vacuum
Mechanical alloying

Additives:
Lubricants

Isostatic pressing Coining

Die Force Forging
Machining
~closer tolerances Heat treating
Work Work Impregnation
~high finish Plating
Die Die
~eliminate draft (taper side)
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Isostatic Pressing
Isostatic pressing is a powder metallurgy (PM) forming process that applies
equal pressure in all directions on a powder compact thus achieving
maximum uniformity of density and microstructure without the
geometrical limitations of uniaxial pressing.

Isostatic pressing is performed "cold" or "hot." Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)

is used to compact green parts at ambient temperatures, while hot isostatic
pressing (HIP) is used to fully consolidate parts at elevated temperatures by
solid-state diffusion. HIP can also be used to eliminate residual porosity
from a sintered PM part.

Note: HIP applies isostatic pressure to materials using gas pressure, while
hot pressing applies only uniaxial pressure.
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Cold Isostatic Pressing
It is a method of compacting powdered materials
into a solid homogeneous mass before machining
or sintering.
Sometimes referred to as hydrostatic pressing.
Cold isostatic pressing has the advantage for
producing parts where the high initial cost of
pressing dies cannot be justified or when very
large or complex compacts are needed. A variety
of powders can be pressed isostatically on a
commercial scale, including metals, ceramics,
plastics, and composites. Pressures required for
compacting range from less than 5,000 psi to
more than 100,000 psi (34.5 to 690 MPa).
Powders are compacted in elastomeric molds in
either a wet or dry bag process.
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Hot Isostatic Pressing
Hot isostatic pressing is a manufacturing process
which utilizes elevated temperature and isostatic
gas pressure to eliminate porosity and increase
density in metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composite materials. This improves the material's
mechanical properties and potentially
workability. Primary applications are the
elimination of microshrinkage in castings, the
consolidation of powders and diffusion bonding,
often referred to as cladding. Hot isostatic
pressing is also used as part of a sintering
(powder metallurgy) process, for pressure-
assisted brazing and for fabrication of metal
matrix composites. Temperature upto 2000 °C
and pressure upto 200MPa.
 Manufacturing Processes
Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Powder production Water Atomization

Atomization of alloy/metal melt

Water Atomization: use water jet
to disintegrate melt into small
droplets that solidify to form
powder. The powders are
irregular shaped (similar to Gas Atomization
reduced powder) but have no
Rotating disc Atomization
internal porosity (unlike sponge
powders fabricated by reduction
process)
Gas Atomization: use inert gas to
disintegrate melt. The powder
has rounded/spherical shape
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Methods of Powder Production
• Chemical reduction: W powder production (Hydrogen reduction)
• Precipitation: Ni, Cu powder production (Cementation - process of extracting the
metals from a solution based on the electrochemical reaction between the cementing
metal and the ion of the precipitated metal.)

Methods of mechanical communication, to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, & (c) hammer milling
 Manufacturing Processes
Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Mechanical alloying

E.g. Ti powder. Milled ductile

powders have often ‘flaky’
morphology
Variant: Mechanical Alloying
used for making ‘alloy Worn away balls due to friction
powders’ by milling various
constituent powders together
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Powder Metallurgy (P/M) Powder characterization

Particle size that would

not pass through mesh Particle size
that would
pass through
mesh

Spherical Rounded Cylindrical Spongy

Acicular Flakey Cubic Aggregated

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Particle size and distribution
 Mess count: 200: Number of openings per linear inch of screen
 Mess is a square shaped….hence, 200x200 openings per square inch
 Hence larger the number smaller is the particle size.
 Particle or powder size classification: Size 230 through 200 or simply 200
Means: particle goes through 200 mess but not 230

Particle size that Particle size

would not pass that would pass
through mesh through mesh

PS: particle size (in);

MC: mess count, openings per linear inch
tw: wire thickness of screen mess, (in)
Sieve shaker
*used for separation and size
determination of particles
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Particle shape and structure

Spherical Rounded Cylindrical Spongy

Acicular Flakey Cubic Aggregated

(needle-like crystals)
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Particle surface area
Assuming spherical particle - Relation between Diameter (D), Surface area (A), Volume
(V) and Shape factor (KS) is given by:

D can also be considered as the diameter of the equivalent volume as the non-spherical
particle; in that case KS will be the shape factor for irregular shape
Advantage and disadvantage of Higher (KS) and smaller diameter particle
1. Larger surface area…better density and strength if oxidation is avoided
2. Uniform shrinkage
1. Larger surface area…greater oxidation and agglomeration
2. Difficulty in flow (feeding problem)
*Shape factor: non-dimensional ratio of the lot
perimeter (P) squared, divided by the lot area (A)
 Manufacturing Processes
Few other features of powder
Internal friction: It affects the ability of a powder to flow readily and tightly
Higher angle of repose means higher Internal friction
Packing, density and porosity
True density = True mass/True volume (M/Vm) (cast solid density)
Bulk density: Density of the powder in the loose state after pouring. It includes the
effect of pores between particle (M/volume of loose powder (Vb)
Packing factor: Bulk density/true density
Porosity = Volume of the pores/bulk volume = Vp/Vb
Hence, Porosity + packing factor = 1
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Blending and Mixing
Blending: Intermingling of powders of different shapes with same composition

Mixing: Intermingling of powders with different compositions

Rotating double cone
Rotating drum

Other additions during mixing stage:

Lubricants: Zn stearates or Al stearates

Binders and Anti-agglomerating agent

Screw mixer Blade mixer

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Compaction

Fill position Pressing position Compaction Ejection

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Compaction
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Compaction

Single Action Compaction Double Action Compaction

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Stages of compaction and density of green compact
1. Loose compact after filling
2. Repacking
3. Particle deformation and reduction in pores
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Sintering
A thermal treatment for bonding particles together into a coherent, predominantly solid
structure via mass transport events that occur largely at the atomic level. The bonding
leads to improved strength and lower the system energy.
Variants
1. Solid-State Sintering
2. Liquid Phase Sintering
 Persistent liquid phase sintering
 tungsten heavy alloys (ordnance application as penetrator);
 cemented carbides (cutting tool application)
 Transient liquid phase sintering
 Cu-Sn bronze (oil-impregnated bronze bearings)
 Manufacturing Processes
Sintering

• It is an heat treatment process for attaining strength and density in the green compact

• Sintering - Green compacts are heated in a furnace to a temperature below melting

point (0.7-0.9 Tm)

• Improves the strength of the material

• Proper furnace control is important for optimum properties

 Manufacturing Processes
Sintering

Before sintering: point contact

After sintering: formation of

interparticle bond
Neck: centre to centre
distance between the two
particles (reduces)
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Sintering – Solid state
1. Initial stage: formation of interparticle neck
2. Intermediate stage: transition occurs from open porosity to closed
porosity. Typically, when the overall porosity in the compact is less than
8%, the pores are predominantly closed type
3. Final stage: elimination of closed pores.

• W powder size: 5 μm
• green density: 58% theoretical
• sintering temp.: 1750°C
*Note: despite sintering at such high temperature,
there is still some residual porosity (shown as black
regions)
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Sintering – Solid state
• Effect of sintering time on
densification of monosized,
spherical Cu powder.
• Note that as the sintering time
increases (temperature is constant:
1000°C), porosity gradually
reduces.
• In case the sintering time is kept
the same, similar results can be
achieved by increasing the
sintering temperature
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Sintering
• Particles start forming a bond by diffusion
• Vapor-phase transport – heated very close to melting temperature allows metal atoms
to release to the vapor phase
Mechanical Properties

*P+S: pressed and sintered; HIP: hot isostatically pressed

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Sintering stages
Point Necks Pores Grain
bonding boundary
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS)
Liquid phase sintering is a consolidation technique of powder
compacts containing more than one component at a
temperature above the solidus (highest temperature at which an
alloy is solid) of the components and hence, in the presence of a
liquid. The microstructure change during liquid phase sintering is
fast because of fast material transport through the liquid.

LPS: sintering technique

that uses a liquid phase to
accelerate the interparticle
bonding of the solid phase.

*During rearrangement
densification occurs by
capillary-stresses due to
the presence of liquid
phase
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS)
 Manufacturing Processes
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the process that allows the different particles which are in the
suspended form in water to settle under the gravitational effect. The sedimentation
velocity of particles dispersed in a liquid medium is given by equation:

Where, Vs: sedimentation velocity, µo: viscosity of oil, d: diameter of particle, g:

gravitational acceleration, ρp: density of nanoparticle, ρo: density of oil.
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Non-Wetting System
• Al-40Sn
• 550°C, 1h in N2
*Sn (melt) does not wet Al and hence ‘sweats’ out
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Other processes with powders Powder extrusion

Powder Rolling

Powder Forging
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Spark Plasma Sintering
Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is a pressure-assisted pulsed-
current process in which the powder samples are loaded in an
electrically conducting die and sintered under a uniaxial
pressure.

JH: is the process by which the

passage of an electric current
through a conductor produces
heat.
 Manufacturing Processes
Design Considerations for P/M

• Design principles to consider

 Shape of the compact must be simple and uniform

 Bulk production must be met

 Provision must be made for the ejection of the part

 Wide tolerances should be used whenever possible

 Net metal shaping

 Powder metal part wall thickness and all-in-one manufacturing capabilities

 Manufacturing Processes
Secondary and Finishing Operations
To improve the properties of sintered
P/M products several additional (a)
operations may be used:
Poor Good
 Coining and sizing compaction
operations
 Impact forging cold or hot forging
may be used
• Parts may be impregnated with a Sharp radius Fillet radius (b) (c)
fluid to reduce the porosity
Sharp radius Fillet radius
Hole must
Must be be drilled
machined

Examples of P/M parts, showing poor

designs and good ones. Note that sharp Thread
radii and re entry corners should be avoided Can be must be
and that threads and transverse holes have machined
molded
to be produced separately by additional
machining operations.
 (a) Manufacturing Processes
Poor Good

Sharp radius Fillet radius (b) (c)

Sharp radius Fillet radius

Hole must be
Must be drilled
machined

Thread must be
machined
Can be molded
 Manufacturing Processes
Secondary & Finishing Operations
• Infiltration
Infiltration is the process of filling pores and reducing the porosity of a green or sintered
compact with a liquid metal or alloy having a lower melting point and penetrating the
pore system by means of surface or capillary forces. This process is similar to liquid
phase sintering and the same principles are involved. Metal infiltrates the pores of a
sintered part to produce a stronger part and produces a pore free part.

• Other finishing operations

 Heat treating
 Machining
 Grinding
 Plating
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Process Capabilities
• It is a technique for making parts from high melting point refractory
metals
• High production rates
• Good dimensional control
• Wide range of compositions for obtaining special mechanical and physical
properties
 Manufacturing Processes
Process Capabilities
Limitations
 High cost
 Tooling cost for short production runs
 Limitations on part size and shape
 Mechanical properties of the part
 Strength
 Ductility
 Manufacturing Processes
Few Examples

Connecting Rods Gears

 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Sheet metalworking is a
manufacturing process of
cutting and forming
relatively thin metal sheets,
strips, and coils to create
desired shape sheet metal
parts. It involves reshaping
a metal while it is still in its
solid state.

Fig. Basic sheet metalworking

operations (a) bending, (b) drawing
and (c) shearing
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin sheets of
metal
• Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm (1/4 in)
• Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
• Operations usually performed as cold working
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Cutting: Shearing between two sharp cutting edges (slicing through a piece
of sheet metal)

(1) justbefore the punch (2) Punch begins to push into work, causing
contacts work plastic deformation
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Cutting: Shearing between two sharp cutting edges

(3) punch compresses and penetrates (4) fracture is

initiated at the opposing
into work causing a smooth cut surface cutting edges which separates the sheet
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working – Cutting operations
Shearing - sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges
• Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent
operations
Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece from surrounding stock
• Cut piece is the desired part, called a blank
Punching - sheet metal cutting similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap,
called a slug (create a hole via shearing)
• Remaining stock is the desired part
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Shearing operation
a) side view of the shearing operation
b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade
symbol v indicates motion
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
(a) Blanking and (b) Punching
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
• Other Cutting Operations
Slitting is the process of cutting a sheet metal piece by two opposing
circular blades to length (large rolls of these materials can be cut into
narrower rolls).
Trimming is a relatively simple but important process that is used to
clear up borders of the workpiece from excessive material.
Deburring is used to remove excess material from a workpiece after it
is complete or near-complete. Trimming is done by machinery, while
deburring uses a relatively small hand-sized tool.
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
• Bending Operations is a process by which metal can be deformed when applying
force, which causes it to bend at an angle, which often results in it being in a 'V' or a 'U'
shape. A press brake tool is used to bend sheet metal using a punch and die.

Bend allowance ‘K’ factor is

defined as the ratio between
the neutral metal axis (t) and
material thickness (T). It is used
to calculate sheet elongation.
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
• Drawing operation uses tensile forces to elongate metals. As the material
is drawn/pulled, it stretches and becomes thinner, achieving a desired
shape and thickness.
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
• Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
• Bending of Tube Stock
 Ending of tube stock is more difficult than sheet stock because a tube tends to
collapse and fold when attempts are made to bend it.
 Special flexible mandrels are usually inserted into the tube prior to bending to
support the walls during the operations.

D = outside diameter of tube

R = bend radius;
t = wall thickness
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial products such as
1. Automobiles and trucks
2. Airplanes
3. Railway cars and locomotives
4. Farm and construction equipment
5. Small and large appliances
6. Office furniture
7. Computers and office equipment
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• For large quantities, economical mass production operations are available
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Terminology
1. Punch-and-die
Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing
2. Stamping press
Machine tool that performs most sheet metal operations
3. Stampings
Sheet metal products
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Three Major Categories of Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
Shearing to separate large sheets; or cut part perimeters or make
holes in sheets
2. Bending
Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Deep Drawing
Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-
curved, hollow-shaped parts
• Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then punch pushes
metal into opening
• Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells, automobile body panels
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Stages in Deformation of the Workpiece during Deep Drawing
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Deep Drawing
(a) Drawing of a cupshaped part:
(1) start of operation before punch
contacts work
(2) near end of stroke
(b) Corresponding workpart:
(1) starting blank
(2) drawn part
Drawing ratio (DR) = Db/ Dp; Upper limit: DR ≤ 2.0;
Punch diameter Dp ; Punch corner radius Rp
Die corner radius Rd ; Blank diameter Db
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Clearance in Drawing
• Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
• In other words, clearance = about 10% greater than stock thickness
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Drawing Ratio DR
Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:

where Db = blank D = diameter; and Dp punch diameter

• Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
 Upper limit = 2.0
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Reduction r
• Again, defined for cylindrical shape:

• Value of r should be less than 0.50

 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Thickness-to-Diameter Ratio
Thickness of starting blank divided by blank diameter
Thickness-to-diameter ratio = t/Db
• Desirable for t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%
• As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Other drawing operations:
(1) Start
(2) Finish
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Common defects in drawn parts
a) wrinkling in flange
b) wrinkling in walls
c) tearing
d) earing (waviness in the top edge of a cup drawn from sheet metal)
e) surface scratches
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Other Sheet Metal Forming on Presses
Other sheet metal forming operations performed on conventional presses
• Operations performed with metal tooling
• Operations performed with flexible rubber tooling (rubber block, made of
polyurethane)

Rubber pad forming process, 1:

bottom of the press. 2: lower Sheet metal is pressed between a die and
die. 3: sheet metal. 4: rubber a rubber block
pad. 5: top of the press.
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Guerin Process (rubber pad forming process)
• Low tooling cost
• Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other materials that are easy to shape
• Rubber pad can be used with different form blocks
• Process attractive in small quantity production
 Manufacturing Processes
Sheet Metal Working
Embossing
• Used to create indentations in sheet, such as raised (or indented)
lettering or strengthening ribs

Embossing: (a) cross-section of punch and die configuration during

pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
 Point Defects
• Vacancy atoms (atom is missing from one of the lattice sites)
• Interstitial atoms (atom of the same or of a different type, occupies an interstitial site)
• Substitutional atoms (original atom is replaced by a different type of atom)
 Line Defects
• Dislocation
 Area of Planar Defects
• Grain boundaries
 Porosity
• Volume defect
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Point defects
Vacancies: Vacant atomic sites in a structure

Vacancy

Distortion of
planes

Self-Interstitials: extra atoms positioned between atomic sites

Self-Interstitials

Distortion of
planes
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Types of point defects in solid
• Defects are of paramount importance for the diffusion of ions and atoms in solids

Schottky defect Frenkel defect

• Schottky defect: Vacancy, missing ions moved to the surface (can be cations or anions)
where an equal number of cationic and anionic vacancies are present is called the
Schottky defect.
• Frenkel defect: Vacancy, missing ions on Interstitials positions (cations only), where
some ions are displaced from normal lattice sites to the interstitial sites is called the
Frenkel defect.
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Line defects (Dislocations)
• Dislocations are line defects
• Slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move
• Produce permanent (plastic) deformation
Schematic of Zinc (HCP - hexagonal close packed crystal structure):

(a) before deformation (b) after tensile elongation

 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Imperfections in solids
Burgers vector

Edge dislocation

Corn
shows
edge
dislocation
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Planer defect in solid: Grain boundaries
A grain boundary is an array of dislocations
that line up to form a plan that forms a
boundary between two crystalline regions
(grains) that are misoriented relative to one
another.
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
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Defects in Solids
Mechanical behavior
 Tensile Properties
 Compressive Properties
 Shear Properties
 Bending
 Hardness
 Fatigue
 Creep
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids • These tests measures the depth or area of an
indentation made by an indenter with a specific force
Static properties: Hardness
applied for a specific time.
• Measure of materials resistance to
penetration • Rockwell hardness test schematic showing the
• 2 most common stationary hardness tests indenter creating a permanent indentation on a surface.
 Brinell-stress test
 Rockwell-strain test
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
Static properties: Hardness
 Manufacturing Processes
Defects in Solids
S-N Curve
S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines locus of cycles-to-
failure for given cyclic stress.
• Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also alternating tension-compression.
• Plot stress versus the log (number of cycles to failure), log(Nf).
 Manufacturing Processes
References…
1. A. Ghosh, and A. K. Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Affiliated East-West
Press.
2. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology-Metal Cutting and Machining, Tata
McGraw Hill, Publishing Company.
3. S. Kalpakijain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Pearson
Education India Edition, 2013.