GEONOMY

PALAEONTOLOGY

LOWER CRETACEOUS SMALL BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA FROM THE BUCEGI

MOUNTAINS (SOUTH CARPATHIANS) – PALEOECOLOGIC IMPLICATIONS

VICTOR BARBU
1)
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geology & Geophysics, Department of Geology & Palaeontology
1 N. Bǎlcescu Ave., sect. 1, Bucharest, 010041, Romania
E-mail: victorb@geo.edu.ro

Received March 7, 2005

The paper presents the first published account of smaller agglutinated and calcareous benthic
foraminifera from Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian – lowermost Hauterivian) marls, from the Bucegi
Mountains, in the South Carpathians. Small benthic foraminifera, along with calcareous nannofossils,
are used in paleoecological interpretations. The occurrence of Spirillina, Patellina and Lenticulina
species indicates deep water. The occurrence of the benthic genus Spirillina indicates local dysaerobic
conditions on the sea floor. Dysaerobic conditions are usually caused by high organic productivity in
the surface-water. Zeugrhabdotus spp. are markers of high-fertility surface water in unstable
environments such as oceanic sites of upwelling or shelf areas where trophic conditions may have
been enhanced by storms. The presence of Zoophycos trace fossils is indicative of dysaerobic
conditions within sediments. Moreover, the presence of pyrite is also indicative of fluctuations in
palaeoredox conditions.

Key words: foraminifera; calcareous nannofossils; paleoecology; dysaerobic; Valanginian –

lowermost Hauterivian; Lower Cretaceous; Bucegi Mountains; South Carpathians; Romania.

INTRODUCTION
Benthic foraminiferan assemblages are often
used as paleoecological indicators, but can be used
locally as chronostratigraphic tools, especially when
calibrated with ammonites, planktonic fora-minifera,
calcareous nannofossil, and calpionellids.
Micropaleontological samples were collected
from the Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian - Lower
Hauterivian) deposits of the Bucegi Mountains,
South Carpathians. These deposits crop out in the
Lespezi Mountains, in the southern part of the
Bucegi Mountains and in the P4 section, situated
between the Gaura Valley and the “La Politzie”
saddle respectively (Fig. 1 A and B). The
geological studies in these areas were undertaken by
Patrulius (1953, 1969), Patrulius et al. (1980), E.
Manoliu et al. (1978), Dragastan et al. (2000), Barbu
(2002) and Barbu et al. (2002).
In this paper an assemblage consisting of small
benthic foraminifers is presented for the first time.
Thin section sections preserving calpionellids,
benthic foraminifera, ostracods and sponge
spicules and micropaleontological samples are
used to draw the paleoecological conclusions
presented here. Lower Cretaceous foraminifera
assemblages from an adjacent area (Dâmbovicioara,
Codlea and Carhaga - Perşani Mts.) were
previously described by Neagu (1975).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
In the Lespezi Mts. and the P4 section, Middle
Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian)
deposits crop out (Fig. 2 A and B). Patrulius et al.,
(1976) interpreted the overall Upper Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous carbonate rocks as formed
within several carbonate platforms grouped under the

Proc. Rom. Acad., Series B, 2005, 1, p. 29-36

30 Victor Barbu

more general name of Getic Carbonate Platform. tectonic regime (Sǎndulescu, 1984) within which the
These carbonate platforms formed in an extensional siliciclastic input was dramatically diminished.

Fig. 1. Fossil locality maps. A. Overview map of the study area (Bucegi Mountains). B. Geographic location of the
study area: Lespezi Mts. and P4 section (redrawn with modifications after Patrulius, 1969).

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map. A. Lespezi Mts. Zone; B. P4 section zone (redrawn with modifications after Patrulius, 1969).
 Lower Cretaceous small benthic foraminifera from the Bucegi Mountains (South Carpathians) – Paleoecologic implications
LITHOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY
OF THE OUTCROPS
Lespezi Mountains
In the Lespezi Mountains, Middle Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous deposits occur within an active
quarry. This paper is focused on the Upper
Tithonian – Lower Hauterivian deposits. These
deposits appear in the upper part of the quarry, in
two very closely spaced sections (AF2 and AF3)
(Fig. 3).
The Upper Tithonian – Upper Berriasian
deposits are represented by shallow water
bioclastic limestone. The microfacies consist of
packstones with bioclasts: calpionellids (very
frequent), rare benthic foraminifera (Trocholina sp.,
Neotrocholina sp., Lenticulina sp. and Rumanolina
sp.), ostracods, bivalves and echinoid debris.
“Tubiphytes” morronensis Crescenti, intraclasts,
peloids, and reworked oncoids also occur. This
microfacies is characteristic of the outer shelf- upper
slope environments. The age of these deposits was
defined by using calpionellids. Based on the
calpionellids found in the sample, the
Crassicollaria, Calpionella and Calpionellopsis
Zones can be suggested for these sections (Barbu, in
prep.).
In the upper part of the shallow water bioclastic
limestones, hard ground type discontinuity surface
development was observed. These hard grounds
are represented by intra-formational breccias with
limestone elements and glauconitic cements, and
one layer made up of glauconite exclusively. This
glauconitic layer is 1 cm thick. The elements of the
breccias show signs of short subaerial exposure
(Barbu, 2002).
Pelagic limestone deposits with sporadic marl
intercalations overly the hard ground discontinuity
surface. The thickness of these deposits is 6 m in the
AF2 section and 21 m in the AF3 section. The
microfacies consists of mudstone with rare
bioclastic and siliciclastic elements. The bioclasts
are rare benthic foraminifera, ostracods, sponge
spicules, radiolarians and very rare calpionellids.
The first layer is very rich in glauconitic grains.
Moreover, this layer contains small phosphate grains
and fish teeth.
The next layers are poor in glauconitic grains.
This microfacies is characteristic of the upper -
lower slope environments.
Macrofossils include few ammonites, a nautiloid
(Cymatoceras sp.), belemnites [Duvalia dilatata
31
dilatata (Blainville), D. cf. emericii (Raspail),
Pseudobelus cf. brevis Paquier], and sponges.
In both sections, the pelagic limestones contain
pyrite and iron oxide, replacing pseudomorphically
the pyrite, at different levels.
The pelagic limestone beds contain Zoophycos
(Barbu, in press) as well as abundant calcareous
nannoplankton (Barbu and Melinte, in press). The
age of these deposits was defined based on
calcareous nannoplankton. The nannoplankton
associations indicated the presence of the NK3B
Zone (Upper Valanginian) for AF2 section, and
NK3B and NC4A Zones (Upper Valanginian –
lowermost Hauterivian) for AF3 section (Barbu and
Melinte, in prep.).
The P4 section
The GPS reading for this point is 45026’69”N;
0
25 24’21”E, altitude of 1450 m. Within the P4
section, Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous
deposits crop out. This paper is focused only on the
Upper Berriasian - Lower Valanginian deposits (Fig.
4).
The Upper Berriasian is represented by 2 m thick
yellow dolomitic limestones with very frequent
calpionellids. The calpionellid fauna indicates the
Calpionellopsis Zone (Barbu, in prep.).
The Lower Valanginian is represented by pelagic
limestones with sporadic marl intercalations. The
thickness of this deposit is around 10 m. The
microfacies consist of mudstones with rare bioclastic
and siliciclastic elements. The pelagic limestone
beds contain abundant calcareous nanoplankton
(Barbu and Melinte, in preparation). The
nannoplankton associations indicated the presence of
the NK3A Zone (upper part of Lower Valanginian)
(Barbu and Melinte, in prep.). Macrofossils are
represented by few ammonite, belemnite and sponge
fragments.
In this area, the hard ground discontinuity
surface is not present.
METHODS
Processing for microfossils (foraminifera)
The micropaleontological samples were
collected from marl deposits. These samples were
prepared by using a very weak acid (2.5% solution
of acetic acid, CH3COOH). Microfossil tests were
picked from the > 63 µm fraction.
32 Victor Barbu

Fig. 3. Lithological logs of the Lespezi Mountains (quarry) with the microfossil content.
Lower Cretaceous small benthic foraminifera from the Bucegi Mountains (South Carpathians) – Paleoecologic implications 33

Fig. 4. Lithological log of the P4 section with the microfossil content.

Table 1

Thin sections Terms related to the level of oxygen content in relationship to

faunas supported (after Allison et al., 1995)
Thin sections were obtained by sectioning
pelagic limestones and further used to study TERM DEFINITION
microfossil assemblages. Standard thin sections Aerobic Normal benthic fauna, no oxygen
restriction
were ground to 30 microns.
Dysaerobic Impoverished benthic fauna, low
oxygen levels
Definitions concerning oxygen levels Anaerobic No benthic fauna present
Exaerobic Only faunas that are able to perch
Oxygen is one of the most important factors between anoxic and dysoxic
affecting metazoan communities. Low levels conditions
Poikiloaerobic Faunas that are able to withstand
inhibit foraminiferal abundance and diversity, fluctuating oxygen levels, generally
and affect taxonomic composition (Jenkins, low diversity assemblages
2000). Lack of oxygen leads to a decrease of
microbial decay and therefore can lead to Table 2
organic carbon build-up.
Related to the oxygen level, two types of Terms that describe oxygen level in the environment (after
Allison et al., 1995)
definitions are to be followed (Allison et al.,
1995). One of these describes the faunal
TERM DEFINITION
communities resulting from different levels of Oxic > 1.0 ml/l
oxygen content in the environment (Table 1), Dysoxic 1.0 – 0.2 ml/l
while the other defines the level of oxygen Suboxic 0 - 0.2 ml/l (nitrates reduced)
content in the environment (Table 2). Anoxic 0 ml/l
Euxinic 0 ml/l (free H2S in water column)
34
BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA
ASSAMBLAGES
Lespezi Mountains section
The micropaleontological samples were
collected from marls. Two micropaleotological
samples (M1 and M2) were collected from the
AF3 section and one micropaleontological sample
(M3) was collected from the AF2 section (Fig. 3).
The samples for thin sections were collected from
the pelagic limestones of the AF2 section.
The microfossil assemblage from the AF2
section (M3) includes the following small benthic
foraminifera: Lenticulina ouachensis Signal,
L. macrodisca (Reuss), Miliospirella cretaceae
Dieni & Massari, M. sardoa Dieni & Massari,
Rumanollina feifeli (Paalzow), Spirillina minima
Schacko and Ammodiscus siliceus (Terquem).
Other biogenic components are radiolarians
(Spumellaria) and ostracods (relatively frequent),
teeth fish, and radioles. The study of thin sections
recorded the presence of rare foraminifera:
Miliolidae, Textulariidae, Haplophragmoides cf.
vocontianus Moullade, Spirillina cf. italica Dieni
& Massari, Dentalina sp., Nodosaria sp.,
Pseudolithonella sp., Gavelinella sp., radiolarians
(Spumellaria – very frequent and Nasellaria –
moderatly frequent), sponge spicules,
calciphaerulids and very rare calpionellids:
Calpionella alpina Lorenz, and Tintinopsella
carpathica (Murg. & Fil.) (large variety).
A microfossil assemblage from the AF3
section (M1 and M2) contains small benthic
foraminifera: Lenticulina ouachensis bartensteini
Moullade, L. eichenbergi Brat. & Brand,
Miliospirella cretaceae Dieni & Massari,
Miliospirella sardoa Dieni & Massari, Patellina
subcretacea Cush. & Alex., Rumanollina feifeli
(Paalzow), Spirillina minima Schacko, Vaginulina
arguta Reuss, V. recta Reuss and Ammodiscus
siliceous (Terquem). Other biogenic components
include radiolarians and ostracods (rare), teeth
fish, radioles, crinoid debris, rhynconelites,
aptychus (Lamellapthycus didayi Coq.). In the M2
samples, glauconitic grains are relatively frequent.
The P4 section
The micropaleontological sample (M1/P4)
was collected from marls (Fig. 4). This
micropaleontological sample contains small
Victor Barbu
benthic foraminifera such as: Ammodiscus siliceous
(Terquem), Praedorothia praehauteriviana (Dieni &
Massari), Glomospira gautina Berthelin, Lenticulina
ouachensis Signal, L. macrodisca (Reuss),
Miliospirella cretaceae Dieni & Massari, M. sardoa
Dieni & Massari, Rumanollina feifeli (Paalzow),
Spirillina minima Schacko, S. italica Dieni & Massari,
Tristix palaeofusca Neagu, Ichnusella
trocolinaeformis Dieni & Massari, Belorusiella
textularoides (Reuss), beside radiolarians (Spumellaria
– very rich), ostracods, and echinoid and crinoid
debris. This sample contains small iron oxide
concretions.
PALEOECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The micropaleontological samples (M1, M2,
M3 and M1/P4) contain small agglutinated and
calcareous benthic foraminifera, ostracods,
radiolarians, fish teeth and echinoid debris. Planktonic
foraminifera are missing.
The bulk samples that were collected from inter-
bedded pelagic limestones contain abundant
calcareous nannoplankton.
Macrofossils are sparse, and only a few
ammonites, belemnites, and nautiloids were recorded.
The occurrence of these macrofossils suggests an open
marine environment.
The mixed calcareous/agglutinated small benthic
foraminiferal association suggests that the Lower
Cretaceous pelagic limestones were deposited along an
outer shelf approaching a bathyal environment, but
above the CCD (Holbourn and Kaminski, 1997).
Assemblages with Spirillina, Patellina, and
Lenticulina are generally considered to be an indicator
of bathyal depths.
The micropaleontological samples contain rare
agglutinated foraminiferal species, indicating a very
high organic influx and oxygen depleted bottom
waters (Holbourn and Kaminski, 1997). Oxygen
deficiency is usually caused by high organic
productivity at the sea surface leading to anaerobic
bacterial blooms and production of H2S (Brasier,
1996). The high productivity could be explained by the
presence of upwelling currents along the continental
margin.
The calcareous nannofossils are good indicators
for reconstructing the fertility of surface waters. The
nannofossil assemblages contain Watznaueria
barnesae, Nannoconus spp., Zeugrhabdotus spp.,
Lower Cretaceous small benthic foraminifera from the Bucegi Mountains (South Carpathians) – Paleoecologic implications
Micrantholithus spp. and Conusphaera spp.
(Barbu and Melinte, in preparation). In this paper,
Zeugrhabdotus spp. and Nannoconus spp. are
useful for reconstructing the fertility of surface
water. Zeugrhabdotus spp. (mainly Z. erectus) is
considered an indicator of high surface-water
fertility in unstable environments, such as oceanic
sites of upwelling or in shelf areas where trophic
conditions may have been affected by storms
(Roth and Krumbach, 1986; Williams and
Bralower, 1995; Melinte and Mutterlose, 2001;
Giraud et al., 2003). Nannoconus spp. has been
interpreted as restricted to the lower photic zone
and to be controlled by fluctuations of the
nutricline depth. High abundance in Nannoconus
spp. may thus indicate a deep chlorophyll
maximum zone (DCM) with an increased
productivity of the lower photic zone (Erba, 1994).
The benthic foraminiferal assemblage with
small, thin, and unornamented shells indicates
anaerobic conditions (Brasier, 1996).
Low diversity, small size, and predominance
of flattened morphologies have been frequently
observed in deposits that were accumulated when
oxygen levels were low (Bernhard, 1986).
The presence of conical and trochospiral
inflated forms within small benthic foraminiferal
assemblages has been interpreted to indicate
epifaunal to shallow infaunal deposit feeders
tolerant of rather low oxygen conditions (Coccioni
and Galeotti, 1993; Kaiho and Hasegawa, 1994;
Erbacher et al., 1998).
Dysaerobic conditions of the sea floor are
suggested by the occurrence of small Spirillina
among the benthic fauna (Cobianchi et al., 1999).
The absence of planktonic foraminifera might
be explained by the evolutionary setback of this
group in the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous
(Neocomian). In the adjacent, Dâmbovicioara
Basin, the first planktonic foraminifera occur in
the Lower Barremian (Hedbergella graysonensis
(Tappan) and H. sigali Moullade) (Neagu, 1975).
Zoophycos trace fossils occur in the Lespezi
Mts. outcrops (Barbu, in press). The occurrence of
Zoophycos in poorly oxygenated sediments is well
documented (Savdra, 1992; Wetzel and Uchman,
1998). Zoophycos is produced by deep
chemosymbiotic organisms exploiting organic
matter, and is well preserved in dysaerobic to
anaerobic substrates (Bromley, 1996).
Another argument for the existence of low
oxygenation conditions within the sediments is the
35
presence of pyrite and iron oxide, replacing
pseudomorphically the pyrite, in the pelagic
limestones of the Lespezi Mts.
CONCLUSIONS
The study of the small benthic foraminifera and
calcareous nannofossil assemblages of the Lespezi
Mountains (AF2 and AF3 sections) and P4 section
permits the following conclusions:
1. All small benthic foraminifera assemblages
indicate deep water environments. The mixed
calcareous/agglutinated small benthic foraminifera
associations suggest that the Lower Cretaceous
pelagic limestones were accumulated along the outer
shelf towards mid-bathyal environments, but above
the CCD. The occurrence of Spirillina, Patellina and
Lenticulina species indicates deep water, bathyal
environments.
2. The low diversity, the small size and
predominance of flattened morphology, observed in
the case of benthic foraminifera, indicate high
productivity associated with oxygen deficiency at
the bottom. Moreover, the occurrence of the benthic
genus Spirillina argues for dysaerobic conditions.
3. The presence of Zeugrhabdotus spp. indicates
high surface-water fertility in unstable environments
(e.g. upwelling conditions).
4. The presence of Zoophycos, as well as that of
pyrite and iron oxide, replacing pseudomorphically
the pyrite, indicates low oxygenation conditions
within the sediments.
A combination of high surface fertility and
dysoxic bottom water was probably responsible for
the very impoverished foraminiferal assemblages
recovered from the Lespezi Mts. and the P4 section
in the Valanginian – lowermost Hauterivian.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support was provided by the IAS
Postgraduate Grant Scheme/2001 and by the National Council
for Research Grant 92/2003-2004. I am very indebted to Acad.
Prof. Dr. Theodor Neagu (University of Bucharest) for help with
determination of small benthic foraminifera and for the fruitful
discussions about biostratigraphical and paleoecological
interpretations. Special thanks Dr. Iuliana Lazǎr (University of
Bucharest) and to Mr. Octavian Pǎunescu for their valuable help
during field work. Dr. Carrie E. Schweitzer (Kent State
University) is gratefully acknowledged for the English
correction of the final text.
36
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