ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Material Technology and Metallurgy involves the study
of engineering materials, their forming processes,
physical properties, and relevant areas of application.
The key areas of applications include:
a) Material Selection: Metallurgical knowledge allows
understanding the properties, strengths, and
weaknesses of different materials, enabling the
selection of compatible materials (both base metal
and filler material) for welding joints.
b) Weldability Assessment: Material technology and
metallurgical concepts helps in understanding the
composition, grain structure, phase changes, and
thermal properties that determine the weldability of
individual materials.
c) Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Control: Material
principles helps in understanding the effect of heat
on the parent materials and controlling the heat
input, minimizing distortion, and preventing
undesirable changes in material properties, such as
softening, embrittlement, or residual stresses.
d) Weld Joint Design: Weld joints configuration,
preparation, and selection of welding processes are
based on material thickness, joint
requirements, and anticipated loads. Metallurgical
knowledge ensures that the joint design maximizes
the strength and integrity of the welded structure.
e) Filler Material Selection: Knowledge of engineering
materials guides the selection of appropriate filler
materials for welding to achieve compatible
engineering properties in the weld
Metallurgical compatibility ensures that the weld
metal has similar characteristics to the base metal.
f) Weld Quality and Defects: The subject enables the
identification and prevention of defects such as
porosity, cracks, inclusions, and improper fusion. By
understanding the metallurgical behavior, welding
parameters can be optimized to minimize defects
and improve the quality of the weld joint.
g) Post-Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT): Post weld
treatments are used to relieve residual stresses,
improve mechanical properties, and control
microstructural changes in the heat affected zones
(HAZ). The appropriate temperature, duration, and
cooling rate in the PWHT are determined based on
metallurgical behaviors.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Major types of materials used mechanical engineering
include metals, ceramics, organics, composites, and
semiconductors; these can be broadly classified as
metals and non-metals.
Metals and Metal Alloys
Elements of Group I, II and II in the Periodic table. They
give up their valent electrons to form metallic bonds.
Defining qualities:
i. Good conductors of electricity and heat,
ii. Mostly are solid at room temperatures
strength
iii. Are relatively malleable and ductile
iv. Lustrous when freshly cut
v. Relatively hard with varying resistance to corrosion.
vi. Can be melted and sintered to form metal alloys.
Chemical Composition
a) Pure Metals: those that consist of one substance
element. Examples: aluminum, copper, and iron. Are
not practical to obtain by conventional material
joint. processing techniques.
b) Alloyed Metals: two or more metals and nonmetals
melted and sintered together to form a new material
with different properties. Examples: steel (iron-
carbon alloy), Duralumin (aluminum-copper alloy),
Brass (copper-zinc alloy), and Bronze (copper-tin
alloy).
Magnetic Properties
a) Ferrous Metals: the ones attracted by magnet. They
contain iron as the principal element composition.
Example: Mild Steels, Medium Carbon Steels, High
Carbon Steels, and Cast Irons.
b) Non-Ferrous Metals: the ones that cannot be
attracted magnet. Have minimal or zero iron
content. Examples: aluminum, tin, copper, nickel,
zinc, magnesium, tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum,
and antimony.
Material Processing Technique
a) Sintered Metals: the ones produced by powder
metallurgy. The constituent elements materials are
grinded, mixed, and compressed at a high
temperature.
b) Clad Metals: are metal pieces of different materials
sandwiched, heated, and rolled together.
Forms of Supply
a) Raw Materials: are semi-finished metal forms, such
as ingots, billets, slabs, or blooms, supplied for
further processing to obtain the desired shapes and
sizes.
b) Bar Stocks: long cylindrical forms with uniform
cross-sections in applications where straight lengths
of metal are required, such as shafts, rods, and
structural components. Can be further processed by
cutting, machining, or shaping to meet specific
requirements.
c) Sheet and Plate: sheets refer to metals with a
thickness of up to 6 mm, while plates are thicker
than 6 mm. They are used in construction,
automotive, aerospace, and fabrication. Can be cut,
bent, welded, and formed into various shapes and
sizes.
d) Tubes and Pipes: hollow cylindrical forms used for
structural applications, fluid transport, heat
exchangers, and instrumentation.
e) Forgings: are produced by heating a metal billet and
shaping it under high pressure using mechanical or
hydraulic presses to achieve superior strengths,
toughness, and resistance to fatigue. Are used where
high performance and reliability are required, such
as aerospace, automotive, and heavy machinery
industries.
f) Castings: are produced by pouring molten metal
into a mold and allowing it to solidify. Are used in
industries like automotive, marine, construction,
and industrial equipment manufacturing.
g) Powder Metallurgy: are produced by compacting
powder metals under high pressure and then
subjected to heat treatment to achieve the desired
properties. Is used to create complex-shaped parts
with controlled porosity. Is suitable for applications
in automotive, aerospace, and medical industries.
NON-METALS
Include semiconductors, organics, composites, and
ceramics.
Organic Materials
Are carbon-based compounds with complex molecular
structures. They are prepared by polymerization (a
chemical reaction in which simple molecules are
combined into long chain three-dimensional
structures).
Can be classified as thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics:
Thermoplastics
Those that melts and softens when heated and reharden
on cooling without significant chemical changes. They
can be remolded several times with minimal impact on
their structural performance. Examples:
Polyethylene (PE): Have high chemical and electrical
resistance. Used to make packaging materials, plastic
bags, plastic bottles, pipes etc.
Polypropylene (PP): Has excellent impact strength,
high stiffness, and high chemical resistance. Used in
making automotive parts, medical devices, toys, and
packaging materials.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): versatile, durable, and cheap.
Used in automotive interior, pipes, cables, flooring, and
window profiles.
Polystyrene (PS): Has excellent thermal and electrical
insulation and light weight properties. Used to make
packaging materials, insulation boards, and disposable
cutleries.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): strong and resistance, and chemical resistance. Are used to
transparent. Used in beverage bottles, food containers, produce rollers, seals, gaskets, and other mechanical
and synthetic fibers. components.

Polyamide (PA) or Nylon: durable thermoplastic with Engineering Properties

high tensile strength, good abrasion resistance, and
1) Are solid at room temperature.
excellent thermal properties. Used in textiles,
2) Poor conductors of electricity
automotive parts, electrical connectors, and mechanical
3) Thermal insulators
gears.
4) Have low specific gravity.
Polyoxymethylene (POM) or Acetal: strong and rigid, 5) Relatively strong
and has low friction properties. It is commonly used in 6) Relatively low modulus of rigidity.
gears, bearings, plumbing fittings, and automotive 7) Resistant to most chemical corrosion reactions
components. 8) Ease of fabrication into desired shape and size

Thermosetting Plastics Advantages

Are those polymers that cannot be remelted once cured a) Versatility: can be engineered to possess a wide
and hardened. The develop crosslink bonds that resist range of properties, which allows them to be
the separation of molecules upon reheating during their customized and tailored for specific applications.
polymerization processes. Examples: b) Biodegradability: naturally breaks down into non-
toxic substances, reducing waste accumulation and
a) Epoxy resins: Have high strength, excellent
the environmental pollution.
adhesion, and chemical resistance. Used as
c) Compatible with Living Systems: are well-tolerated
adhesives, coatings, and matrix in composite
by living organisms, which makes them suitable for
materials for applications in aircrafts, automotive,
biomedical applications. Such as tissue engineering,
and structural reinforcements.
drug delivery systems, and implantable devices.
b) Phenolic resins: Have high heat resistance,
d) Lightweight: used in aerospace and automotive
electrical insulation, and structural properties. Used
industries due to their light weight. They contribute
in the production of electrical insulators, circuit
to fuel efficiency, improved performance, and reduced
boards, brake pads, and friction materials.
energy consumption.
c) Melamine Formaldehyde: Have excellent heat
e) Flexibility: can be engineered to exhibit high
resistance and dimensional stability. Used in
elasticity or bendability, which enables the
electrical connectors, appliance handles, and
integration of materials into complex designs. This
molded parts that require high heat resistance.
makes suitable for manufacturing of flexible
d) Urea Formaldehyde: Offer good heat resistance and
electronics, wearable devices, and medical sensors.
dimensional stability. Used in electrical switches,
f) Cost-Effectiveness: can be produced at a lower cost
handles, knobs, and decorative laminates.
due to readily available raw materials and simple
e) Polyesters: Are used in composite materials for
and less energy intensive processing techniques and
various mechanical applications, such as boat hulls,
equipment.
automotive parts, and construction components.
g) Tunable Properties: allow their properties to be
They offer good mechanical strength, chemical
adjusted or optimized for specific applications. By
resistance, and dimensional stability.
modifying the chemical structure or composition,
f) Silicone: Have excellent heat resistance and
parameters such as conductivity, porosity,
electrical insulation properties. Used in high-
biodegradability, and mechanical strength of
temperature applications such as gaskets, seals, and
processed materials can be adjusted to meet diverse
electrical insulation for motors and transformers.
requirements.
g) Polyurethane (PU): Are primarily thermoplastics,
h) Scalability: can be manufactured on a large scale
but can be formulated into thermosetting material.
using efficient production methods, which is crucial
Have good mechanical properties, abrasion
 for industrial applications. Where mass production is
required to meet market demands.
Limitations
1) Can be attacked by insects and rodents.
2) Are combustible, flammable and have limited-
service temperature due to presence of carbon.
3) Have limited load bearing capacity
4) Are sensitive to moisture. May swell, warp, or
degrade when exposed to water or high humidity
5) Often require complex synthesis or processing
techniques
6) Are sensitive to UV radiation and can be
damaged or discolored when exposed to
sunlight.
7) Have no well-defined properties and are
challenging to predict.
Forms of Supply
1. Pellets/Granules: grains of extruded polymers used
in injection molding, extrusion, and blow molding.
2. Sheets/Films: large thin materials used in making
packaging, protective coverings, laminates, and
insulation.
3. Fibers: long strands and threads, such as polyester,
nylon, or carbon fibers, used in textiles and
composite, manufacturing industries. Fibers can be
woven, knitted, or incorporated into composite
structures to enhance strength and other mechanical
properties.
4. Powders: used in applications where a fine uniform
dispersion is required, such as powder coating,
additives, or inks. Powders can be mixed with other
materials or dissolved in a solvent for further
processing.
5. Liquid Resins: pre-polymerized materials that
require additional processing to achieve the desired
properties. Used in adhesives, coatings, and
composite matrix materials.
6. Preforms: semi-finished products consisting of
fabric layers arranged in a specific orientation, such
as woven fabrics, non-woven mats, or braided
structures. They serve as the starting point for
composite manufacturing processes, such as resin
infusion or compression molding.
7. Masterbatches: concentrated mixtures of additives
or pigments dispersed in a polymer carrier.
Masterbatches are typically added to base polymers
during processing to achieve the desired properties
in the final product.
Ceramics
Are non-metallic solids made of inorganic compounds.
Are fabricated by compacting the powder into shape and
subjecting it to high temperatures.
Example of ceramic materials include:
i. Magnesium Oxide (MgO),
ii. Cadmium Sulfide (CdS),
iii. Silicon Carbide (SiC),
iv. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3),
v. Glass,
vi. Cement,
vii. Garnets (A3B2Si3O 12), A is a divalent cation
(Fe 2+, Ca 2+, Mg 2+) & B is a trivalent cation (Fe
3+, Al 3+, Cr 3+).
viii. Ferrites,
ix. Concrete
Engineering Properties
1) High Hardness: are resistant to wear, abrasion, and
deformation, making them suitable for cutting tools,
bearings, and armor.
2) High Strength and Stiffness: have high elastic
modulus, and can withstand high stresses. Suitable
for structural applications, turbine blades, and
cutting tools.
3) High Temperature Resistance: Have exceptional
thermal stability and can withstand extreme
temperatures with minimal deformation or
degradation. Suitable for high-temperature
environments, such as refractory linings, aerospace,
and heat exchangers.
4) Low Thermal Conductivity: are good insulators of
heat, which makes them valuable in applications
such as furnace linings, thermal barriers, and
insulators for electrical components.
5) Excellent Chemical Resistance: are chemically inert
and resistant to corrosion, making them suitable for
use in aggressive chemical environments, such as
chemical processing factories, semiconductor
manufacturing, and biomedical applications.
6) Electrical Insulation: Ceramics do not conduct
electricity and can withstand high voltages without
electrical breakdown. Suitable for insulators,
electronic substrates, capacitors, and piezoelectric
devices.
7) Brittle Behavior: are prone to fracture under tensile
stress, as they lack the ductility and toughness
typically found in metals.
8) Low Density: have lower densities compared to
metals,
Forms of Supply include
Raw Material Powders: are powders consisting of
ceramic particles with controlled particle size and
distribution.
Ceramic Tiles and Plates: are flat, thin forms of
ceramics materials in standardized sizes or customed
dimensions.
Ceramic Tubes and Pipes: are tubes and pipes are used
in heat exchangers, furnaces, and corrosive chemical
environments where high-temperature resistance and
chemical stability are essential.
Ceramic Rods and Bars: rods and bars that can be
further machined or ground to precise dimensions and
surface finish. Commonly used in tooling, wear
components, and structural applications.
Ceramic Sheets and Blocks: sheets and blocks of
varying sizes, suitable for large, flat ceramic surfaces,
such as electronic substrates, insulators, and structural
components.
Ceramic Components and Parts: finished components
or parts often manufactured through ceramic injection
molding, extrusion, or precision machining. Examples of
ceramic components include seals, bearings, nozzles,
and cutting tools.
Ceramic Coatings: coatings are applied to the surface of
a substrate material to enhance its properties, such as
wear resistance, corrosion resistance, or thermal
insulation. Coating techniques include thermal spraying,
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and physical vapor
deposition (PVD).
Composites
Engineering materials created by combining different
components with distinct properties. Have improved
structural properties that are unique and different from
constituent materials.
Examples:
1. Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP): polymer
matrices (polyester or epoxy resin) reinforced with
glass fibers. Have excellent strength, corrosion
resistance, and relative gravity. Are used in the
construction of boats, automotive parts, pipes, and
storage tanks.
2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC): metal matrices
(aluminum or titanium) reinforced with ceramic,
metallic particles, or metal fibers. They have
improved strength, stiffness, and wear resistance
compared to the base metal. Used in making
aerospace components, automotive brake systems,
and high-performance sporting goods.
3. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC): ceramic
matrices (silicon carbide and alumina) reinforced
with ceramic fibers. Possess high-temperature
resistance, low thermal expansion, and excellent
mechanical properties. Are used in aerospace
engines, gas turbines, and heat-resistant
components.
4. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC): polymer
matrices (epoxy, polyester, or vinyl ester resin)
reinforced with carbon, glass, or aramid fibers.
Have a combination of high strength, low weight,
and corrosion resistance. Are used in aerospace
structures, automotive components, and sporting
equipment.
5. Natural Fiber Composites (NFC): are polymer
matrices reinforce with natural fibers, such as flax,
hemp, or jute. Possess good mechanical strength,
low density, and biodegradability properties. Used
in making automotive interiors, packaging
materials, and construction panels.
6. Other examples include Vinyl coated steels, steel
reinforced concrete, fiber reinforced plastics,
carbon reinforced rubber etc.
Forms of Supply
a) Sheets and Plates: are produced by layering fiber
reinforcements with polymer matrices and
compressing and curing the material. Used in
applications where flat panels or structural
components are required. Examples include
aerospace and automotive industries.
b) Rolls: Rolls that are used for continuous fiber- 4. Germanium (Ge): Initially used in early electronic
reinforced composites, where fibers are devices. Has widely been replaced by silicon, but still
impregnated with a polymer matrix and wound used in solar cells and infrared sensors.
onto a roll. Are easy to handle. 5. Group III-V Compound Semiconductors: Are
c) Prepregs: are composite fiber mats or woven fabric compounds of Group III-V, such as gallium arsenide
sheets that comes pre-impregnated with resin (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), and indium. Are
matrices. Common matrices used: epoxy, polyester, used in high-speed communication devices, solar
and phenolic. They are supplied in rolls or sheets cells, and industrial sensors.
and require additional curing to fully harden the
Other examples include Arsenic (As), Silicon (Si), Boron
matrix. Commonly used in high-performance
(B), Sulphur (S), Selenium (Se).
applications where precise control over fiber/resin
ratio and cure cycle is crucial. Forms of Supply
d) Molded Parts: are finished parts shaped into the
a) Wafers: thin disc-shaped semiconductor substrate
desired form during their manufacturing. Are used
materials supplied in various sizes, such as 150mm,
in consumer goods, automotive parts, and
200mm, or 300mm in diameter. Have specific
industrial equipment.
orientations and surface finishes.
e) Filament and Tape: Refer to continuous fibers
b) Epitaxial Layers: wafer material coated with a layer
bundled together and woven or braided into
of semiconductor material that modifies its electrical
specific patterns. Used in advanced manufacturing
or optical properties. Epitaxial layers can be supplied
processes, like in automated tape laying (ATL) or
separately as thin films or as part of the wafer itself.
automated fiber placement (AFP) to create complex
Are used to create specific regions within
shapes and structures.
semiconductors with different doping concentrations
f) 3D Printing Filaments: Composite filaments
to form transistors, diodes, or other electronic
consisting of reinforcing fibers and polymer
components.
matrices designed for additive manufacturing.
c) Ingots: are large, cylindrical blocks of single-crystal
Semiconductor semiconductor material. Are used as the starting
point for slicing wafers used in most integrated
Are non-metallic elements or compounds that occupy
circuits.
the intermediate position between conductors and
d) Granules or Powders: are small grain
insulators in the periodic table. Are generally hard and
semiconductors used as raw materials for further
brittle and usually resistive to temperature. Have
processing to create thin films or layers on substrates.
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example of industrial processes include chemical
Examples include: vapor deposition (CVD) or sputtering, physical vapor
deposition (PVD), and atomic layer deposition (ALD).
1. Silicon (Si): Has excellent electrical and thermal
e) Thin Films: thin layers of semiconductors that are
conductivity. Is used in the production of power
deposited onto substrates. Used in optoelectronic
transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits (ICs).
applications, photovoltaics, and thin-film transistors
2. Gallium Nitride (GaN): Is a wide-bandgap
(TFTs). Are supplied as pre-made films or deposited
semiconductor with superior performance at high
onto specific substrates.
voltages, high frequencies, and high temperatures.
f) Pre-packaged Devices: are devices like transistors,
Used in power amplifiers, motor drives, and power
diodes, integrated circuits (ICs), and other
converters.
semiconductor components that are fully assembled
3. Silicon Carbide (SiC): Is a wide-bandgap
and ready for use in electronic systems.
semiconductor with excellent thermal conductivity,
high breakdown voltage, and superior performance
at high temperatures. Used in power modules,
inverters, and high-power diodes.
 PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Are characteristic behaviors or qualities of materials
used in engineering applications. They define materials’
performance and their responses to different structural
environments.
Are classified as physical, chemical, thermal, electrical,
optical, and mechanical properties.
Physical Properties
Are those properties that can be observed or measured
without altering the chemical or structural composition
of the materials. Examples include:
Density:
Is the mass of a material per a unit volume:
mass kg
ρ= = 3
volume m
It is measured in Kg/m3.
Color/ Luster:
The quality of light reflected from the surface of a
material. It’s a visual perception, and does not have unit
of measurement. In most practice applications, color
scales such as RGB (Red, Green, Blue) or CIE Lab
(International Commission on Illumination, in French
Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage).
Dimension:
Refers to the size and shape the materials or engineering
parts. Are measured in m or m2.
Specific Gravity/ Relative Density:
The ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to
the mass of the same volume of water at a specified
temperature.
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚 3 to speed up chemical reactions without being consumed
𝐺= =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3
Is a dimensionless number and has no unit.
Porosity
The percentage void spaces in engineering material. It is
defined as the ratio of the volume of the pore space
divided by the total volume of the material.
𝑉𝑣
∅= × 100%
𝑉𝑡
It is a dimensionless number measured as a percentage.
Chemical Properties
Refer to the behavior and reactivity of engineering
materials in different chemical environments. Defines
how materials interact with substances, undergo
chemical reactions, and resist degradation or corrosion.
Examples:
Corrosion Resistance: the property of materials to
resist chemical reactions when exposed to corrosive
substances. Vital for materials used in harsh
environments, such as marine structures or chemical
processing plants.
Reactivity: the property to chemically react with other
substances.
Stability: the ability of materials to maintain their
chemical properties over a long period. Crucial for
materials used in long-term applications or under
varying environmental conditions.
Compatibility: the ability of materials to coexist without
adverse effects on their engineering performance.
Flammability: The susceptibility of a material to ignite
and sustain combustion when exposed to heat or flames.
Critical for materials used in applications where fire
hazards are present.
Toxicity: The potential of a material to release harmful
substances or exhibit poisonous effects on living
organisms. Critical for materials involving human
contact or the environment.
Catalytic Activity: the ability of an engineering material
in the process.
Hygroscopicity: the property of a material to absorb
and retain moisture from the surrounding.
Thermal Properties
Refers to the response of materials to temperature
changes or heat gradients.
Examples:
Melting Point: The transition temperature at which
materials change phases from solid to liquid. Defined by
the nature of inter-atomic and intermolecular bonds. It
is measured in degrees Celsius (OC), degrees Faraday
(OF), or Kelvin.
Thermal Conductivity: ability of materials to transmit
heat energy through conduction. It is defined as the net
heat transferred through a given length of a material per
unit cross-section area per unit temperature gradient:
QL
K= = Wm−1 K −1
A∆T
Thermal Expansion: change in dimensions of materials
with temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) quantifies the rate of expansion or contraction per
unit change in temperature:
∆𝐿
𝛼= = ℃−1
𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
Specific Heat Capacity: amount of heat energy required
to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a material by
one Kelvin. It defines the material's ability to store and
release thermal energy.
Electrical Properties
Electrical conductivity: the rate of electrical current
flow through a material for a defined length and a cross-
section.
L m
ρ= = = Ohm−1 . m−1 = S. m−1
RA Ohm. m2
Resistivity: the property of a material to resist electrical
current flow through it. Is the inverse of conductivity.
RA
ρ= = Ohm. m
L
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance: variation of
electrical resistivity with temperature. It is established
by comparing the resistance of a material at the
reference temperature (20OC) and conduction at
different values:
R ref − R
α=
R ref (T − Tref )
R and Rref are the resistance at any temperature and
reference temperature respectively and T-Tref is the
corresponding change in temperature.
Thermal Diffusivity: the property of a material to
conduct heat to different parts of its body and reach
thermal equilibrium. Measured as the rate of heat
conduction (K) per unit density (ρ) and specific heat
capacity CP:
K
α= = m2 s−1
ρCp
Thermal Shock Resistance: the property of a material
to withstand sudden and extreme variations in
temperature without significant damage or failure. It is
established as a product of thermal expansivity (εT) and
modulus of elasticity of the materials (E):
𝛿𝑇 = 𝐸𝜀𝑇 = 𝐸𝛼∆𝑇
Alpha is the linear thermal expansion coefficient.
Thermal Insulation: the property of a material to resist
thermal conduction and inhibit heat transfer.
Temperature Range: properties of materials to
maintain mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties
in different thermal environments.
Thermoelectricity: the property of cladded dissimilar
metals to develop electrical potential difference when
heated at the junction. It is the basis of the principle of
operation of thermocouples.
Dielectric Strength: ability to withstand high voltage
gradient across the materials without conducting
electricity.
Magnetic Properties
Are defined by the spin or orbital motion of electrons
around the atomic nuclei; a magnetic field is developed
when the electrons spin in one direction. Except for
ferromagnetic material, most materials exhibit magnetic
affects when subjected to an external electro-magnetic
field only.
Hysteresis: induction flux density producing the
magnetizing force. Can also be defined as the
temperature beyond which a material loses its
ferromagnetism.
Coercive Force: the magnetizing force required to
neutralize an electromagnet.
Absolute Permeability: the ratio of the flux density of a Absorptivity: the properties of materials to allow
material to that of its magnetizing force. Paramagnetic electromagnetic radiations of different intensities to
materials possess permeability greater than one pass through them.
whereas di-magnetic materials have permeability less
Transmissivity: the property of material to allow light
than one.
to pass through them.
Optical Properties
Absorption co-efficient: the property of a material that
The impact of light as it passes through engineering measures how far light can go through it before it is
materials. Examples: absorbed. It is defined by the percentage of light
absorbed (A) per unit material thickness (x):
Refraction: the bending of light as it passes through
materials with different optical densities. It is measured ln(1 − A)
α=
as refractive index or index of refraction: x
c Reflectivity: the quantity of light that bounces back
n =
v when come in contact with the material surface.