CHINA POPULATION, RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT

Volume 17, Issue 1, January 2007

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: Chn Popu Res Envi, 2007, 17(1): 1–5. SHORT COMMUNICATION

Problems of Rural Migrant Workers and Policies in the

New Period of Urbanization
GU Shengzu*, ZHENG Lingyun, YI Shance
Institute of Development Strategy, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China

Abstract: The migration of rural migrant workers has new characteristics and results in problems in China’s “urban diseases” caused by
the bad order of migration with a huge number and a high degree of concentration, low level of collective action, marginality in social
status, unfair treatment, difficult integration of the new generation, and new return trend of rural migrants. Countermeasures should be
taken to develop medium-sized and small cities, integrate the labor market of the city and countryside, provide necessary public services
and social security, provide vocational training, guide the rural migrant workers to return rationally, and help the new generation live in
harmony with urban residents.

Key Words: urbanization; rural migrant workers; strategy countermeasures

Industrialization and urbanization are the main themes of
economic development and social civilization in the world.
Rural-urban migration inevitably results from the resource
optimization of industrialization and urbanization, and pro-
motes industrialization and modernization in every country.
Now, generally speaking, a new phase in which industry
promotes agriculture and urban development helps rural
prosperity has come in China. The new development of in-
dustrialization and urbanization also results in the new fea-
tures of rural-urban migration. As a social phenomenon
along with the progress of industrialization, urbanization
and marketization in a specific historical context of China,
rural migrant workers are a carrier and a bridge to connect
the countryside and city, agriculture and industry, and peas-
ants and workers. A correct understanding of rural-urban
migration and rural migrant workers in the new urbanization,
a profound issue and a new feature of the new social stratum,
is strategically important in planning urban and rural eco-
nomic and social development, and promoting industrializa-
tion and urbanization in China.
1 Issues and features of rural-urban migration
and rural migrant workers in urbanization
Rural migrant workers have become not only a new social
stratum rapidly rising in China’s society, but also an impor-
tant driving force of urbanization and an important compo-
nent of industrial workers in China. According to the data of
the 5th nation-wide population census, rural migrant workers
account for 57.6% of the employees in secondary industry,
52% in tertiary industry, 68% in processing and manufac-
turing industries, and 80% in construction industry (Feng
Hua, 2006). Owing to the progress, the rural-urban migra-
tion have changed a lot, from strict limitation in the planned
economy to more freedom during the market-oriented re-
form, and then to the status recognition of industrial workers
at present. So not only will the increasing number and dy-
namic structure of rural-urban migration be considered, but
also the profound issues and new features, e.g., marginaliza-
tion of the rural migrant workers because of their living
conditions kept away from the cities, vulnerable status
caused by low level of collective action, unfair share of ur-
ban infrastructure and social public welfare, will be studied.
1.1 Large base number, high concentration, bad order,
and imbalance of rural-urban migration and rural mi-
grant workers result in “urban diseases”
The migration from the countryside to the city is the
main motivation of urbanization. The scale, speed and di-

Received date: 2006-09-01.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: gusz7190@vip.sina.com
Copyright © 2007, Chinese Society for Sustainable Development and Research Center for Sustainable Development of Shandong Province. Electronic version pub-
lished by Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
 GU Shengzu et al. / China Population, Resources and Environment, 2007, 17(1): 1–5
rection of the floating population directly determine urbani-
zation structure and urban system. Nowadays, there are a
large number of rural-urban migration and rural migrant
workers. According to the statistical data of the National
Population and Family Planning Commission of China, the
floating population in China rose from 70 million in 1993 to
140 million in 2003, doubling the original number in 10
years and nearly involving 30% of the rural labor force. 120
million rural migrant workers account for 85% of 140 mil-
lion floating population. If the non-agricultural laborers in
the countryside are included, the total number of rural mi-
grant workers is nearly 200 million (Project Group of the
Research Office of the State Council, 2006). Issues of the
rural migrant workers in China have the feature of a large
scale and a high speed on the one hand, and excessive con-
centration of flow direction and destination on the other
hand. Most of rural migrant workers are concentrated in
southern and eastern coastal areas as well as large and me-
dium-sized cities in China. In 2004, the rural migrant work-
ers from the west exceeded 70% of the total number, most
of them working in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Zhejiang,
Jiangsu, Guangdong and Fujian. Many investigations indi-
cate that over 60% of rural migrant workers work in large
cities. As excessive floating population and rural migrant
workers swarm into cities, many Chinese metropolises such
as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou are overloaded. Re-
lated researches indicate that the floating population in Bei-
jing exceeds 4 million, accounting for 1/4 of the total popu-
lation; the floating population in Shanghai and Guangzhou
exceeds 5 million each; the temporary population of
Shenzhen exceeds 10 million. Rural migrant workers mainly
come from the countryside in China. In 2004, 47.28 million
rural migrant workers came from Central China and 31.61
million from Western China (Project Group of the Research
Office of the State Council, 2006). Relatively speaking,
most of inter-provincial rural migrant workers came from
Anhui, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Chongqing,
Sichuan and Guizhou, in which more than 10 million labor-
ers came from Henan Province and Sichuan Province. The
excessive population floating into metropolises results in
increasingly serious “urban diseases”. The main symptoms
of “urban diseases” are severe traffic jams, environmental
pollution, crowded housing and lack of resources, especially
water resources, as well as extreme overload of urban ca-
pacity. Among the 340 cities monitored by the State Envi-
ronmental Protection Administration of China, those with
slight pollution and serious pollution make up 60%. There is
a combined pollution of soot and automobile tail gas in big
cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen.
400 million urban residents in China breathe in severely
polluted air. In addition, the urban and rural dual structure is
duplicated in the city. The lifestyle of rural migrant workers
is detached from the city, and their culture and life are kept
in the so-called “lonely island”. Rural migrant workers
“tend to” get along with each other in the “island”, “rebuild
a rural society” in the city, and establish a “vil-
lage-amidst-the-city” (Wu Zhenhua, 2005).
1.2 Rural migrant workers are autonomous, scat-
tered,and poorly organized; the segmentation of labor
market between town and countryside seriously conflicts
with the rapid movement of rural migrant workers
Modern social network is based more on jobs and educa-
tion, different from that built upon neighborhood and kin-
ship. In the former, people’s social relationship is more in-
terwoven, overlapped and extended. The individual and
dispersed agriculture results in a relatively isolated social
network of rural migrant workers. Compared with the com-
plex social network resources in the cities, rural migrant
workers get more insulated with limited living space. Inves-
tigations indicate that 90% of rural migrant workers get jobs
through spontaneous means such as the recommendation or
help of relatives and friends. Though organizations such as
“townee associations” based on neighborhood and kinship
play an important role in the lives of rural migrant workers
in some cities, rural migrant workers can hardly set up a
relatively stable and wide social network by themselves,
staying poorly organized because of imperfect laws and
regulations as well as lack of formal organizations. Labor
unions are an important institution to protect the rights and
interests of rural migrant workers and enhance their organi-
zation degree. However, by the end of 2005, there had been
only 20.714 million rural migrant workers in enterprises and
institutions with labor unions in China, still accounting for a
low percentage among the total number. Under the pressure
of employment which arises from new urban labor force,
unemployed workers and rural migrant workers, the rural
migrant workers lacking organization and coordination are
always vulnerable in negotiations related to their own rights
and interests. Confronting various dislocation and supply
shortage of resources, rural migrant workers can merely rely
on their limited ability to overcome difficulties. They neither
participate in sharing urban resources, nor effectively pro-
tect their due rights and interests, thus vulnerable in urban
society.
1.3 Rural migrant workers face distortion of rights and
duties, status, identity and marginalized social status;
they have a strong mentality of being “passers-by”
Because of the long-term separation between city and
countryside and the dual social structure, urban residents
feel superior and dually treat rural migrant workers, accept-
ing them economically and excluding them psychologically.
It results in that rural migrant workers in cities have the
obvious features of “marginalization”—living in the city but
rooting in the countryside; being urban laborers in profes-
sion yet being peasants in household registration and iden-
tity; being the citizens of the People’s Republic of China
just like urban residents in law, while doing the same work
 GU Shengzu et al. / China Population, Resources and Environment, 2007, 17(1): 1–5
without the same pay, without the same hours and without
the same rights as the latter; the employment rights, educa-
tional rights and rescue rights of rural migrant workers can
hardly be protected and realized; rural migrant workers can
hardly enjoy the public services and social welfare offered
by the government, such as living condition, medical service,
vocational training service and labor market information
service. Because of the prejudice and discrimination from
the society, although having been in the cities for some time,
the rural migrant workers are still the newcomers without a
sense of security and achievement, and can hardly have the
self-identity that they belong to the cities. The countryside is
always the best destination in their mind so that they will
eventually become the “passers-by” of the city. Just because
of this “marginalized social status”, rural migrant workers,
especially the first generation of rural migrant workers,
cannot recognize their status, and nearly 80% of them be-
lieve that they are still peasants (Wang Chunguang, 2004).
In this instance, they lack responsibility for the city in which
they live and work, so they feel alienated from urban resi-
dents, and reluctant to melt into the urban society actively.
1.4 With the treatment of “taking while not giving” and
“hiring while not supporting”, there is an imbalance be-
tween rural migrant workers’ working and gaining and
between economical contribution and benefit sharing
Rapid investigations made by Ministry of Labor and So-
cial Security of China in 2005 also show that rural migrant
workers mainly engage in manufacturing industry, construc-
tion industry, accommodation and catering services, retail
and wholesale industries, resident services, and so on. Rural
migrant workers sacrifice much but gain little while making
great contributions. On one hand, low wages, high labor
intensity , overtime work, and arrears of wages are very
common, especially in the construction industry. According
to the sampling investigation of some provinces in China
such as Hunan, Sichuan and Henan, the actual average
monthly working hours of rural migrant workers is over 1.5
times of those of urban workers, whereas the average
monthly income of rural migrant workers is 60% lower than
that of urban workers. On the other hand, rural migrant
workers lack social security. The occupational insurance rate
of rural migrant workers in China is quite low. Among the
five major insurances, only employment injury insurance
has been purchased by many rural migrant workers; the
overall occupational endowment insurance rate is only 15%,
the average occupational medical insurance rate is about
10% and a majority of rural migrant workers have not pur-
chased unemployment insurance and maternity insurance
(Wang Hai, 2005). Cities treat peasant workers in the way of
“taking while not giving” and “hiring while not supporting”,
while peasant workers cannot obtain helpful social relief. In
the city the sick among them cannot be treated, their chil-
dren cannot go to school, the poor cannot receive any help
and the old cannot be supported. The land in their home-
town is always their final support and the countryside bears
the cost of education and pension for rural migrant workers.
Their work and their benefit are extremely unequal and they
only share a little from the benefit of industrialization and
urbanization.
1.5 A new generation of rural migrant workers is grow-
ing in number. And the important feature is that they
“can neither come back to the countryside nor melt into
cities”, which has become an inevitable new subject in
solving the problem of rural surplus labor force
The new generation of rural migrant workers or the sec-
ond generation of rural migrant workers is the offspring of
early migrant workers or the first generation of rural migrant
workers, whose ages are generally from 18 to 30, and who
are almost of the same age as that of China’s reform and
opening-up. The first generation of rural migrant workers
worked in cities in the hope of increasing their household
incomes, and they still kept their typical and traditional way
of thinking with intense parochialism: regarding land as the
most fundamental security, taking agriculture as main work
and working in cities as byline, and deeming the countryside
as their final destination. Different from the first generation,
the new generation of rural migrant workers “can neither
come back to the countryside nor melt into cities”: they are
people between “survivors” and “livers”, namely, they were
born in the countryside but grew up in cities; most of them
have no agricultural experiences and can no longer adapt to
the country life, and their motive of working in cities has
converted from subsistence to higher pursuit of freedom and
modern life; mostly graduating from junior or senior high
schools, they have a relatively high human capital resource
and have changed towards urban life style and way of
thinking, with their ideals and conceptions deviating far
from land and agricultural production. Therefore, they have
a stronger desire for self-identity and a sense of belonging to
cities. However, the new generation of rural migrant work-
ers are not treated and respected as they should be, and have
difficulty in finding jobs in formal sectors, so they expect
more about the way of respect, equality and social ac-
knowledgement. Thus, the new generation of rural migrant
workers is in face of an imbalance between ability and ex-
pectation: with limited self-ability and relatively high ex-
pectation for jobs, they cannot position themselves correctly
in the entire society, which is one inevitable new subject in
solving the migration of rural surplus labor force to urban
areas.
1.6 The differentiation of rural migrant workers, as a
new social stratum, is continuing. Most of them are still
in a weak position, whereas some have rooted them-
selves in cities as entrepreneurs or private businessmen,
and some competent persons have returned to the coun-
tryside
Currently, differentiation within the rural migrant workers
 GU Shengzu et al. / China Population, Resources and Environment, 2007, 17(1): 1–5
has occurred. Besides the new generation emerging, many
rural migrant workers have widened their field of view,
learned skills, acquired techniques and possessed capital
through practical working in cities, among whom some have
rooted in cities by entrepreneurship, or returned to the coun-
tryside as elite peasants. Rural migrant workers have taken
up a considerable proportion of urban private businessmen,
with a very obvious ascending trend. According to the 6th
national sample survey on private enterprises in 2004, about
1/5 private businessmen used to be peasants in cities in the
original occupation (Almanac of China’s Private Economy,
2005). For those “elite” rural migrant workers who have
come back to the countryside, they can be regarded as a
kind of “voluntary return”, who may play an important role
in bridging the gap between urban and rural areas and
building a new socialist countryside. Returned rural migrant
workers have the following advantages: Firstly, they have
been edified by the atmosphere of entrepreneurship in mod-
ern cities and are full of enthusiasm to start their own busi-
nesses; secondly, rural migrant workers have accumulated
certain techniques and capital through indirect study during
work; thirdly, they are more familiar with the market of their
hometown and are in possession of preferable resources for
new business. Thus, they have turned from the former urban
and rural vagrants to the “leaders” of rural economy.
2 Solutions for the issues of rural-urban migra-
tion and rural migrant workers in urbanization
The issues of rural-urban migration and rural migrant
workers occurring in the course of urbanization are brought
about by concurrent multiple factors, so countermeasures
should be taken to develop medium-sized and small cities,
integrate the labor market of the city and countryside, pro-
vide necessary public services and social security, provide
vocational training, guide the rural migrant workers to re-
turn in a rational way, and help the new generation live in
harmony with urban residents.
2.1 Intensify the attraction of medium-sized and small
cities, take the lead in promoting citizenship of rural
migrant workers in these cities, and relax the disharmo-
nious situation that China’s rural migrant workers are
highly concentrated in big cities.
On account of the excessive concentration of rural-urban
migration and rural migrant workers, the urbanization level
of big cities in China has risen rapidly. Yet, this has given
rise to the discrepancy and structural imbalance of urbaniza-
tion development, resulting in big cities as “a Triton among
minnows”. For the excessive concentration of rural migrant
workers, the strategy of multi-urbanization may be per-
formed, paying much attention to developing medium-sized
and small cities actively, and relieving the excessively dense
population in big cities. To absorb rural migrant workers to
work in these cities is a kind of low-cost approach. Private
enterprises are very popular in medium-sized and small cit-
ies, and as they have great employment opportunities, they
may become the main carrier of rural migrant workers en-
tering non-agricultural industries. For urbanization, however,
the industrial foundation should still be stressed to develop
local economy, and multi-urbanization should be established
on the basis of industrial development. Additionally, as
household registration system and complementary systems
in these cities have relatively minor functions, which reduce
the force of resistance towards the reform, rural migrant
workers may be attracted to move towards these cities, and
take the lead in promoting citizenship.
2.2 Strengthen integration construction of urban and
rural labor markets, lead rural migrant workers to up-
grade the level of collective actions, and change their
loose and vulnerable conditions
In the situation that the establishment of China rural mi-
grant workers union organization has systematic barriers,
organizations in the city that specially maintain the interests
of rural migrant workers are lacking, the urban and rural
labor markets are separated, and various aspects of efforts
should be made to strengthen the management of the float-
ing population and upgrade the level of collective actions of
rural migrant workers. Firstly, facilitate organizational con-
struction of rural migrant workers and bring them into dif-
ferent organizations according to actual situations. In the
course of strengthening the management of the floating
population, employer should be given full play and partial
social management functions should be transformed to the
responsibilities of the enterprise, and the management sys-
tem of “Who employs who is responsible for” should be set
up in employer units (Gu Shengzu and Yang Yanlin, 1996).
At the same time, it is important to bring rural migrant
workers or their representatives into unit organizations at
different levels and ever the People’s Congress of China, to
lead rural migrant workers to found autonomous organiza-
tions, to give play to employer units, Youth League,
Women’s Federation, various kinds of nongovernmental
organizations and mass media, and to meet the needs of the
vulnerable floating population. Secondly, enhance integra-
tion construction of urban and rural labor markets. Man-
agement and service functions of the labor department
should be consolidated; labor relations should be treated
equally; the development of employment medium organiza-
tions of multi-forms should be encouraged; cross-regional
and cross-department rural labor markets should be set up;
information network construction of labor markets should
be facilitated; the forecast, planning, adjustment, legislation
and monitoring of rural labor markets should be strength-
ened, to realize the institutionalization, standardization and
organization of rural migrant workers.
2.3 Provide rural migrant workers with necessary pub-
lic services and social security systems, and help ru-
ral-urban migration population integrate into the city and
 GU Shengzu et al. / China Population, Resources and Environment, 2007, 17(1): 1–5
get rid of the isolated situation
The implementation of the principle of equity needs the
guarantee of the supply of necessary public services through
strengthening public expenditure, to enable rural migrant
workers to enjoy public infrastructure and social welfare
equally to some extent, and to change the situation of exces-
sive marginalization. Firstly, make full use of various kinds
of educational resources, reform related school roll man-
agement systems, and eliminate the discrimination in school
admission of rural migration workers’ children. “Education
First” is the priority target of public expenditure all the time,
which must be ensured. Secondly, establish social security
systems confronting the characteristics of rural migrant
workers which should be established step by step with em-
phasis according to the actual situation in China. Thirdly,
increase the investment in medical and health services for
rural migrant workers, and control the family planning ser-
vice for urban floating population to ensure fewer births and
better education for them. Fourthly, bring the solution of
urban housing problem of rural migrant workers into con-
sideration. The government, enterprises and individuals
should treat this problem jointly. Some enterprises can re-
solve the problem independently; the government provides
allowances for the enterprises with capability and carries out
overall plans in the places where rural migrant workers
cluster. Fifthly, enrich the life of rural migrant workers in
their spare time. The community may organize some activi-
ties that combine education and entertainment together ac-
cording to the characteristics of rural migrant workers com-
ing from different places.
2.4 Improve rural migrant workers’ competitiveness
through focusing on human capital resource develop-
ment, strengthening vocational training and cultivating a
new type of rural migrant workers so as to enable them
to share the fruits of development
China's rural migrant workers generally receive a rela-
tively low regular education and earn a little money from
their employers without on-the-job training. Consequently,
these rural migrant workers severely lack competitiveness in
many fields of employment, and most of them engaged in
dangerous, dirty, tiring, but unskilled work. The accumula-
tion of human capital can hardly meet the requirements at
present. On the basis of statistics, rural migrant workers
with education under junior high school accounted for 83%
and those without training accounted for 72% in 2004. It is
shown in the sample survey of 1,800 rural households con-
ducted by Chongqing Survey Team of the National Statistics
Bureau that in 2005, rural migrant workers without voca-
tional training accounted for 79.7%, those with education of
junior high school accounted for 79.8%, and those of or
above senior high school merely accounted for 13.4%. Low
competitiveness, because of lack of professional skill and
capability, forces them to engage in low-level labor. Those
rural migrant workers should be trained into the qualified
industrial workers by enhancing their quality and raising
their professional level to promote the building of new so-
cialist countryside fully. Firstly, the government should in-
crease investment in training for them. The unequal educa-
tional resource allocation must be changed through increas-
ing support for rural basic education and subsidizing living
expenses for the poor. The quality and scale of vocational
training should be greatly improved through free training
with high efficiency and practical use. Secondly, employers
must abandon their thought that profits are obtained barely
through low labor costs. It is a must to boost productivity
through continuous technical training instead of low pay-
ment to rural migrant workers. Thirdly, rural migrant work-
ers should attach importance to self-study. Human capital
can be accumulated through migration; nevertheless, only
continuous self-study on special skills can make them em-
ployed with better pay.
2.5 Guide the return migration trend to maintain and
attract more people in rural areas. Accelerate urbaniza-
tion in rural areas, and avoid the imbalance as well as
“Latin American trap”
In the 1960s and 1970s, a number of Latin American
countries generally took rapid pace in urbanization by re-
ducing farmers to promote economic development. A large
number of farmers featured by "no land, no social security,
no regular job, and no professional skill" became new citi-
zens, which resulted in urban polarization and serious social
conflicts. This lesson, "Latin American trap", tells us that
there is a limited capacity to absorb farmers in large cities,
for a huge transfer cost has to be borne to safeguard equal
employment opportunity and treatment. Therefore, it is of
great significance in guiding the return trend of the rural
migrant workers to put it in a rational order and to keep bal-
ance in urbanization. Firstly, a wide development space
shall be provided for those return to start a new business by
the local government through boosting town economy, es-
pecially private economy. On the basis of the work in cities,
the rural migrant workers who return to their hometown to
start a new business after learning and working in the cities
have become the urban economy "booster". For example, it
is shown in statistics done by Hunan Province Statistics
Bureau in 2005 that there are nearly 200,000 rural migrant
workers returning to run over 80,000 private enterprises,
which have employed over 500,000 rural laborers with an-
nual production value of over 3 billion yuan RMB. Sec-
ondly, the social atmosphere of encouraging and guarantee-
ing entrepreneurship should be formed to keep the attraction
in the countryside. For the return migration, they have cer-
tain skills and experiences through working in the city,
which makes it practically possible for them to start a busi-
ness in the countryside. Hence, such social atmosphere and
policy support have played a key role in turning their desires
into realities, which is also extremely important in main-
 GU Shengzu et al. / China Population, Resources and Environment, 2007, 17(1): 1–5
taining and attracting more people in rural areas.
2.6 Attach great importance to the new generation of
rural migrant workers to help them adapt to the situa-
tion in cities and become a new generation of industrial
workers
The new generation of rural migrant workers is featured
by migration, which puts their way of thinking and life style
into a dynamic process of conflict, digestion, merging and
regeneration. Their education and guidance should be fo-
cused on during this process. Generally, the whole society
should accept them psychologically and provide opportuni-
ties to develop their talents regarding their characteristics.
The related regulations shall be established to help them
claim their rights through proper and legal means, and avoid
violent behaviors. Equal employment opportunity should be
provided to improve the conditions of rural migrant workers
featured by low education, poor skills and inferior labor
productivity. With respect to their expectation for higher
positions, efficient guidance shall be introduced to help
them become a new generation of industrial workers.
3 Research results
In sum, because of the dual structure of urban and rural
areas and the rigidity of institutions in China's rural migrant
workers and rural-urban migration, there has emerged a
distinctive feature, different from that in both developed and
other developing countries, as well as the first generation of
rural migrant workers. As to the floating distribution, there
is a uneven distribution pattern of rural migrant workers
geographically. As to the level of collective action, the col-
lective action is loose and excessive. As to employment,
segmentation has been found. As to social integration, mar-
ginalization is obvious. As to economic contribution, rural
migrant workers get an imbalanced interest share. As to
hierarchy, there is a multiple division of rural migrant
workers. So it is of great importance to solve the problems
of rural migrant workers during the crucial stage of eco-
nomic transition and rapid urbanization coordinated with the
development of industrialization. Considering its complex-
ity and dynamicity, a multi-dimensional policy system
should be established, in which the development of both
metropolis and urbanization focused on counties shall be
introduced. The citizenship of rural migrant workers is
needed, but they are also encouraged to return to avoid
“Latin American trap”. In this way, the uneven geographical
distribution can be rectified. Meanwhile, public opinions
should play an important role in social integration so as to
help the new generation of rural migrant workers and the
return migration merge into the urban areas and the rural
areas, respectively. Equal employment opportunity should
be provided and the whole set of employment institutions
and regulations should be established to integrate the labor
markets. Rural migrant workers are an important force in
the development of urbanization and industrialization; it is
necessary to offer full play to their enthusiasm and creativity
through providing more opportunities to enhance their abili-
ties.
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