The document provides information on various sheet metal processes including cutting, forming, bending, drawing, and stretch forming operations. It discusses common tools used in sheet metal work and describes different sheet metal forming techniques like blanking, punching, bending, drawing, roll forming, and stretching. Key sheet metal characteristics and examples of each forming process are also summarized.
The document provides information on various sheet metal processes including cutting, forming, bending, drawing, and stretch forming operations. It discusses common tools used in sheet metal work and describes different sheet metal forming techniques like blanking, punching, bending, drawing, roll forming, and stretching. Key sheet metal characteristics and examples of each forming process are also summarized.
The document provides information on various sheet metal processes including cutting, forming, bending, drawing, and stretch forming operations. It discusses common tools used in sheet metal work and describes different sheet metal forming techniques like blanking, punching, bending, drawing, roll forming, and stretching. Key sheet metal characteristics and examples of each forming process are also summarized.
Introduction The working of metal thickness from 3mm to 5mm with hand tools and simple machines into various forms is known as Sheet metal work. These are formed by cutting,forming and joining processes. Sheet components are less expensive, lighter in weight and easily replaceable. Example: Funnels, bends, boxes, pipes, covers etc. The basic sheet metal hand tools used in sheet metal work are as follows: 1.Measuring tools 2.Staight edge 3.Steel square 4.Scriber 5.Divider 6.Trammel points 7.Punches 8.Chisel 9.Hammers 10.Snips or shears 11.Pliers 12.Stakes 13.Groovers 14.Rivet set 15.Soldering iron Sheet Metal Characteristics 1.Roll forming 2.Stretch forming 3.Drawing 4.Stamping 5.Rubber forming 6.Spinning 7.Super plastic forming 8.Peen forming 9.Explosive forming 10.Magnetic pulse forming 1.Roll forming: Long parts with constant complex cross sections, good surface finish, high production rates, high tooling costs are produced. 2.Stretch forming: Large parts with shallow contours suitable for low-quantity production, high labor costs, tooling and equipment costs depend on part size are produced. 3.Drawing: Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes, high production rates, high tooling and equipment costs are produced. 4.Stamping: It includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging and coining, simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates, tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labour cost is low. 5.Rubber forming: It includes drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes, sheet surface protected by rubber membranes, flexibility of operation, low tooling costs. 6.Spinning: Small or large axisymmetric parts, good surface finish, low tooling costs, but labor costs can be high unless operations are automated. 7.Super plastic forming: Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances, forming times are long, hence production rates are low. So, parts are not suitable for high temperature use. 8.Peen forming: Shallow contours on large sheets, flexibility of operation, equipment costs can be high, process is also used for straightening parts. 9. Explosive forming: Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric, low tooling costs, but high labor cost, suitable for low-quantity production, long cycle times are produced. 10.Magnetic pulse forming: Shallow forming, bulging and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets, most suitable for tubular shapes, high production rates, require special tooling. SHEARING OPERATION: The process of cutting a straight line across a strip, sheet or bar is known as shearing process. The broad classification of sheet metal operations are under the following two categories: (i) Cutting operations (ii) Forming operations CUTTING OPERATIONS: In cutting operations, the workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength and cut- off into two pieces. The common cutting operations are discussed below: (i)Blanking: Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape from the sheet metal. The metal that is punched out is called as “blank” and the metal that is left out is called as “scrap”. (ii) Punching: Punching is the operation to produce circular holes on a sheet metal by a punch and a die. The metal punched out is removed as waste. When removing metal from the metal, if the pierced metal is the final product the operation is called as “Punching” (iii) Piercing: Piercing is an operation to produce holes of any desired shape. Piercing produces a raised hole rather than a cut hole. (iv) Power shearing: This operation is carried out on power shearing machines where in the stock material (plate or sheet metal) is cut between the two cutting blades in the form of dies. The lower cutting blade is fixed and the upper cutting blade is movable and it is set at slight angle to the edge of the stationary blade. (v) Cutting off: In this operation a piece is removed from a strip by cutting along a single line. (vi) Parting: It is the operation through which the metal is cut simultaneously along two parallel lines or contours or any other two lines which can balance each other to neutralize side thrust. (vii) Notching: It is the operation through which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet , strip or blank. (viii) Trimming: It is the operation used for removing excess metal, irregular outlines and waved edges, etc., from the walls of drawn shells or the surfaces of swaged and cast parts. (ix) Shaving: It is also similar to trimming operation but here the amount of metal removal is usually about 10% of the thickness of the blank. (x) Perforating: In this operation, multiple holes which are very small and close together are cut in flat work material. (xi) Slitting: It is the operation of making an unfinished cut through a limited length only. (xii) Lancing: Lancing consists of cutting the sheet metal through a small length and bending this small cut portion downwards. FORMING OPERATIONS (a) Bending: Bending is the operation of forming the metal between a suitably shaped punch and a forming block. The included angle on the tool is usually smaller than that to be produced to allow for the ‘spring back’ of the metal after forming. Spring back is a term which denotes the property of sheet metal to partially fall back from its bent position when the punch retards after completing the operation. (b) Drawing: Drawing operation consists of a punch forcing a sheet metal blank to flow plastically into the clearance available between the punch and die surfaces so as to acquire top shape, a cylindrical shape or a box shape. (c) Squeezing: In squeezing operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die cavity under the action of compressive force. (d) Embossing: It is the process of producing required shapes on sheet metal blanks by means of punches and dies. (e) Nibbling: Nibbling is an operation of cutting any shape sheet metal without special tools. It is done on a nibbling machine. The required shape of profile is connected in the form of tracer or templates in nibbling machine. BENDING OPERATIONS Bending is the operation of forming the metal between a suitably shaped punch and a forming block. The included angle on the tool is usually smaller than that to be produced to allow for the ‘spring back’ of the metal after forming. Spring back is a term which denotes the property of sheet metal to partially fall back from its bent position when the punch retards after completing the operation. The metal is stressed beyond its elastic limit. The line in which there is no change in length is called neutral line. The layers above the neutral line are stressed by tension . But the layers below this neutral line are stressed by compression. Types of Bending operations: 1. Angle Bending: In this case, the metal is bent at an angle to each edge. It is denoted by ‘ϴ’. If ϴ < 90º on side, it is called as single bending. If ϴ = 90º , this is called as vertical or straight bending. If ϴ > 90º but in two places on the same work, it is called as double bending. 2. Roll bending: If the metal is bent in the form of rolled edge at the edges of the work, it is called as roll bending. 3. Roll forming: If the edges are formed to a desired shape or any impression in the form of bend is made on the sheet metal, it is called as roll forming operations. 4.Seaming: The process of providing lock between the two edges of the different work metal is called as seaming. To perform this, the edges of sheet metal to be locked are bent in opposite direction to each other. Then they are inserted with each other and pressed or tightened to make complete lock. 5.Bending edge of a sheet using wiping-die: Wiping die bending, also known as edge bending, is performed by holding the sheet between a pad and die then sliding the wiping flange across the face pushing and bending the sheet metal which protrudes from the pad and die. The flange is driven by an upper shoe and the die is supported by a lower shoe. A spring between the pad and upper shoe grabs the metal before the flange hits it and holds the workpiece down during the bending process. DRAWING OPERATIONS Drawing operation consists of a punch forcing a sheet metal blank to flow plastically into the clearance available between the punch and die surfaces and die surfaces so as to acquire an upshape, a cylindrical shape or a box shape. Types of Drawing operations: 1. Deep drawing 2. Shallow or box drawing 1.Deep drawing: In this case, the length of the part to be drawn is deeper than its width. 2. Shallow or box drawing: In this case , the length of the part to be drawn is lesser than its width. Example: Seamless pots, tubs, cans and covers etc. STRETCH FORMING OPERATIONS Stretching is the process of stressing the work blank beyond its elastic limit by moving a form block towards the blank or sheet metal. The form block has projections of exact size required on the blank which is in the form of depressions on the same blank. Stretching is mainly done for straightening a part to obtain a straight axis and uniform cross- section. During stretching the blank, the spring back occurs after completing the stretching process. Spring back is defined as the movement of the metal to resume its original position causing a decrease in bend angle after the applied force is withdrawn. So, this spring back has to be considered to obtain exact shape and size of the blank after the stretching process. Spring back always depends on material type, thickness of the blank, hardness of the blank and bend radius. Generally large bend radius produces greater spring back on the blank. But, this spring back can be avoided by (i) Over stretching using V-type blocks, and (ii) By coining the metal slightly at the corners of the blank to remove elastic stresses called corner setting. Methods of Stretch Forming: 1. Form-block method: In this method, the two ends of the blank or sheet metal is tightly held by an adjustable gripper. These grippers are fixed but adjustable. Then, the form block is moved towards the blank to make the required shape. In this case, the form-block is operated by hydraulic cylinder. When the form-block moves towards the blank, the hydraulic fluid inside cylinder gets compressed and delivered through the outlet valve. The movement of the form always depends the hydraulic fluid pressure inside cylinder. The fluid is entered the cylinder when the form-block moves away from the blank after completing stretching process. Force exerted on the piston is calculated as F=Π d2 p 4 Where, d= Diameter of the piston p= Hydraulic fluid pressure. Stretching the blank can also be done by fixing the form block stationary and moving the grippers towards the form-block. It is performed by holding the blank ends in movable grippers. 2.Mating-die method: In this method, the blank is held in movable grippers. The blank is placed between the lower and upper die. The lower die is kept stationary and the upper die is movable one which is operated by hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. First, the movable grippers are moved towards the lower die on which only elastic deformation takes place. Next, the upper die is moved towards the blank. When the upper die touches the blank, only elastic change takes place. Due to continuous stretching of the blank by the upper die, plastic flow of sheet metal takes place between lower and upper dies. When the upper die edges reach the top surface of the blank, the stretching process is completed. Materials for die and form block: Wood, Masonite, zinc alloys and cast iron. Advantages: Blanks can be stretched in a single operation. No need of any heat treatments. Spring back is reduced or eliminated. Direct bending is not introduced. Tooling costs are low. More suitable for low volume production. Disadvantages: 1.Blank thickness should be uniform throughout the length. 2. Sudden changes in contour surfaces cannot be stretched. 3. Maintenance cost of hydraulic cylinders is high. 4. The process requires high quality form- blocks. Limitations: 1. Uneven thickness of blank cannot be stretched . 2. Stretching of blank to the required shape of contour is limited. Applications: 1. Production of aircraft wing and fuselage parts. 2. Production of contoured panels for truck trailer and bus bodies in automobile industry. FORMABILITY OF SHEET METAL Generally, the sheet metal is specified in terms of gauge and mechanical properties. The behaviour of sheet metal may be altered in actual working conditions. The reason behind this alteration of its behaviour is mainly material variables and process variables. So, we can simply say the formality of sheet metal is a function of material variables and process variables. Formability = f(f1,f2) Where, f1 = Material variables and f2 = Process variables Material variables are nothing but the basic variables that governing ductility of material. Process variables are applied stress system, interface friction, lubrication at the interface, die-design, production shape etc. A few universal laws exist which govern the material properties or variables. Law 1: Process of fracturing: The ductility of the same material is lower if the section size is larger. Law 2: Law of geometrical similitude: This law is applicable to fabrication of sheet and strip expressed by few statements. 1. Blanks are geometrically similar in all aspects with respect to another blank such as dimension, thickness, width, length etc. These geometrically similar blanks should be fabricated by using similar tools. 2. Unit strains at corresponding locations are identical for geometrically similar blanks. 3. The forces required to form any required shape on geometrically similar blanks are directly proportional to the square of the thickness. 4. The consumption of work for forming the required shape is also proportional to the cube of its thickness for geometrically similar blanks. TEST METHODS 1. Formability tests for bulk deformation. 2. Formability test for elastic-plastic deformation 3. Simulative tests for forming operation 4. Full scale forming tests. 1. Formability Tests for bulk Deformation: Bulk deformation refers the deformation of sheet metal due to both elastic and plastic deformation. Sometimes, the elastic deformation may be ignored. Elastic deformation is always less than 0.2. Plastic deformation This ratio is valid only for forging, extrusion and rolling process. This test includes the following parameters. 1. Stress-strain characteristics under actual working conditions. 2. Process-economic analysis. 3. Full scale experiments. 2.Formability Tests for Elastic-Plastic Deformation: To predict the forming behavior of sheet metal, the following three tests are carried out. 1.Test-methods based on tensile test. 2. Simulative drawing tests, and 3. Full scale forming tests. 1.Test-methods based on tensile test: General metal forming operations are stretching and drawing. Tensile test is carried out seperately for stretching and drawing operations. (i) Tensile test for stretch forming operation: Fracture of sheet metal is predicted by local thinning. At the same time, failure is avoided. The important property of work-hardening is predicted in terms of stress-strain. f = Aԑn Where, f = stress ԑ = Strain A and n are constants. For higher value of n, the strain distribution will be more uniform and possibility to obtain deep pressing. If friction between the blank and tool is high, the critical zone will be restricted. Generally n varies from 0.22 to 0.24. (ii) Tensile test for drawing operations: In this test, the sheet metal is deformed in the lower punch by thinning under bi-axial stresses. Then the average value of sheet metal radius is determined by orienting the axis of the metal flow at 0º at 45º and 90º. Mean value of radius, rm = 1/4 r0 + 2r45+ r90
Higher value of rm indiacates good drawability
which varies from 1.0 to 1.7. 2. Simulative test: This test is conducted in various cup forming operations. They are 1. Erichson test 2. Olsen test 3. Surift test 4. Fukui test (i) Erichsen test: First the standard specimen of 90mm wide is clamped rigidly against a die having 27mm diameter opening. A spherical punch of 20mm diameter is moved against the sheet metal. The movement of the punch continues until the fracture starts. At fracture the bulge forms. The depth of bulge gives Erichsen number. This value is very small in assessing drawability. This test is mainly carried in assessing stretchability of sheet metal. (ii) Olsen test: This test slightly varies from Erichsen test. The size of the standard specimen and rest are taken same as mentioned in Erichsen test. But the die opening size of 50mm daimeter is used. Here, the specimen is clamped lightly. The bulge and fracture are formed due to stretching only when the punch presses the sheet metal. (iii) Swift test: Flat bottom med cups of uniform diameter are formed from a series of metallic sheet blanks. But these metallic blanks are different diameters. This process is continued until a blank size is found which all cups fracture. Then, the limiting drawing ratio is defined as LDR = Blank diameter Punch diameter This test is carried out for assessing drawability. The main disadvantage of this test is edge wrinkling due to lightly clamped blanks. (iv) Fukui test: In this test, both stretchability and drawability can be assessed. Here, both the die and punch are in the form of conical shape. The fixed diameter blank is drawn between die and punch. The holding pressure on blank is gradually increased until the edge wrinkling is completely eliminated. Then the cup depth is measured at maximum load referred as formability index. This index is used to assess both the drawability and stretchability. 3. Full scale forming test: In this test, the forming limit diagram is obtained to describe the different strain conditions and their combinations with load to failure of sheet metal. Usually, the strain distribution is assessed from the surface. But, the magnitude of strain is determined by impregnating the sheet metal with a grid pattern or concentric circle followed by pressing. During pressing of sheet metal, concentric circles are stretched into elliptical shape. Actual strain on the sheet metal is determined as ԑ = (l-d) / d Where, l = Length of major or minor axes d = Corresponding concentric circle diameter Maximum surface strain, ԑ1 = Length of major axis Minimum surface strain, ԑ2 = Length of minor axis. The graph is plotted between major and minor surface strains. In this graph, the left hand side states ԑ2 in –ve which indicates the combined tension and compression of deep drawing operations. The right hand side refers the minor surface strain ԑ2 in +ve which indicates the bi-axial tension of stretching operations. Applications of forming limit diagram: 1.The new set of tools is easy, hard or impossible to work can be easily determined. 2. Good materials used in forming operations are identified. 3. Location of source of trouble is also easy from a reference pressing by the designer. Special forming processes: Generally, forming process is done by pressing the form tool over the blank to obtain the required shape. The form tool is actuated by hydraulic cylinder using hydraulic fluid. In the case of mating die method, sheet metal is placed over the lower die and its ends are fixed on movable grippers. Then, the upper die is moved towards the blank. If the female or upper die is actuated by any other means except hydraulic fluid contained in the cylinder in forming process called special forming process. Example: Explosive forming, metal spinning, hydro forming etc. Types of special forming process: There are various types special forming process as follows: 1. Hydro forming 2. Rubber pad forming 3. Metal spinning 4. Explosive forming 5. Magnetic pulse forming 6. Peen forming 7. Super plastic forming 1. Hydro forming Process: Hydro forming is a drawing process. It is forming process is carried out in two ways. They are (i) Hydro mechanical forming and (ii) Electro hydraulic forming (i) Hydro mechanical forming: In this type of forming process, the punch is connected to the lower die called male die. The required shape of inner configuration is made on the punch. A rubber diaphragm or seal is used for making perfect sealing between the male and female die. This seal is placed across the bottom of the pressure forming chamber. The pressure – forming chamber is filled with a hydraulic fluid. Then, the blank is correctly positioned over male die or lower die. Now, the pressure forming chamber called dome is lowered over the blank in such a way that the dome is made to just contact with the blank. After this, hydraulic pressure is applied over the blank. Simultaneously, the punch is pushed into the blank. The pressure applied by the hydraulic fluid is increased continuously. Due to this, the blank metal flows around the punch to form the required shape. The inverted shape of the punch is made on the blank. (Convex shape of the punch is made as concave shape on the blank and vice versa). After forming the required shape, the chamber pressure is released. Then the chamber is raised from the blank. Finally, the blank is stripped out from the punch. In this case, the required shape of the blank is obtained only by drawing rather than by bending. And also, the blank metal is displaced due to plastic flow instead of stretching. Advantages: Thinning of metal, spot stresses and spring back are drastically reduced or completely eliminated. It is used for mass production because work performed per operation is high. Tool changing can be done rapidly. Complicated contours can also be made. Sharp corners are also possible. All types of sheet metals can be handled. Due to uniform flow metal between punch and pressure chamber, the mechanical and physical properties are improved. Tolerance of 0.005 mm/mm are possible practically. (ii) Electro hydraulic forming process: The working principle of metal forming process is same as that of hydro mechanical forming process. But, the applied pressure over the blank differs because the pressure inside the pressure forming chamber is produced by electrical means. The arrangement of this electro hydraulic forming system is shown in figure. When the supply is given to electrical circuit, a high energy is discharged through a bank of capacitor to the hydraulic fluid contained pin the chamber. The discharged energy in the chamber is in the form of shock waves and pressure. This mechanical energy is used for metal forming operations in the same manner as mentioned in hydro mechanical forming operations. Advantages: The pressure inside the chamber is high due to combined shock wave and fluid pressure. Time required per operation is low when compared to hydro mechanical forming operations. Disadvantages: Energy losses occur between electrical components to hydraulic fluid. Due to shock waves drag force and lift force is created and finally it results stagnation pressure in the fluid. Stagnation properties refer to the properties at zero velocity. 2. Rubber pad forming Process: Rubber pad forming process is also called as mar form process. This process is mainly used for bending and stretching or drawing operations. This process is also preferred for quantities of different shaped machine parts needed at regular intervals. For this, the number of different form blocks called punches is arranged at regular intervals along the pressing bed called rubber pad. The pad is made of rubber or polyurethane. This rubber pad is placed in a ram of a press. The force applied on the blank by hydraulic cylinder through the ram and rubber pad. First, the blank is placed over the punch called male die. Then, the upper platen called female part is moved to just touch the top surface of the work. After this, the force is applied and gradually increased on the blank through the rubber pad. The blank holder ring is used to distribute uniform pressure throughout the blank. Thus, the required shape is formed on the sheet metal between male and female parts. The retainers are placed on both sides of the rubber pad. The function of retainer is to apply essential hydrostatic pressure on the blank and prevents sideward motion. Then, the rubber pad is released by moving the ram upwards. Now, the completed shell is stripped out from the punch. Advantages: Process is more economical. Tooling cost is less. Many required shapes can be performed in one rubber pad itself. There is no need of lubricants. No thinning metal blank takes place. Tool setting time is less. Deeper shells can be drawn. Parts produced are wrinkle – free, shrink flanges and improved shallow shapes. Limitations: Rubber pads will wear out rapidly. Sharp corners cannot be made accurately. Applications: Production of flanged cylindrical and rectangular cups. Production of spherical domes. Production of parallel and tapered wall shells. Production of unsymmetrical shape components. 3. Rubber hydro forming Process: In this process, the forced applied on the blank through a pressurized liquid behind the rubber pad. This force is used to form the sheet metal into the required shape. Here, the rubber pad acts as a seal between pressure forming chamber and blank. Due to application of hydrostatic pressure over the blank is formed into required shape. In hydro forming process, the hydraulic pressure energy is directly applied over the surface of the blank. In the case of rubber pad forming process, the pressure is applied over the surface of the blank by the rubber pad which is operated by hydraulic ram. But in this case, the force is applied over the blank in the form of hydraulic pressure but through the rubber pad. Advantages: Hammering action of hydraulic fluid over the blank is avoided. Disadvantages: Pressure loss occurs between hydraulic fluid to rubber pad. 4. Metal Spinning Process: The process of forming seamless metal parts from a circular sheet metal or from a tube length on a lathe is called as spinning process. Only symmetrical shapes can be produced from metal spinning process. Methods of spinning process: There are two methods used to produce sheet metal parts. (i) Manual spinning (ii) Power spinning (i) Manual spinning: First, the circular blank is centered on a lathe which is placed against a form block. The form block is mounted on the head stock of the spinning lathe. The blank is tightly held between form block and tail stock spindle. The required contour surface is made on the form block. The pressure is applied by the roller type forming tool which is placed on the tool post of the spinning lathe. The required shape is gradually formed by continuous application of pressure by the roller. During spinning process, some stretching and thinning of material take place. Metal spinning can be done both in cold and hot states. Heat generation due to friction between spinning tool or roller type forming and blank can also be used to retain the plastic state of sheet metal. Spinning speed various with size, design, type of metal and thickness of sheet metal. Aluminum copper, bras and stainless steel can also be spun in spinning process. This process is mainly suitable for producing conical shape parts and suitable for low volume production. Components produced in this process do not require any trimming or beading operations. For producing more complex shapes, segmental chucks made from cast aluminium, magnesium alloys or hard wood reinforced with clod rolled steel sheets are used. The lubricants of grease, linseed oil, and bees wax are used while using bead and tallow between form tool and blanks during spinning process. Advantages: The parts not be drawn by drawing operations can be easily spun. Heat generated due to friction is used to retain the sheet metal in the plastic state. The process is more economical for low volume production. Disadvantages: Thinning takes place during spinning process. More complex shapes require segmental chucks. Finally, it leads to increase in cost. Accuracy and quality of finished products mainly depend on the skill of the operator. (ii) Power spinning process: The quality of finished products mainly depends on the skill and experience of the operator. The accuracy of the finished products is also less in manual spinning process. Even though segmental chucks are used for making complex shapes, the metal thickness and contour shapes are restricted in manual spinning. In order to ensure skill of the operator and reduced machining time, spinning machines are referred as power spinning. In power spinning process, the action of form tool is controlled either by any tracer mechanism or by Numerical Controls(NC). Now a days, computer controlled numerical machines are used to change the shape of contour whenever the existing program needs to be changed. HMT lathe is semiautomatic spinning and flow turning machine with a hydraulic copying attachment. The spinning of sheet metal is done automatically but the loading and unloading of sheet metal are done manually. This HMT lathe also consists of head stock, tail stock and slides mounted on the bed. Tail stock is operated hydraulically. The blank is held between the tailstock and the form block. Then, the roller is pressed over the blank to obtain the required shape. In one pass or in successive passes of roller, the required shape is formed. Advantages of power spinning: Time taken to spin the sheet metal is greatly reduced. Thickness more than 1 mm can be handled easily. Both accuracy and quality can be maintained. It is suitable for high volume production. Applications of metal spinning process: Production of ash trays, flower pots, lamp shades, missile and radar units, jet plane components tanks, air conditioning units and heating plants. 5. Explosive forming process: Explosive forming process is used for blanking, cutting, expanding, coining, embossing, flanging, powder compacting, drawing and sizing operations etc. Explosives are used in various forms such as rod, sheet granules, liquid, stick etc. According to the placement of explosive, the operations can be divided into two categories. (i) Stand – off operations (ii) Contact operations (i) Stand – off operations In this case, the explosive charge is located at some distance away from the blank and it energy is transmitted through some fluid medium such as water. This technique is used to form blanks into various shape except welding, hardening, compacting, cutting process. (ii) Contact operations In this case, the explosive charge is directly located over the blank. This operation is mainly used for welding, hardening, compacting and cutting process. So, the sheet metal is formed in stand-off operation method. In this process, the forming of sheet metal is done by generating pressure wave in a fluid. The pressure wave is generated by detonating the enough quantity of explosives. The blank being formed is placed against the female die. The female die has the required configurations. This entire set up of female die and blank is placed inside the work tank. The work tank contains water to receive vibrations in the form of pressure wave. The applied pressure by this process may vary from several hundred to thousands of kg/cm2 with several hundred m/s displacement velocity. At any given distance from the explosive charge center, the high intensity portion of the pressure pulse generated by the detonating explosive can be approximately represented by expression. P = Pm e-t/ϴ (1) Where, P is the pressure as a function of time. Pm is peak pressure at that distance t is the time after arrival of pressure front at the blank surface. ϴ is time constant characteristic of the charge weight, type of explosive, and distance from the charge. One same conduit is filled with charge or explosives which are also placed inside the work tank. The work tank should be perfectly insulated to avoid heat transfer from system to surrounding. Now, the explosive charge is ignited by the detonator. Due to this, a high-pressure energy is released in the form of waves and pulse (Vibration) on the water contained in the work tank. This pressure waves are applied over the blank to obtain the required shape of female die. The time constant represents the time that it takes the pressure to fall to 50% of its peak value, and it defines the limit of the straight line portion of a pressure- time curve. Equation (1) is applicable only along the straight-line portion of the curve or out to a point where P is equal to about 30% of Pm. Advantages: 1.Less capital investment 2. Presses are not required 3. Only one die is enough to form the sheet metal. 4. Required shapes of components are formed in one stroke. 5. Ultimate and yield strength of sheet metals are improved. 6. Large and complex shapes can also be handled. Disadvantages: 1. Highly trained operators are needed. 2. Noisy operation. Applications: This process is mainly used for producing aerospace components. MAGNETIC PULSE FORMING The required shape of sheet metal is obtained by specially designed magnetic coil. The basic principle is that discharging of a capacitor through a coil over a period of microseconds, on the blank to obtain the required shape. During this, the magnetic flux densities of the order of hundreds of kilogauss can be produced. The basic circuit consists an energy storage capacitor, a switch, a coil and a power source. The current through the coil produces a high intensity magnetic field between the coil and the work piece. Due to the eddy current in the blank, the magnetic field is restricted over the surface of blank. Due to the interaction of the eddy current on the blank, the applied magnetic field creates an inward force on the workpiece. The repelling force between work piece and the coil is high. Since, the coil is placed rigidity. So, the blank is repelled and forced against a coil. Properly designed coils are used for compression and certain regions is shaped by utilizing massive conducting structure as flux concentrator device and not connecting it directly to the basic coil. This process is most suitable for copper, aluminium, Silver and gold. Advantages: 1. This process is carried out with uniform rate of forming. 2. It is also better process than convention process for certain materials. 3. The surface finish of the process is excellent. 4. Time of operation is less as compared to conventional process. Disadvantages: 1. Non-Conducting materials are not processed without aid of conducting materials. 2. It is limited for sheet metal forming not an forming bulk material. Applications: 1. Both compression and expansion of circular bar can be carried out. 2. Producing bulging of tube, shrinkage of tube, attaching tubes at end fitting without leaking are possible. 3. Forming a torque joints, forging of structural joints between tubes and fitting are easily formed. 4. It is used for instrument gear assembly, embossing and sizing of cups etc., PEEN FORMING Peen forming is a process of well-established surface cleaning. In this process, a stream of metal shots is blasted against the surface of the blank to be made into required shape. This technique is also known as free-forming technique. A stream of small steel ball is suddenly forced with very high velocity against the surface of the blank. This process is used to form various irregular contour surfaces of aluminium sheet and plates. The length of the contour of the blank to be formed may be larger. According to the direct shape of contour, the sheet metal or blank is clamped over form blocks during peening operation. Advantages: 1. Complex contours can be produced easily. 2. Peening is also used as salvage operations for correcting bent or disorted parts. 3. This process does not require any die and punch. Disadvantages: 1. Requires longer time for forming. 2. Requires additional devices for forcing out metal shots. Applications: 1. This process is used in producing specific portions on crankshafts, connecting rods and gears. 2. It is used for producing honeycomb panels like aircraft wings and large tubular shapes. SUPER-PLASTIC FORMING PROCESS Super plastic forming (SPF) is a valuable tool for the fabrication of complex parts used in the aircraft and automobile industries. Super plastic forming (SPF) of sheet metal has been used to produce very complex shapes and integrated structures that are often lighter and stronger than the assemblies they replace. Super-plasticity in metals is defined by very high tensile elongations, ranging from two hundred to several thousand percent. Super-plasticity is the ability of certain materials to undergo extreme elongation at the proper temperature and strain rate. The process typically conducted at high temperature and under controlled strain rate, can give a ten-fold increase in elongation compared to conventional room temperature processes. Components are formed by applying gas pressure between one or more sheets and a die surface, causing the sheets to stretch and fill the die cavity. The evolution of pressures must be closely controlled during the process since the alloys of interest only exhibits Super plastic behaviour for certain temperature dependent range of strain rates. Specific alloys of titanium, stainless steel, and aluminum are commercially available with the fine-grained microstructure and strain rate sensitivity of flow stress that are necessary for Super plastic deformation. Process: SPF can produce parts that are impossible to form using conventional techniques. During the SPF process, the material is heated to the SPF temperature within a Sealed die. Inert gas pressure is then applied, at a controlled rate forcing the material to take the shape of the die pattern. The flow stress of the material during deformation increases rapidly with increasing strain rate. Super plastic alloys can be stretched at higher temperatures by several times of their initial length without breaking. Some of the materials developed for super plastic forming are: 1. Bismuth-tin (200% elongation) 2. Zinc- aluminium 3. Titanium (Ti-6Al-V) 4. Aluminium (2004, 2419, 7475) 5. Aluminium- lithium alloys (2090, 2091, 8090) Super- Plastic Forming-Process: This method consists in hot forming up to 1000º C super plastic alloy by using an inert gas pressured up to 50 bars. Combined with diffusion bonding, this process allows honeycomb structures made of several sheets in a single operation. Loading: The blank is loaded in the form die. The hot press heats the die and the blank to the material super-plastic temperature. Forming: Once the temperature is reached, it is accurately controlled, while the gas pressure slowly inflates the blank. The gas keeps inflating the part to fit the die. The material at the super-plastic temperature can allow up to 500% elongation. Release: At the end of the forming cycle, the part perfectly conforms to the die, even in its smallest details. Advantages of SPF process: Super plastic forming technology offers the potential to reduce the weight and cost of automotive structural components for advance vehicle applications. The main advantages of this process are: 1.It is a one step process. 2.The process can be used to form complex components in shapes that are very near the final dimensions. 3.Higher material elongations. 4.Eliminations of unnecessary joints and rivets. 5.Reduction of subsequent machining. 6.Minimizes the amount of scrap produced. Applications: The process is increasingly being applied in the aerospace industry as a way of manufacturing very complex geometries. (i) In automotive body panels. (ii) In forming of aircraft frames and skins. (iii)Diaphragm forming of plastics. (iv) Complex shape parts- window frames, seat structures. MICRO FORMING IN SHEET METAL PROCESSES It is well known that the sheet metal thickness is between 0.4 and 6 mm but while micro-sheet forming usually handles the sheet metals of which the thickness is less than 0.3 mm. Therefore, it is called as thin strips or coils. The major sheet processes in micro sheet forming are shearing, cutting, bending, unbending, stretching, compressing, stress relaxation etc., Similar to conventional sheet metal, the mechanical properties of the materials such as elasticity, plasticity, stress strain relations, strain rate, work hardening, temperature effect, anisotropy, grain size and residual stress involve in analyzing the deformation of micro- forming products. The effects of grains sizes, orientations and grain boundary properties are more significant in micro-sheet forming while considering the effects of overall stress-strain relationships, sheared-section qualities, spring back phenomenon, stress relaxation, etc. Generally, the micro forming processes are used to make parts of the following: Cellular Telephones IC Lead frames Electronics Healthcare Miniature Fasteners Hard Disc Drivers National Security and Defense Automobiles Sensors Sheet metal components are mainly used in various applications such as vehicles, aircrafts, electronic products, medical implants and packaging for consuming goods, car panels, aircrafts skins, cans for food and drinks and frames of: TV, computer screens, monitors and displays, etc. Especially, micro-formed components are used in high precision applications such as electrical connectors and lead frames, micro-meshes for masks and optical devices, micro springs for micro switches, micro-cups for electron guns and micro- packaging, micro laminates for micro-motor and fluidic devices, micro gears for micro mechanical devices, casings for micro-device assembly, micro knives for surgery etc.,
Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting: Electric, Forge and Thermit Welding together with related methods and materials used in metal working and the oxygen process for removal of carbon