applied
sciences
Article
Load Models Representative of Brazilian Actual Traffic in
Girder-Type Short-Span Highway Bridges
Carlos Eduardo Rossigali 1, * , Michèle Schubert Pfeil 2 , Luis Volnei Sudati Sagrilo 2
and Hugo Medeiros de Oliveira 2
Citation: Rossigali, C.E.; Pfeil, M.S.;
Sagrilo, L.V.S.; de Oliveira, H.M.
Load Models Representative of
Brazilian Actual Traffic in
Girder-Type Short-Span Highway
Bridges. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app13021032
Academic Editors: Tong Guo
and Zhongxiang Liu
Received: 17 November 2022
Revised: 3 January 2023
Accepted: 5 January 2023
Published: 12 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13021032
1 Center for Marine Studies, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Beira-Mar Avenue,
Pontal do Paraná 83255-976, PR, Brazil
2 Civil Engineering Program, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 149 Athos da Silveira Ramos Avenue,
Rio de Janeiro 21941-972, RJ, Brazil
* Correspondence: carlos.rossigali@ufpr.br
Abstract: The Brazilian code NBR 7188 for highway bridge design prescribes a live load model
consisting of a 3-axle vehicle plus a uniform load, which are both affected by an impact factor when
considering dynamic effects. It does not play out actual traffic static effects and may be, in some
cases, non-conservative. This work presents two load model configurations developed by gathering
a real traffic database, traffic simulations, modeling of the dynamic interaction between vehicles and
structure, and statistical extrapolations. Proposed load models comprise dynamic effects and were
calibrated for two-lane single carriageway bridges with span lengths up to 40 m under free-flowing
traffic. The target values of the effects were compared to those generated by the new proposed
load models, as well as by the Brazilian design load model. Adequacy of the proposed models
is demonstrated; results show that the effects generated by the Brazilian design load model are
underestimated in many cases, particularly for negative moments in cantilevers.
Keywords: highway bridges; live load models; traffic simulation; vehicle-pavement-structure dy-
namic interaction; optimization
1. Introduction
Codes for highway bridge design provide live load models for both ultimate limit
states and fatigue evaluation. In the first case, the model intends to represent extreme
traffic load effects, and in the second one, the magnitude of fatigue damage generated by
the traffic or to ensure an unlimited fatigue life. Distinct techniques for traffic simulation
as well as for the analysis and treatment of traffic data [1–9] have been developed, with
the aim to assess bridge load effects by means of probabilistic methods and to improve the
(re)calibration of live load models for design codes.
Eurocode 1 and AASHTO are reference design codes in relation to live load model
development. Eurocode 1 [10] provides four models for vertical loads on highway bridges
calibrated to represent the effects of the actual traffic, including dynamic effects [11].
Bridges spanning 5–200 m were chosen as representative structures. The basic model
LM1 consists of three design lanes, each one loaded with a 2-axle vehicle and a uniformly
distributed load. The original calibration of the Eurocode 1 load models was carried out
using data from weigh-in-motion (WIM) traffic recorded between 1986 and 1987 [11,12].
A recalibration of the models was performed with new traffic data obtained from 1997 to
2001, which confirmed the values of the effects obtained in the original calibration [13].
On the other hand, the United States’ design code AASHTO LRFD [14] provides two
load models for actual traffic: the former AASHTO HL-93 design truck, for long spans,
and a tandem axle for shorter spans. Both are accompanied by a 9.3 kN/m uniformly
distributed design load. An impact factor is considered. Traffic simulation included the
presence of multiple trucks on the slab, both in a single lane (convoys) and in adjacent
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 and a tandem axle for shorter spans. Both are accompanied by a 9.3 kN/m uniformly 2 of 19
distributed design load. An impact factor is considered. Traffic simulation included the
presence of multiple trucks on the slab, both in a single lane (convoys) and in adjacent
lanes (side-by-side and staggered), to determine the probability density functions (PDF)
lanes (side-by-side and staggered), to determine the probability density functions (PDF)
of the traffic effects on bridges [15]. Calibration of the models involved weighing 9250
of the traffic effects on bridges [15]. Calibration of the models involved weighing 9250
heavy trucks in Ontario, Canada, in 1970s [12,16]. Approximately 200 bridges in the U.S.
heavy trucks in Ontario, Canada, in 1970s [12,16]. Approximately 200 bridges in the U.S.
spanning 9–60 m were chosen as representative structures [17]. As a large amount of new
spanning 9–60 m were chosen as representative structures [17]. As a large amount of new
WIM data has been collected within the U.S. over the past two decades [16], a recalibra-
WIM data has been collected within the U.S. over the past two decades [16], a recalibration
tionrecently
has has recently
been been performed.
performed. It was It was
found found
that that the current
the current AASHTO
AASHTO loadload
model model
is nois
no longer suitable for short spans; therefore, Iatsko and Nowak
longer suitable for short spans; therefore, Iatsko and Nowak [18] recommended increasing [18] recommended in-
creasing
the tandem’sthe tandem’s
load per axleloadfrom
per axle
110 kN from to110
130 kN
kN.to 130 kN.
In Hong Kong, WIM data from over
In Hong Kong, WIM data from over 800,000 trucks 800,000 truckswere
werecollected
collectedfrom
fromfivefivedifferent
different
locations; statistical analysis of traffic parameters was performed,
locations; statistical analysis of traffic parameters was performed, such as GVW, axle such as GVW, axle
weights, and wheelbases. Extreme daily bending moments
weights, and wheelbases. Extreme daily bending moments and shear forces were calculatedand shear forces were calcu-
lated
on on simply
simply supportedsupported
bridgesbridges
spanning spanning
5–40 m.5–40A 47-tm.6-axle
A 47-tload
6-axle loadwas
model modelobtainedwas ob-to
tained to the
represent represent the [19].
real traffic real traffic [19]. Inload
In Australia, Australia,
modelsload havemodels have beenconsidering
been developed developed
considering
the the effects
effects of traffic, future of trends,
traffic, and
futurethe trends,
presenceand the presence
of very long heavy of trucks.
very long The heavy
main
trucks. The main ones are a “moving traffic load” and a “stationary
ones are a “moving traffic load” and a “stationary traffic load”; both consist of four tridem traffic load”; both
consist of four tridem groups plus a non-interrupted uniformly
groups plus a non-interrupted uniformly distributed load. The reference internal forces distributed load. The
reference internal forces were shear and positive moments
were shear and positive moments in simply supported bridges and negative moments in in simply supported bridges
and negative
two-span moments
continuous in two-span
bridges spanning continuous
up to 100bridges
m [20]. spanning up to 100 m [20].
Withthe
With thewidespread
widespread useuse of WIM
of WIM systems
systems worldwide,
worldwide, the mentioned
the mentioned calibrations
calibrations have
have already
already been carried
been carried out in out in several
several countries,
countries, e.g., South
e.g., South AfricaAfrica [21]Mexico
[21] and and Mexico [22]. [22].
Toaccount
To accountforfor extreme
extreme loadload effects,
effects, the design
the design code7188
code NBR NBR[23]7188
for [23] for highway
highway bridges
bridges in Brazil presents a live load model, as shown in Figure
in Brazil presents a live load model, as shown in Figure 1, named TB-450, which is composed 1, named TB-450, which
is acomposed
of 450 kN weightof a 450 kN weight
vehicle and a vehicle
distributed and load
a distributed
p of 5.0 kN/m 2
load p ,ofboth
5.0 kN/m 2
multiplied, bothbymul-
an
tiplied factor.
impact by an This
impact factor. This
configuration configuration
originated from an originated fromofanthe
older version older
designversion
code. of Loadthe
designhave
values code.been
Loadincreased
values have overbeentime increased over time
as an attempt to as an attempt
update to update
the code to account the code
for
heavy vehicles
to account for weights, although
heavy vehicles without
weights, any calibration
although without process; therefore,
any calibration loads there-
process; from
the
fore,Brazilian
loads fromdesign thecode may not
Brazilian properly
design codereproduce the extreme
may not properly effects ofthe
reproduce theextreme
real traffic.
ef-
There is a need to verify the adequacy of the code model and
fects of the real traffic. There is a need to verify the adequacy of the code model and toto develop more realistic
design
develop criteria.
more realistic design criteria.

P P P
p p

6.0m
2.0m
3.0m

1.5m 1.5m

Figure1.1.Current
Figure CurrentBrazilian
Brazilianload
loadmodel:
model:plan
planview
viewand
andcross
crosssection.
section.

Research
Researchfocusing
focusingload
loadmodels
modelsfor forhighway
highwaybridgebridgedesign
designisisunder
underdevelopment
developmentin in
Brazil
Brazil[24–27].
[24–27].The Thecurrent fatigue
current livelive
fatigue loadload
model fromfrom
model the Brazilian code NBR
the Brazilian code7188,
NBRwhich
7188,
consists of the TB-450
which consists of themodel
TB-450(see Figure(see
model 1) affected
Figure 1) by affected
a reduced byfactor, was evaluated
a reduced to
factor, was
verify the unlimited
evaluated fatigue
to verify the life criterion
unlimited fatigue oflifetypical structures
criterion as structures
of typical box girdersasor
boxmultiple
girders
girders [28]. girders
or multiple As a result,
[28].aAs
new fatiguea live
a result, newload model
fatigue livewas
loadproposed.
model was proposed.
Live
Live load models for ultimate limit states in Brazilian highway
load models for ultimate limit states in Brazilian highway bridges
bridges are
are being
being
developed
developed by the authors to reproduce extreme values of bridge effects due to actual
by the authors to reproduce extreme values of bridge effects due to actual
traffic
traffic[6]
[6](including
(includingdynamic
dynamic effects) withwith
effects) approximately
approximatelythe same
the reliability index [17,29]
same reliability index
among
[17,29] among typical structural systems [13]. Two-girders reinforced concrete with
typical structural systems [13]. Two-girders reinforced concrete (RC) bridges, (RC)
span lengths up to 40 m, were considered. The adopted methodology, involving the
developed traffic database, assessment of static and dynamic effects due to the real traffic,
their histograms, and extrapolations, are described in Section 2.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 3 of 19

Comparisons were provisionally made [30,31] between the values of the effects pro-
duced by the NBR 7188 load model and the characteristic values of the effects obtained
by the simulations of actual traffic. Results showed that the Brazilian code load models
could not adequately reproduce the real traffic of heavy vehicles and may, in many cases
(particularly the negative moments at the cantilevers), be non-conservative. A similar
situation also occurred in other countries [6,20–22].
Present work offers two main contributions to the research line. First, the grid models
that represent the decks have undergone certain adjustments in order to simulate the static
and dynamic behavior of the bridges in terms of displacements and natural frequencies.
The new grid models were calibrated to shell element models of the bridges. Finally,
two load models that are representative of Brazilian real traffic on small span bridges are
proposed and comparisons between their results and those of the NBR 7188 current model
are presented.

2. Methodology
The adopted methodology consisted of the following steps [11,13,17,30]:
(a) Traffic database: from traffic data obtained by static scales and WIM equipment on
highways, a comprehensive database was built and the necessary statistical informa-
tion about traffic was obtained;
(b) Selection of typical structural schemes and critical internal forces;
(c) Static effects due to the real traffic: were assessed by determining critical internal
forces in structural models of the selected typical bridges;
(d) Dynamic effects: considered through analyses of the vehicle-pavement-structure
interaction;
(e) Target values of the effects due to real traffic: histograms of the static effects were
obtained, to which PDFs were fitted and extrapolations were made to certain return
periods. The characteristic internal forces were then affected by dynamic amplification
factors leading to the target values;
(f) Load models representative of the actual traffic: features of new load models were
sought by optimization in order to approximately reproduce the extreme values of
the critical effects (the target values), including the dynamic contribution, with the
design load statically applied to the corresponding structural models.

3. Traffic Database
The first stage was the elaboration of a representative real traffic database gathering
information on sources like weighing at monitoring stations, traffic surveys, and traf-
fic parameters measurements in free flow, that were carried out at different locations
in Brazil [24].
Data collected during 14 consecutive days in 2011 at a weighing station on SP-348
state highway is fairly representative of the heavy traffic in Brazil, so it was taken as
reference to the database developed in this work [30]. As the available data did not include
information on buses, vehicle speed, and wheelbases, additional information was gathered
from other four data sources including weighing stations and traffic surveys: (a) a traffic
survey in 15 stations in several States of Brazil between 1999 and 2002 by means of WIM
measurements; (b) a traffic survey on federal Brazilian highways by collecting data in
109 counting stations spread all over the country in a 7-day period in 2005; (c) data collected
at the same weighing station in SP-348 state highway consisting of a set of sheets containing
daily records of a 6-day period in June 2008; (d) data from a weighing station located
on BR-277 federal highway, containing daily records of a 28-day period in June 2008. It
was found that the statistical information of all these data is quite similar, and that the
adoption of a hybrid base would not yield important deviations. Also, more recent traffic
surveys [32] indicate very similar patterns in Brazilian traffic today, in relation to the older
data used in this work. However, GVW distributions for the Brazilian case are not similar
to those obtained from Eurocode 1 and AASHTO LRFD calibration [11,12,15,18]. This was
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• Negative moment at the support of cantilever systems and at the central support of
continuous systems.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

• Negative moment at the support of cantilever systems and at the central support of
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 • continuous systems.at the support of cantilever systems and at the central support
Negative moment 5 of 19
of
continuous systems.

Figure 2. (a) RC Π cross section adopted (units: cm) and (b) structural schemes.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a) RC Π
(a) RC Π cross
cross section
section adopted
adopted (units:
(units: cm)
cm) and
and (b)
(b) structural
structural schemes.
schemes.
Total bridge width equal to 13 m, as shown in Figure 2a, corresponds to the Brazilian
standardTotal
Total deck
bridge
bridgeforwidth
singleequal
width carriageway
equal to
to13
13 m,
m, astwo-lane
as shown
shown in highways.
in Figure
Figure 2a,2a,Itcorresponds
supports roads
corresponds to
to the
thewith two
Brazilian
Brazilian
traffic
standardlanes,
standarddeck 7.20
deckfor m wide.
forsingle
single This
carriagewayset
carriageway of geometry
two-lane
two-lane and
highways. structural
highways. It supports systems is
roadsroads
It supports quite
with two repre-
with traffic
two
sentative
lanes,
traffic7.20of m
lanes,thewide.
general
7.20 mThis pattern
wide.set of of Brazilian
geometry
This and
set of geometryhighway bridges
structural
and systems [25].issystems
structural quite representative
is quite repre- of
the Table
general 2 presents
pattern of the dimensions
Brazilian highway adopted
bridges for
sentative of the general pattern of Brazilian highway bridges [25]. the
[25]. structural elements illustrated in
FigureTable
2a. The
Table usual design
22 presents
presents the pattern for
the dimensions
dimensions reinforced
adopted
adopted for concrete
for the
the structuralbridges
structural is adopted.
elements
elements Crossin
illustrated
illustrated in
Figure
Figure 2a. The usual design pattern for reinforced concrete bridges is adopted.beams
beams 2a.
have The usual
rectangulardesign pattern
cross-sections for reinforced
and are concrete
considered bridges is
disconnectedadopted. to Cross
the slab. In
Cross
have
addition
beams rectangular
have cross-sections
to therectangular
support cross and are
beams,
cross-sections two considered
intermediate
and disconnected
cross beams
are considered to the
were
disconnected slab. In the
addition
considered
to slab. forto
In
the
the support
10 m and
addition cross
20 m
to the beams, two
spans cross
support intermediate
and three
beams,for two
the 30 cross beams were
m and 40 mcross
intermediate spans.considered
For the
beams were for the
cantilevers,10
considered m and
onefor
20
them10spans
intermediate
m and and20three
cross mbeam forwas
spans the 30 m and
andconsidered
three for 40 for
the m30spans.
the andFor
mspans 40ofthe cantilevers,
m2.5, 5.0, and
spans. 7.5one
For the m intermediate
and two for
cantilevers, one
cross
intermediate cross beam was considered for the spans of 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 mspan
the spanbeam
of was
10 m. considered
The concrete for the spans
compressive of 2.5, 5.0,
strength and
fck 7.5
was m and
assumed two for
equal the to 25
and of
MPatwo10form.
for
The
all concrete
bridges. compressive strength fck was assumed equal to 25
the span of 10 m. The concrete compressive strength fck was assumed equal to 25 MPa for MPa for all bridges.
all bridges.
Dimensionsof
Table2.2.Dimensions
Table ofthe
thestructural
structuralelements.
elements.
Table 2. Dimensions
Supply Supported of the structural elements.
Cantilever Continuous
Supply Supported Cantilever Continuous
Element Dimension
Element Dimension Span
Span Lengths
Lengths
Supply (m)
(m)
Supported Span Lengths(m)
Span Cantilever
Lengths (m) Span
Span Lengths (m)
Lengths (m)
Continuous
Element Dimension 10 10 20
Span
20 Lengths30
30 (m)40 40 2.5
2.5 Span5.0
5.0 Lengths 7.5
7.5 (m)10 10 10
10 Span 20
20 Lengths 30
30 (m)40 40

Girder hh 1.00
1.00 10 2.002.00
20 3.003.00
30 3.503.50
40 0.90 0.90
2.5 1.801.80
5.0 2.50 2.50 3.00
7.5 3.0010 0.90 0.90
10 1.801.80
20 2.502.50 3.00
30 3.00 40
Girder
bwbwh 0.35
0.35
1.00 0.40
0.40
2.00 0.45
0.45
3.00 0.50
0.50
3.50 0.35
0.35
0.90 0.40
0.401.80 0.45
0.452.50 0.50
0.50
3.00 0.35
0.35
0.90 0.40
0.40
1.80 0.45
0.45 0.50
0.50
2.50 3.00
Girder
Cross
Cross hThTbw 0.80
0.35 1.60
0.80 1.60 2.40
0.40 2.40 2.80
0.45 2.80 0.50 0.700.70
0.35 1.401.40
0.40 2.00 2.00 2.40
0.45 2.40
0.50 0.70 0.70 1.40
0.35 1.40 2.00
0.40 2.00 2.40
0.45 2.400.50
beam
beam
Cross bTbThT 0.30
0.30
0.80 0.350.35 0.40
1.60 0.40 0.45
2.40 0.45 2.80 0.300.30
0.70 0.350.35
1.40 0.40 0.40 0.45
2.00 0.45
2.40 0.30 0.30 0.35
0.70 0.35 0.40
1.40 0.40 0.45
2.00 0.452.40
beam bT 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
The
Theidentification
identificationpattern
patternofofthe thestructures
structuresconsists
consistsofofaaletter
letterthat
thatrepresents
representsthe the
structural
The scheme
structural scheme[S:[S:simply
identification supported;
pattern
simply C:
C:continuous;
of the structures
supported; F:F:fixed
consists
continuous; of a(clamped-free)],
fixed followed
letter that represents
(clamped-free)], followedthe
by aanumber
structural
by number that
thatindicates
scheme the
[S: simply
indicates span
spanlength
thesupported;length C:(in meters).
meters).For
continuous;
(in F: the
For theanalyzed
fixed bridges,
bridges,3D
(clamped-free)],
analyzed 3Dshell
followed
shell
models were
werecreated,
by a number
models as
asshown
that indicates
created, the in
shown inFigure
span length
Figure 3a.
3a.(in meters). For the analyzed bridges, 3D shell
models were created, as shown in Figure 3a.

φ
φ
α
α

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure3.3.(a)
(a)Finite(a)
Finiteelement
elementmodel
modelfor
forthe
the30-m
30-mspan
span(b)
simply
simplysupported
supportedbridge (c)
bridge(S-30).
(S-30).(b)
(b)Equivalent
Equivalent
grid
gridmodel.
model. (c)
(c)Stick
Stickmodel
modelfor
fordynamic
dynamic analyses.
analyses.
Figure 3. (a) Finite element model for the 30-m span simply supported bridge (S-30). (b) Equivalent
grid model. (c) Stick model for dynamic analyses.
In order to reduce the computational effort required for several structural analyses
of the traffic simulation, an equivalent grid structural model, shown in Figure 3b, was
developed to represent the finite element model of Figure 3a. The adjusted grid model
was then used for static analysis of traffic simulations and also to create the equivalent
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 6 of 19

stick model shown in Figure 3c, which represents the bridge in the analyses of the vehicle-
pavement-structure dynamic interaction (Section 6).
For each bridge structure, a Finite Element Model (FEM) was developed with four
node quadrilateral shell elements whose formulation is based on Mindlin/Reissner theory,
which accounts for shear behavior, to represent girders, slab, and crossbeams (Figure 3a).
In the grid model the girders and cross beams are modeled with spatial frame elements.
The geometric properties of the girders are calculated for a T cross-section, considering
the portion of the slab that contributes to the stiffness. The effective width of the flange is
defined by geometric conditions and the rules given by the Brazilian standard for design of
concrete structures [34]. Girders and cross beams have a constant cross-section.
Diagonal and vertical elements were modeled with a polygonal section and dimen-
sions defined by the adjustment to the shell model. Diagonal elements arranged in “X”
in the grid plane were created to simulate the deck slab; vertical and diagonal elements
forming a “X” on the planes of the end cross beams were created to simulate the eccentricity
of the girders’ supports in relation to their center of mass.
The adopted modeling procedures and the technique by which a 3D-grid model as
the one described above is developed in adjustment to a 3D numerical model composed of
shell elements were validated by comparison to experimental results in Santos et al. [35].
Given the transverse configuration of the bridge (Π cross-section) and the presence of
cross beams, an analytical solution for the transverse load distribution from the Courbon–
Engesser method could be considered, as recently applied in [36], since its fundamental
hypotheses are expected to be valid. In fact, comparisons between analytical and numerical
(grid model) load factor distribution showed a maximum difference of only 5.2% for load
eccentricities on the unfavorable side for the considered girder. However, the analytical
solution for the longitudinal structural scheme considering a simple beam does not provide
a faithful representation of the bridge stiffness. This way, the described numerical models
were applied for static and dynamic analyses.
Table 3 presents the comparison between results from the detailed shell model—
Figure 3a—and the equivalent grid model—Figure 3b—in terms of dead loads of the
structures, midspan displacements due to the passage of a class 3C truck (Figure 4) along
the center line of the bridge, and the right girder (G1), as well as the natural frequencies in
vertical bending and longitudinal torsion modes of simply supported bridges (S). Compar-
ative results show that the grid model was successfully calibrated to the shell model.

Table 3. Maximum deflections and natural frequencies from the grid model and shell model for
simply supported bridges (B = bending; T = torsion).

Natural
Deflections (m) Due to a 3C
Frequencies
Truck at Transverse Positions
Bridge Model (Hz)
Center Above
1st B 1st T
Line Girder G1
Shell 6.10 × 10−4 2.95 × 10−4 11.63 14.21
S-10
Grid 6.58 × 10−4 2.98 × 10−4 14.37 15.13
Shell 4.14 × 10−4 8.08 × 10−4 7.76 7.25
S-20
Grid 4.13 × 10−4 9.10 × 10−4 8.67 9.55
Shell 4.77 × 10−4 9.11 × 10−4 6.40 7.22
S-30
Grid 4.74 × 10−4 9.01 × 10−4 6.71 7.87
Shell 6.72 × 10−4 12.5 × 10−4 4.56 6.21
S-40
Grid 6.77 × 10−4 12.3 × 10−4 4.67 5.65
 structures, midspan displacements due to the passage of a class 3C truck (Figure 4) along
the center line of the bridge, and the right girder (G1), as well as the natural frequencies
in vertical bending and longitudinal torsion modes of simply supported bridges (S).
Comparative results show that the grid model was successfully calibrated to the shell
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 model. 7 of 19

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Figure
Passage of theofthree-axle
4. Passage rigid
the three-axle rigidvehicle [3C].
vehicle [3C]. (a)(a) Along
Along the center
the center line
line of the of the
bridge. bridge. (b)
(b) Over
the right girder
Over the right girder (G1).(G1).

Values of deflections and natural frequencies for each bridge span depend on the
adopted dimensions for the structural elements (see Table 2). It can be seen in Table 3
that vertical deflections increase with span length for loads above girder G1. As expected,
natural frequencies associated to vertical bending and torsional modes decrease with the
increase of the span length.

5. Traffic Simulation for Static Analysis

5.1. Traffic Simulator and Structural Analysis
The computational tool developed to obtain the effects generated by real traffic consists
of two steps [2]:
• Traffic simulation: initial stage in which information is generated for all vehicles that
will make up the traffic, such as vehicle classes, speeds, etc. For the variables described
by PDFs, the Monte Carlo technique is used to generate values [1,4,6,7,9,37].
• Structural analysis in time: stage in which the vehicles generated by the simulation
travel along the analyzed structure, loading it. The effects due to each load are
calculated by means of influence surfaces for unitary concentrated force, bending, and
torsion moments at the critical sections; these effects are recorded at each instant of
time and the maximum values in each loading cycle of the structure are saved. At the
end of the process, these maximum values are summarized in histograms.
A queue of vehicles is generated at each lane, as well as the values of some variables
(random or deterministic) of the vehicles that will travel on it. Traffic is generated in each
lane separately and independently. The class is the first variable to be generated for each
vehicle in the queue, also using the Monte Carlo technique, depending on the probability of
occurrence of each class (Table 1). Once the class is defined, all other information relevant to
this vehicle is generated: wheelbases, speed, time until the next vehicle, and GVW. Defined
the gross weight, the static load of each axle or group of axles is then calculated (instead of
estimated) by means of regression lines.
The traffic simulator checks whether, at the current instant of time, there is any vehicle
with at least one axle on the bridge. If so, the desired effects are calculated, neglecting the
initial deformations of the structure at each time. The structural analysis ends only when
all vehicles on all lanes have already traveled over the bridge; when this happens, all the
values of the effects obtained are organized in histograms.
According to O’Connor and O’Brien [3], some different traffic situations should be
considered: traffic jams, mixed flow, and free flow. In small spans, critical load cases are
due to heavy vehicles crossing and are affected by the dynamic amplification factor [3,4,29].
In large spans, however, critical load cases are due to the simultaneous presence of several
vehicles on structures in congested or mixed flow, with little or no dynamic amplifica-
tion [13]. As the structures considered herein have a maximum length of 40 m, congested
and mixed flow situations were not considered: simulation was performed only in the free
flow modality.
For the traffic analysis, eight different scenarios were defined (Figure 5), varying the
position and direction of the lanes and the transverse position of the vehicles, aiming to
map a large amount of possibilities for vehicle arrangements among the lanes [38], and in
addition, to forecast possible exceptional situations such as vehicles traveling close to the
 congested and mixed flow situations were not considered: simulation was performed
only in the free flow modality.
For the traffic analysis, eight different scenarios were defined (Figure 5), varying th
position and direction of the lanes and the transverse position of the vehicles, aiming to
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032
map a large amount of possibilities for vehicle arrangements among the lanes [38], and in
8 of 19
addition, to forecast possible exceptional situations such as vehicles traveling close to th
Jersey barrier, which are needed for the Ultimate Limit State design. The vehicles’ posi
tions barrier,
Jersey alwayswhich
simulate the worst
are needed for thesituation for the
Ultimate Limit right
State girder
design. (G1). In positions
The vehicles’ even-numbered
scenarios,
always therethe
simulate is worst
a reallocation of the
situation for lanes to girder
right characterize
(G1). In exceptional or emergency
even-numbered scenarios, situa
tionsis[11].
there a reallocation of lanes to characterize exceptional or emergency situations [11].

Figure5.5.Traffic
Figure Trafficscenarios considered
scenarios for the
considered forUltimate Limit State
the Ultimate Limitdesign
State [30].
design [30].
5.2. Considerations for Traffic Simulations
5.2. Considerations for Traffic Simulations
Assuming the bridge loading process as stationary, traffic simulations were carried
out forAssuming the bridge
30 consecutive loading
days. This periodprocess as stationary,
of simulation traffic
is sufficient simulations
to ensure were carried
an accurate
out for 30ofconsecutive
generation days.values
the characteristic This ofperiod
effectsof[3,24]
simulation
and avoid is large
sufficient to ensure
computational an accurat
effort
generation
from long-runofsimulations
the characteristic
[6,38]. values of effects [3,24] and avoid large computational ef
fort The
from subsequent
long-run step is the extrapolation
simulations [6,38]. of the distributions of the effects to certain
returnThe
periods. For Eurocode 1 load models calibration,
subsequent step is the extrapolation of the the distributions
target values were taken
of the with ato certain
effects
return period of 1000 years to ensure a small probability of excess in the effects’ values: 0.1%
return periods. For Eurocode 1 load models calibration, the target values were taken with
per year [11]. This choice was made to limit the likelihood of several exceedances of the
a return period of 1000 years to ensure a small probability of excess in the effects’ values
serviceability limit state during the lifetime. The AASHTO load model HS93 was calibrated
0.1% per ayear
assuming [11].
return Thisof
period choice was[15].
75 years made to limit
To set the likelihood
the return period for theof several exceedances o
extrapolations
the serviceability limit state during the lifetime. The AASHTO load
of static effects, one should consider that a very large return period is not representative, model HS93 wa
calibrated
because assuming
the traffic a return
probably period
will not remainof with
75 years [15].settings.
the same To set the Thereturn
rapidlyperiod
changingfor the ex
trapolations
technology of static
causes effects,
distortion one
of the should
load patternconsider that violating
in long-term a very large return period
the stationarity of is no
these random processes, which partially invalidates the large return periods,
representative, because the traffic probably will not remain with the same settings. Th unlike natural
phenomena. On the technology
rapidly changing other hand, the extrapolation
causes distortionis ofbeing
the held
loadfor random
pattern in unmeasured
long-term violating
but indirectly modeled quantities—the internal forces—which can generate errors, so that
for safety, conservatively large return periods must be adopted [13]. Considering both
aspects, it was assumed 100 years for simulations in Scenarios 1, 3, 5, and 7, and 10 years for
Scenarios 2, 4, 6, and 8 [39]. In all cases, traffic growth was not considered for extrapolation.
Speeds lower than 30 km/h or greater than 140 km/h were also not considered.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 9 of 19

Available data referring to the current speed of the vehicles (measured in the traffic
lanes) were obtained only in the form of histograms; the records containing the time
between subsequent vehicles were not available, so that it was not possible to fit a PDF
to this variable. Therefore, due to the lack of this specific type of discriminated records,
time between vehicles was modeled by a gamma distribution [3,33] with a coefficient of
variation assumed equal to 0.5. The adoption of this distribution is suggested in the case of
the process of vehicles arrival to be idealized as a Poisson process [7]. The Average Daily
Truck Traffic (ADTT) for the adopted database is 7019 commercial vehicles. This value is
called the reference flow (RF) and includes traffic on three lanes.
At this stage of the work, the several correlations due to the interdependence among
GVWs, speeds, headways, and wheelbases, in the same lane and in adjacent lanes, were
not considered for the traffic simulations. On the one hand, they are relevant in multi-lane,
same-direction traffic (Scenarios 4 to 8 in Figure 5) on short-to-medium span bridges due
to the dependence between lanes [1] and may increase the maximum effects [40]. On the
other hand, in [24], it was found that the statistical parameters of the distributions of effects
generated when considering small negative correlations between GVWs and speeds, in
the same traffic lane, are identical to those generated with zero correlation; furthermore,
Anitori et al. [5] found no correlation between the GVWs of vehicles close to each other,
neither in the same lane nor in adjacent lanes.
If there is an equal number of lanes for each traffic direction, it can be roughly consid-
ered that total highway traffic is divided equally for each direction; however, partition of
the flow in each direction between lanes, when there is more than one lane, is not uniform:
the right lane tends to receive most of the commercial vehicle traffic, as slower vehicles
are advised to travel in this lane. The proportions shown in Table 4 were adopted for the
division of the flow [13,37,40].

Table 4. Characterization of traffic scenarios (RF = reference flow = 7019 vehicles per day).

Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 3

Scenario
Dir. %RF Dir. %RF Dir. %RF
1 and 2 Go 85% Return 85% - -
3 and 4 Go 85% Go 15% - -
5 and 6 Go 80% Go 18% Go 2%
7 and 8 Go 85% Go 15% Return 85%

Table 5 shows the maximum effects obtained in the reference sections and the trucks
and buses that have originated them. In some cases, there was a simultaneous presence
on the bridges of two very heavy vehicles, although GVW values never came very close
to their physically accepted limits [24]. Thus, it is understood that the several cases of the
simultaneous presence of vehicles in different lanes of the carriageway analyzed in the
literature [3,32,41], are automatically included by the random character of the variables that
define the traffic simulation, except the free flow of truck convoys on the same lane. On
lane 1 (which has the greatest influence surface ordinates of each effect), in extreme cases,
the shortest bridges are loaded mainly by the heaviest tridem axles of the most frequent
semi-trailers (2S3 and 3S3), while on longer bridges, the presence of the longest 3T4 and
3T6 heavy vehicles prevails, because they can fit entirely into these structures.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 10 of 19

Table 5. Vehicle configurations that generated the extreme static effects on the bridges.

Value Vehicle nº 1 Vehicle nº 2 Vehicle nº 3

Bridge Effect (kN/ Scenario
GVW Speed GVW Speed GVW Speed
kNm) Lane Class Lane Class Lane Class
(kN) (km/h) (kN) (km/h) (kN) (km/h)
M+ 587.4 3 1 2S3-L 616.9 80 2 3C 229.7 80 - - - -
S-10
V 514.5 3 1 2S3-S 693.9 80 2 2S3-L 411.6 80 - - - -
M+ 2100.2 1 1 2S3-L 554.0 80 2 3S3-L 632.6 60 - - - -
S-20
V 693.7 8 1 3T4 530.4 80 2 2S3-L 625.2 80 - - - -
M+ 4927.7 8 1 - - - -
S-30 3T4 727.5 100 2 3I3 541.1 80
V - - - -
M+ 6981.6 5 1 3S3-L 699.8 80 2 3S3-L 511.2 80 3 3C 144.3 60
S-40
V 882.0 8 1 3T4 638.1 100 2 2S3-L 575.9 60 3 2C 83.4 100
M+ 569.6 5 1
3S3-L 798.0 80 2 2S3-L 299.5 80 3 2CB 121.2 60
C-10 V 531.1 5 1
M− 848.5 8 1 3S3-L 689.3 100 2 3S3-S 471.2 80 - - - -
M+ 2051.7 6 1 2S3-S 596.2 100 2 3C 236.9 80 3 3T6 620.3 100
C-20 V 724.8 7 1 3T4 719.1 100 2 3S3-L 528.1 60 - - - -
M− 1932.5 6 1 3T6 798.5 80 2 3T6 783.5 60 - - - -
M+ 3922.2 5 1 3T6 751.7 80 2 3S3-L 669.8 80 - - - -
C-30 V 856.1 8 1 3T4 726.3 80 2 3T6 741.5 80 - - - -
M− 3208.8 4 1 3S3-L 464.8 80 1 3T6 686.9 80 2 2I3 426.7 80
M+ 6062.4 7 1 3T4 808.4 80 2 2S3-S 436.1 60 - - - -
C-40 V 934.2 7 1 3T4 704.5 60 2 3T6 705.7 80 - - - -
M− 4710.6 3 1 3T6 838.2 80 1 3T4 573.7 60 - - - -
F-2.5 M− 595.9 8 1 3S3-L 881.4 80 - - - - - - - -
F-5.0 M− 1745.0 4 1 3S3-L 806.9 80 2 2S3-S 710.7 80 - - - -
F-7.5 M− 2473.6 5 1 2S3-L 483.4 80 2 2S3-L 473.2 80 - - - -
F-10 M− 3350.0 8 1 3S3-L 697.0 80 2 2S3-S 440.3 80 3 3I3 449.8 80

6. Analysis of the Vehicle-Pavement-Structure Interaction

The first analytical models to address bridge dynamic behavior under traffic load
consisted of beams subjected to moving loads [42]. Regarding the problem of the vehicle-
bridge dynamic interaction considering the pavement roughness, the motion equations of
the structure are derived and coupled to the vehicle motion equations ensuring equilibrium
and displacement compatibility at the contact points [43]. The bridge may be represented
as a simple beam in vertical bending; a 3D beam, including torsional vibration modes; a
grillage system [44]; or by finite element discretization [45]. In general, vehicle models
consist of mass-spring damper multi-degree of freedom systems, which are either plane or
3D [44,45]. A simplified model represents the vehicle as a moving load plus a pre-defined
forcing function as usually done in the footbridge—pedestrian interaction problem [46].
In this work, an analytical-numerical model was developed and implemented aiming
to perform the analysis of the vehicle-pavement-structure dynamic interaction. A three-axle
vehicle is considered to be moving at a constant velocity along the bridge with eccentricity
relative to the bridge axis. The vehicle is represented by a plane system of rigid bodies—see
Figure 6a—connected by springs (kvi and kpi ) and dampers (cvi and cpi ), and is associated to
five degrees of freedom: vertical displacement (uv ) and rotation (θ v ) of the suspended mass
(mv ) and vertical displacements (upi ) of the three non-suspended masses (mpi ). The bridge
structure motion is considered by generalized coordinates (ue ) in terms of vertical bending
and torsion vibration modes and corresponding frequencies associated to the stick model
of Figure 3c. These dynamic characteristics of the bridge are identified using the equivalent
grid model shown in Figure 3b. Displacements and internal forces are calculated by the
modal superposition method. From the analytical models of vehicle and structure, the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

associated to the stick model of Figure 3c. These dynamic characteristics of the bridge are
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 identified using the equivalent grid model shown in Figure 3b. Displacements and 11 of in-
19
ternal forces are calculated by the modal superposition method. From the analytical
models of vehicle and structure, the coupled system equations are formulated, including
the coupled
presencesystem
of theequations
rough pavement. The motion
are formulated, equation
including associated
the presence of thetorough
the structure
pavement. jth
vibration modeequation
The motion is written as:
associated to the structure jth vibration mode is written as:
𝑚 𝑢.. + 𝑐 𝑢. + 𝑘 𝑢 = ∑3 𝜑 𝐹 , (1)
mej uej + cej uej + k ej uej = ∑i=1 ϕ jk Fei , (1)
where me, ce and ke correspond to the generalized mass, damping, and stiffness parame-
and φm
terswhere e , ce and ke correspond to the generalized mass, damping, and stiffness parameters
jk is the jth eigenvector component at node k of the structure where there is a tire
and ϕjk is the jth eigenvector component at node k of the structure where there is a tire
contact point. At each vehicle-structure contact point, interaction forces of elastic (fei) and
contact point. At each vehicle-structure contact point, interaction forces of elastic (fei )
damping (fdi) components are generated as functions of the relative displacement and
and damping (fdi ) components are generated as functions of the relative displacement
velocity between
and velocity the axle
between the mass mpi and
axle mass the the
mpi and structure contact
structure contactpoint,
point, considering the
considering the
pavement
pavementroughness
roughness profile (u(u
profile r), as shown in Figure 6b.
), as shown in Figure 6b.
r

θv𝑣
𝜃
𝑢p𝑝-−(ur+U
u 𝑢𝑟 e+
) 𝑈𝑒
mp
mv u𝑢v𝑣
𝑢𝑝
up

rough
Superf韈ie
𝑘k𝑣3
v3 c𝑐v3
𝑣3 surface
rugosa

𝑢u𝑝3 deformed u𝑢r 𝑟

𝑢u𝑝1
p1 𝑢u𝑝2
p2 p3 estrutura
structure
deformada
mp1 mp2 mp3 𝑈𝑒
Ue

𝑘k𝑝3
p3 c𝑐p3
𝑝3 numerical model of
modelo num閞ico dathe
undeformed structure
estrutura indeformada

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a)
Figure 6. Analytical model
(a) Analytical of of
model thethe
rigid three-axle
rigid three-axlevehicle
vehicle(class
(class3C).
3C). (b)
(b) Axle-structure contact
Axle-structure contact
point displacements.
point displacements.

ForFor ith ith

thethe axle,
axle, located
located at at node
node k wherethe
k where thevertical
verticaldisplacement
displacement is equal toUUekek,,the
equalto the
interaction
interaction force
force is written
is written as:as:
Fei = f ei + f di (2)
𝐹 =𝑓 +𝑓 (2)
where
where
 
f ei = k pi u pi − (Uek + urk ) (3)
𝑓 = 𝑘 [𝑢 − 𝑈. + 𝑢 ] (3)
h.  .
i
f di = c pi u pi − U ek + urk (4)

The pavement surface roughness𝑓 = 𝑐 function

[𝑢 − 𝑈 was+obtained
𝑢 ] by random generation from (4)
a power spectrum [47]. To represent discontinuities in surface resulting, for instance,
The lack
from pavement surface
of proper roughness
maintenance function was
of expansion obtained
joints by random
or soil settlement generation
under from
a transition
a power spectrum [47]. To represent discontinuities in surface resulting, for
slab, a 3-cm step at the bridge entrance was also considered in addition to the pavement instance,
from lack of proper
roughness. maintenance
Time integration of expansion
of the joints equations
resultant motion or soil settlement under
is performed by athe
transition
Runge–
slab,Kutta
a 3-cm step at
method. the bridge
Analysis of theentrance was also considered
vehicle-pavement-structure in addition
dynamic to theleads
interaction pavement
to the
roughness.
Dynamic Time integration
Amplification of(DAF),
Factor the resultant
defined bymotion
the ratioequations
between theis maximum
performeddynamic
by the
and the static
Runge–Kutta effects: Analysis of the vehicle-pavement-structure dynamic interaction
method.
leads to the Dynamic Amplification DAF = E(DAF),
Factor dyn /Est defined by the ratio between (5) the
maximum dynamic and the static effects:
7. Target Values of the Effects Due to Real Traffic
𝐷𝐴𝐹 = 𝐸 ⁄𝐸 (5)
The steps adopted to obtain the target values of the effects due to real traffic, in the
case of free flow, are the following:
7. Target Values
(a) Fit of the
Weibull PDFsEffects
to theDue
tail to
of Real Traffic of each static effect [2,4,6,8,9,16,21],
the histogram
Thefor all adopted
steps scenariostoinobtain
Figurethe
5, and extrapolate
target values oftothe
theeffects
corresponding return
due to real periods,
traffic, in the
obtaining their representative
case of free flow, are the following: values. The Weibull PDF is one of the most widespread
distributions in the literature for modeling extreme value events. As well as in
other PDFs adopted for traffic simulation, the parameters of these distributions were
 (a) Fit Weibull PDFs to the tail of the histogram of each static effect [2,4,6,8,9,16,21], for
all scenarios in Figure 5, and extrapolate to the corresponding return periods, ob-
taining their representative values. The Weibull PDF is one of the most widespread
distributions in the literature for modeling extreme value events. As well as in other
PDFs adopted for traffic simulation, the parameters of these distributions were es-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 12 of 19
timated by the method of moments. The largest extrapolated value among all sce-
narios is considered as the characteristic static value of each effect [24].
(b) Perform the dynamic analysis of the whole loading that have caused the character-
estimated by the method of moments. The largest extrapolated value among all
istic staticiseffect
scenarios in theasreference
considered traffic scenario
the characteristic (Table
static value 5), effect
of each in order
[24].to obtain the DAF
for this configuration. This dynamic amplification is taken conservatively
(b) Perform the dynamic analysis of the whole loading that have caused the characteristic as repre-
sentative
static effectof
in the effect ontraffic
the reference the structure. The5),
scenario (Table reason forto that
in order obtainlies
thein
DAFthefor
fact
thisthat, alt-
configuration.
hough dynamic Thisamplifications
dynamic amplification is taken
are greater forconservatively
lighter vehicles as representative
[13,48,49], dynamic
of the always
effect effect on the structure.
increases The reason
with static for that lies in the fact that, although
effect [50,51].
dynamicthe
(c) Obtain amplifications
target valuesareof greater for lighter
each effect in eachvehicles [13,48,49],
structure, dynamic effect
to be reproduced by the load
always increases with static effect [50,51].
model, by multiplying the characteristic static value of the static effect by the cor-
(c) Obtain the target values of each effect in each structure, to be reproduced by the
responding DAF.
load model, by multiplying the characteristic static value of the static effect by the
To apply stepDAF.
corresponding (b) consistently, for each analyzed effect on each bridge, all vehicles
that generated, together, the maximum
To apply step (b) consistently, for eachstatic effecteffect
analyzed should be considered
on each in the dynamic
bridge, all vehicles
analysis. However,
that generated, up to
together, thenow, it has static
maximum been effect
carried out by
should be aconsidered
simplifiedinprocedure,
the dynamicsince the
analysis. However, up to now, it has been carried out by a simplified
analytical-numerical model for the dynamic analysis (Section 6) has been validatedprocedure, since ex-
the analytical-numerical model for the dynamic analysis (Section 6) has been
perimentally only for class 3C vehicles [25]. Aiming to apply this model for other vehiclevalidated
experimentally only
configurations, thefor class 3Cofvehicles
concept [25]. Aiming
an equivalent to applywas
3C vehicle this devised
model forinother vehicle
which vehicles of
configurations, the concept of an equivalent 3C vehicle was devised in which vehicles of
other classes are reduced to a 3C truck [27]. Figure 7 shows examples of this reduction.
other classes are reduced to a 3C truck [27]. Figure 7 shows examples of this reduction. Each
Each axle of the 3C truck may represent a group of axles of the actual vehicle with
axle of the 3C truck may represent a group of axles of the actual vehicle with equivalent
equivalent
properties ofproperties of mass,
mass, stiffness, stiffness,ofand
and damping the damping of the
original ones, original
so that ones,
natural so that natural
frequencies
frequencies of the vibration
of the fundamental fundamentalmodes vibration modes of systems
of both mechanical both mechanical
are similar.systems are similar.

7. Some
Figure 7.
Figure Some3C-equivalent
3C-equivalenttrucks. Units:
trucks. m. m.
Units:

For the sake of simplification, only a single equivalent vehicle was used and stan-
For the sake of simplification, only a single equivalent vehicle was used and stand-
dardized for each class of original vehicle, regardless of their wheelbases and GVW; for
ardized for each class of original vehicle, regardless of their wheelbases and GVW; for
this, the values of these two quantities were averaged among all vehicles of each class
this, the values
that generated theofgreatest
these two
staticquantities were
effects (Table averaged
5); the among
results are shown allinvehicles of the
Table 6. In each class
that
case of simultaneous presence of vehicles on the bridge when the maximum static effect6. In the
generated the greatest static effects (Table 5); the results are shown in Table
case of only
occurs, simultaneous
the vehiclepresence of vehicles
that generated on the
the most bridge when
unfavorable effect the
wasmaximum
considered.static
In effect
each structure,
occurs, for each
only the reference
vehicle effect, the dynamic
that generated the most amplifications
unfavorable areeffect
obtained
wasforconsidered.
2S3-S, In
2S3-L, 3S3-L, 3T4, and 3T6 trucks, each of them traveling alone, with speeds
each structure, for each reference effect, the dynamic amplifications are obtained for ranging from
20 km/h
2S3-S, to 100 km/h.
2S3-L, 3S3-L, For each
3T4, case,
and the trucks,
3T6 DAF is taken
eachasofthethem
highest value obtained
traveling alone,inwith
each speeds
analysis. Then, the maximum DAF value is retained for each pair structure-vehicle, regard-
ranging from 20 km/h to 100 km/h. For each case, the DAF is taken as the highest value
less of the reference effect considered. Table 7 shows the statistical features of static effects’
obtained in each analysis. Then, the maximum DAF value is retained for each pair
distribution, obtained by fitting Weibull distributions to the corresponding histograms, as
structure-vehicle,
well as the dynamicregardless of the
amplifications andreference effect of
the target values considered.
the effects. Table 7 shows the statis-
tical features of static effects’ distribution, obtained by fitting Weibull distributions to the
corresponding histograms, as well as the dynamic amplifications and the target values of
the effects.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 13 of 19

Table 6. GVWs and wheelbases of standardized 3C equivalent vehicles for each truck class.

Original d12 d23 P1 P2 P3

Vehicle (m) (m) (kN) (kN) (kN)
2S3-S 4.63 1.25 217.85 213.61 213.61
2S3-L 8.11 1.25 188.33 181.54 181.54
3S3-L 7.96 1.25 298.72 213.64 213.64
3T4 7.30 4.74 268.75 206.82 217.90
3T6 11.06 8.84 238.17 367.36 190.59

Table 7. GVWs and wheelbases of standardized 3C equivalent vehicles for each truck class.

Parent ‘Static’ Maximum DAF for

Distribution (kN/kNm) Several Velocities Dynamic (Target)
Bridge Effect
¯ Charact. Value (kN/kNm)
X s 2S3-S 2S3-L 3S3-L 3T4 3T6
value
V 325.9 24.8 715.0 950.2
S-10 1.33 1.28 1.30 - -
M+ 383.8 29.7 750.5 997.4
V 438.2 37.5 879.3 1027
S-20 1.09 1.15 1.12 1.14 1.17
M+ 1291 81.0 2711 3167
V 548.6 44.5 1059 1206
S-30 1.09 1.13 1.08 1.10 1.14
M+ 3310 270.3 5789 6595
V 555.5 49.4 1113 1309
S-40 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.10 1.18
M+ 4601 358.3 9326 10,964
M+ 328.8 24.9 641.6 846.7
C-10 V 326.5 23.0 613.2 1.32 1.20 1.20 - - 809.1
M− 498.9 41.5 1045 1378
M+ 1222 108.1 2446 3050
C-20 V 435.5 34.6 909.7 1.08 1.15 1.12 1.19 1.25 1135
M− 1222 106.5 2737 3414
M+ 2524 205.6 4883 5699
C-30 V 552.9 49.0 1058 1.11 1.17 1.10 1.12 1.16 1235
M− 2185 162.5 4266 4978
M+ 3840 321.7 7798 9437
C-40 V 553.7 46.3 1160 1.21 1.16 1.15 1.14 1.21 1404
M− 3226 218.8 6334 7665
F-2.5 M− 385.6 30.7 762.3 1.67 1.49 1.60 - - 1275
F-5.0 M− 1098 88.6 2226 1.29 1.36 1.51 - - 3357
F-7.5 M− 1641 124.9 3201 1.33 1.48 1.49 - - 4768
F-10 M− 2223 195.2 4475 1.38 1.31 1.18 - - 6159

8. Load Models Representative of the Actual Traffic

Once the target values of the effects are defined, the physical and geometric configura-
tions of load models that adequately represent the real traffic were sought by optimization
via exhaustion, so that, with the loading of these fictitious models statically applied to
the structures considered, they reproduce approximately the target values at the critical
cross-sections of each one, automatically including the dynamic amplification. Defining
geometric features such as number of axles, wheelbases, transverse distances between
tires, number and width of the design lanes, and considering the values of concentrated
and uniformly distributed loads as optimization parameters, a scan is performed in all
possible combinations inside the domain of each variable, discretizing the total weight
of the design vehicle (concentrated forces) in multiples of 50 kN and the distributed in
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 14 of 19

multiples of 0.5 kN/m2 . Geometric information about the bridges’ superstructure and the
target values (Table 7) are also provided.
The load models sought consisted of a vehicle composed of some concentrated forces,
as well as distributed loads. The variable loads do not act in a favorable fashion; therefore,
forces distributed by area only act in the regions of the deck that generate adverse effects
to the analyzed element (in this case, the right girder). If there is more than one design
lane, the effective width of the deck (region where the influencing surfaces only generate
unfavorable effects) is divided so that the first lane is located at the most severe transversal
position for the structural element considered. The remaining area of the deck is considered
for the remaining width—vehicles do not load it.
For the deck type shown in Figure 2a, a weight factor (Wij ) is defined according to the
structural system and the internal force [24]:
e f f ect
Wij = Wjstruct ·Wij (6)

Sub-indexes i and j refer, respectively, to internal forces and structures. Values adopted
for were 2.0 for simply supported and continuous systems and 1.5 for cantilevers. For
e f f ect
Wij , 2.0 for moments and 1.5 for shear forces was adopted.
The objective function is the weighted error: the sum of all relative differences between
each effect generated by the candidate load model, and the corresponding target value.
According to Table 7, to compose the objective function, there are 24 effects in 12 structures.
Steps for seek are defined as follows [11]:
• calculate each internal force i generated in each structure j by the load model k (Eijk );
• calculate the relative difference (εijk ) between Eijk and the corresponding target value
of the effect (Tij ):
 
E − T 
 ijk ij 
ε ijk = (7)
Tij

 

• calculate the weighted error for load model k:

∑i ∑ j Wij ε ijk
εk = (8)
∑i ∑ j Wij
For each set of geometric features, the load model with the smallest weighted error
(mth, 1 ≤ m ≤ NLM) is chosen as the most appropriate (NLM: number of load models).
Several hypotheses were tested; each one considered a different set of geometric characteris-
tics and search restrictions in the relative and absolute values of the loads per design range.
The width of the design lane was set at 2.00 m. Some possibilities were considered: one
or three design lanes; design vehicle with two or three axles; and wheelbases measuring
1.30 m or 1.50 m. The seek process was carried out by choosing two load models considered
as representative of the actual Brazilian traffic in these structures (Figure 8), named “load
model 1” and “load model 2”. Interruption of the load distributed around the design
vehicle contour, as done in NBR 7188, was not considered. In both models, the wheelbase
was equal to 1.50 m, similar to the model from the Brazilian design code. Weighted errors
for models 1 and 2—Equation (8)—are 6.9% and 5.6%, respectively. The load model 2
follows the configuration of the Eurocode 1 model LM1. One of the AASHTO live load
models also consists of a design tandem as in load model 1, but is combined to a linear
distributed load.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2023,
2023, 13, 1032
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20
15 of 19

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Plan
Planview ofof
view thethe
proposed load
proposed models:
load (a) load
models: model
(a) load 1; (b)1;load
model model
(b) load 2. Units:
model m. m.
2. Units:

Load
Loadmodel
model1 1consists
consistsofofa distributed
a distributedload of 4.5
load kN/m
of 4.5 kN/m 2 over
2 over the entire effective
the entire effective
width
widthofofthe
thedecks,
decks,asaswell
wellasasa 750 kNkN
a 750 two-axle
two-axlevehicle. Load
vehicle. model
Load 2 comprises
model threethree
2 comprises
two-axle
two-axlevehicles, weighing
vehicles, weighing 500500
kN inkNlane 1 and1250
in lane andkN in kN
250 lanesin2 lanes
and 3,2asand
well3,asasdis-
well as
tributed loads of 4.5 kN/m 2 in lane
2 1 and 4.0 kN/m 2 in other2 (effective) deck
distributed loads of 4.5 kN/m in lane 1 and 4.0 kN/m in other (effective) deck places.places.

9.9.Comparison
Comparisonbetween
between Target Values
Target Valuesand thethe
and Effects Generated
Effects Generatedby Load Models
by Load Models
InInFigures
Figures 9–11
9–11 the target values
values are
arecompared
comparedtotothe theeffects
effects generated
generated byby load
load models
models
1 and 2;1 the
andNBR
2; the7188
NBRTB-450
7188 TB-450
modelmodel
[23] is [23]
alsoisused
alsofor
used for comparisons,
comparisons, including
including its impact
its impact
factor. factor.
Ratios Ratioseffects
between between effects generated
generated by each
by each load model load
andmodel and the corre-target
the corresponding
sponding
values are target
shownvalues are shown
in Table 8. in Table 8.

Table
Table8.8. Ratios
Ratios between the effects
between the effects generated
generated by
byeach
eachload
loadmodel
modeland
andthe
the corresponding
corresponding target
target values.
values.
Load Model
Bridge Effect Load Model NBR 7188
Bridge Effect NBR 7188
1 1 2 2
VV 0.880.88 0.87 0.87 0.70 0.70
S-10
S-10
M+M+ 1.081.08 1.04 1.04 0.79 0.79
VV 0.960.96 0.95 0.95 0.83 0.83
S-20
S-20
M+M+ 1.091.09 1.06 1.06 0.91 0.91
VV 0.940.94 0.93 0.93 0.87 0.87
S-30
S-30
M+M+ 1.141.14 1.08 1.08 0.95 0.95
VV 0.970.97 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.93
S-40
S-40
M+M+ 1.041.04 0.99 0.99 0.90 0.90
M+M+ 1.101.10 1.06 1.06 0.80 0.80
C-10
C-10 VV 1.081.08 1.05 1.05 0.87 0.87
MM− − 0.910.91 0.87 0.87 0.66 0.66
M+M+ 1.041.04 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.87
C-20
C-20 VV 0.930.93 0.91 0.91 0.86 0.86
−
MM− 0.820.82 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
M+M+ 1.091.09 1.04 1.04 0.93 0.93
C-30
C-30 VV 1.011.01 0.99 0.99 1.03 1.03
−
MM− 0.960.96 1.05 1.05 1.12 1.12
M+M+ 1.011.01 0.97 0.97 0.89 0.89
C-40
C-40 V V− 1.011.01 0.99 0.99 1.01 1.01
M 0.94 1.07 1.19
M− 0.94 1.07 1.19
F-2.5 −
F-2.5 MM− 0.980.98 0.96 0.96 0.50 0.50
F-5.0
F-5.0 MM− − 0.920.92 0.93 0.93 0.58 0.58
F-7.5
F-7.5 MM− − 0.940.94 1.00 1.00 0.66 0.66
F-10 M− − 0.94 1.04 0.70
F-10 M 0.94 1.04 0.70
 current Brazilian design code underestimates the effects of the actual traffic, especially
for the
for the negative
negative moments
moments in in cantilevers
cantilevers and
and the
the shear
shear forces
forces in
in shorter
shorter bridges;
bridges; the
the only
only
exception is the negative moment in the continuous bridges C-30 and
exception is the negative moment in the continuous bridges C-30 and C-40. It finally C-40. It finally
confirms the
confirms the conclusions
conclusions noted
noted earlier
earlier [30,31],
[30,31], that
that the
the NBR
NBR 7188
7188 standard
standard does
does not
not
properly represent the estimated extreme effects of the actual traffic and may
properly represent the estimated extreme effects of the actual traffic and may need to be need to be
updated, as
updated, as itit appeared
appeared toto be
be considerably
considerably against
against safety
safety in
in some
some situations,
situations, whereas
whereas inin
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 16 of 19
others, it
others, it was
was considerably
considerably favorable
favorable toto safety,
safety, which
which implies
implies uneconomic
uneconomic design.
design. The
The
weighted error
weighted error for
for the
the TB-450
TB-450 model
model isis 17.4%.
17.4%.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 9. Comparison between the effects generated by the load models and the target values. (a)
Figure
Figure 9. 9. Comparison between
Comparison between the
theeffects generated
effects by the
generated byload
the models and theand
load models target
thevalues.
target(a)values.
Shear forces
Shear forces on
on simply
simply supported
supported bridges.
bridges. (b)
(b) Shear
Shear forces
forces on
on continuous
continuous bridges.
bridges.
(a) Shear forces on simply supported bridges. (b) Shear forces on continuous bridges.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 10.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparison between
between the
the effects
effects generated
generated by
by the
the load
load models
models and
and the
the target
target values.
values. (a)
17 of (a)
20
Figure 10. Comparison
Positive moments on between
on simply
simply the effects
supported generated
bridges. bymoments
(b) Positive
Positive the loadonmodels andbridges.
continuous the target values.
Positive moments supported bridges. (b) moments on continuous bridges.
(a) Positive moments on simply supported bridges. (b) Positive moments on continuous bridges.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Comparison between the effects generated by the load models and the target values. (a)
Figure 11. Comparison between the effects generated by the load models and the target values.
Negative moments on continuous bridges. (b) Negative moments on cantilevers.
(a) Negative moments on continuous bridges. (b) Negative moments on cantilevers.
10. Conclusions
This paper presents and describes some of the steps performed to evaluate the cur-
rent live load model of the Brazilian highway bridges design code and to develop new
ones to adequately represent the extreme effects imposed by actual traffic. From the col-
lection and acquisition of traffic data, the assembly of a database, and consideration of
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 17 of 19

Relative to the proposed load models 1 and 2, it can be seen that: (i) the negative
moments were reasonably reproduced, except for the C-20 bridge; (ii) reasonable correlation
was also achieved for the shear forces, except for the S-10 bridge; and (iii) the positive
moments were the best represented effects by the new load models proposed.
For the NBR 7188 load model, the results show that in most cases (20 among 24), the
current Brazilian design code underestimates the effects of the actual traffic, especially
for the negative moments in cantilevers and the shear forces in shorter bridges; the only
exception is the negative moment in the continuous bridges C-30 and C-40. It finally
confirms the conclusions noted earlier [30,31], that the NBR 7188 standard does not properly
represent the estimated extreme effects of the actual traffic and may need to be updated, as
it appeared to be considerably against safety in some situations, whereas in others, it was
considerably favorable to safety, which implies uneconomic design. The weighted error for
the TB-450 model is 17.4%.

10. Conclusions
This paper presents and describes some of the steps performed to evaluate the current
live load model of the Brazilian highway bridges design code and to develop new ones
to adequately represent the extreme effects imposed by actual traffic. From the collection
and acquisition of traffic data, the assembly of a database, and consideration of structural
models in adjusted grids representing typical girder-type short span highway bridges,
simulations of free-flow traffic were carried out to obtain static responses at critical cross-
sections. Then, dynamic analyses were performed, considering the interaction between
vehicles, bridges’ structure, and pavement, aiming to obtain dynamic amplification factors
representative of heavy traffic, which multiply the static characteristic values, which were
determined by the extrapolation of the effects’ PDF.
The main contributions and conclusions can be summarized as follows:
(a) Two load models were proposed to represent the Brazilian commercial traffic. One
of them considers a single design lane and the design vehicle located in the worst
transverse position (as in NBR 7188 current model). The other one divides the effective
deck width into three traffic lanes, which is the same configuration as the Eurocode 1
model LM1.
(b) Neither the current NBR 7188 code load model (TB-450) nor the two proposed ones
were able to fit traffic effects in all possible situations. Discrepancies between the target
values and the effects caused by the proposed load models illustrate the difficulty in
simultaneously fulfilling several requirements, a remarkable feature of multi-objective
optimization problems.
(c) However, the representativeness of the new proposed load models is considerably
greater than the one from current NBR 7188 load model.
(d) Results reiterate that TB-450 may not adequately represent the effects of the actual
commercial traffic vehicles on the most representative bridges from the national
highways network.
Next work steps compass:
• Inclusion of longer spans (in mixed flow and jams).
• Acquisition of more recent WIM traffic data.
• Recalibration of the load models.
• Calibration of load and resistance factors via structural reliability analyses.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.E.R. and M.S.P.; methodology, C.E.R., M.S.P. and
L.V.S.S.; software, C.E.R. and H.M.d.O.; formal analysis, C.E.R. and H.M.d.O.; investigation, C.E.R.
and H.M.d.O.; writing—original draft preparation, C.E.R.; writing—review and editing, M.S.P.;
supervision, M.S.P. and L.V.S.S.; funding acquisition, M.S.P. and L.V.S.S. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1032 18 of 19

Funding: This research was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001. This research has also received funding from
CNPq-Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Brazil.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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