History

Chapter 1: The French Revolution

French Society during the Eighteenth Century

During the eighteenth century the French Society was divided into three groups. These groups were
called estates. The three types of groups were - First estate, Second estate and Third estate.
Taille: A type of direct and indirect tax which was paid to the state by members of third estate in French
Society in the eighteenth century. Taille was levied on items used for daily consumption, such as tobacco,
salt, etc.

Livre: Unit of currency of France. This was discontinued in 1794.

 The Subsistence Crises
Increase of population from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, increased the demand of food grains.

Poor production of food grains, frequent draught or hail, diseases, epidemics, further worsened the
situation. This resulted in increase in the price of bread which was staple diet of majority.

Wages of worker did not keep the pace with price rise. This increased the gap between poor and rich.
These things led to subsistence crisis for the majority as poor were not able to meet the required
price to purchase even bread.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages and End to Privileges to Certain Class

In the eighteenth century, many persons who belonged to third estate and earned their wealth
through overseas trade and manufacturing goods, were termed as middle class. It was a new
social group, which also comprised of court officials, lawyers and administrative officials.
Thus bringing the change about the social and economic order in the society was left to the middle
class. People of the middle class were also oppressed at that time, as they had to pay taxes and
meet the demands of clergy and nobility.
People of Middle class were educated and believed that no privilege should be given by birth, rather
position of a person in society should be merit based.
Philosophers, such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau were envisaging a society based on
freedom, equal laws and opportunity for all. The freedom of thirteen colonies in USA from
Britain based on such ideas; strengthened the thoughts of then philosophers who mainly
belonged to middle class.
The ideas of guarantee of individual rights became one of the important examples among the
political thinkers and then philosophers of France.
The Outbreak of the Revolution

In order to pass the proposal to raise taxes Louis XVI called an assembly of the Estates General. On 5
May 1789, 300 representatives from each of the first and second estate and 600 from the third
estate, a total 1200 representatives, gathered in a splendid hall for the assembly.
Representatives of first and second estates were seated in two rows while representatives of third
estate had to stand at the back. Representatives of third estate were educated and more
prosperous and they believed to represent the whole people of France.
Peasants and labours were not allowed in that assembly; however about 40000 letters regarding
their grievances were carried by representatives of third estate.
According to principle of the monarch each estate had one vote. Louis XVI wanted to apply the same
practice this time also. But representatives of third estate did not agree on this, they wanted
voting assembly as a whole and wanted each of the representatives to have only one vote. Louis
XVI rejected this new proposal.
As a result, all the representatives of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.
On 20th of the June they gathered in an indoor tennis court in Versailles, where they declared them
as National Assembly and took an oath not to disburse till the new drafting of a constitution of
France under the leadership of Merabeau and Abbe Sieyes.
Merabeau belonged to noble family and Abbe Sieyes was a priest to the church. Inspite of that
they believed in the need of a privilege free society. There, they delivered powerful speeches
regarding the need of new constitution and equal opportunity to all.

That very year harvest was badly affected because of severe winter. This increased the price of bread.
Hoarding of supply by bakers made the situation more critical. One day after long hours in queues, anger
broken into women and they stormed the bakery. At the same time troops moved to Paris to suppress
the turmoil. In retaliation, crowd destroyed the Bastille.
King Louis XVI finally surrendered against agitation and accepted the recognition of National
Assembly and agreed that his power would be checked by constitution.

On the 4th of the August 1789 the feudal system of obligations, taxes, privileges to the nobility and
clergy were abolished and lands owned by churches were confiscated. This gave an asset of worth
about 2 billion livres to the government.
France Became a Constitutional Monarchy
The draft of the constitution was completed in 1791. Powers were spread among legislative,
executive and judiciary instead of king. This made France a constitutional monarchy.
There were two types of citizens according to constitution:– active citizen and passive citizen.
Persons who paid the tax at least equal to wages of 3 days of a labour were categorized as active
citizens and who did not, were categorized as passive citizens
Only active citizens above the age of 25 had right to vote. Women were not given the right to vote.
Active citizens had to elect electors. Electors had to elect National Assembly and Judiciary from
among them. National Assembly had control over king and group of ministers. But king still had
the power of royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
Qualification for member of elector and National Assembly: A person who belonged to bracket of
highest taxpayers and above the age of 25 could be chosen as elector and member of National
Assembly.
Constitution began with a Declaration of Rights to Man and Citizen.
Right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were declared as ‘natural and
inalienable’ rights. Every citizen had these rights by birth and no one could be deprived of them. State
had duty to protect ‘natural and inalienable’ rights.
JACOBINS

Jacobins was the most successful club among them. It was named after the convent of St Jacob in Paris.
Maximilian Robespierre emerged as the leader of Jacobins.

Jacobins comprised of women, small peasants, labours, artisans, such as shoemaker, pastry cooks,
watch makers, etc.
They started wearing long striped trousers so that they could look different from those who wore
knee breaches (persons belonging to fashionable society).
They also wore a red cap also which was the symbol of liberty. They began to be called ‘sans-
culottes’ which means ‘those without knee breaches’. However, women were not allowed to do
so.
Later king Louis XVI and the queen Marie Antoinette were sentenced to death. They were executed
publicly at the Place de la Concorde.
The Reign of Terror (From 1793 to 1794)
The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre sentenced to
death all those persons who he considered as enemies of the republic, whether they were
ex-noble, clergy, and members of any political parties; including Jacobins.
The execution were completed after trial by revolutionary tribunal. At that time Robespierre
followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
Guillotine, a device, named after inventor Dr. Guillotin, was used to behead a person at that time. It
consists of two poles and a blade. Guilty persons were beheaded using guillotine.

Government led by Robespierre issued many laws among which ceiling maximum wages and price
and rationing were main. Foods, such as meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to
sell their grains on fixed price in cities.
 Citizens were forced to eat equality bread, white flour which was costlier was forbidden. Use of
Citoyen and Citoyenne for men and women citizen started instead of the traditional Sir
(Monsieur) and Madam (Madame).
Churches were shut down and their buildings were converted into offices and barracks. Practice of
equality was sought everywhere.
Because of forcible implementation of laws, even supporters of Robespierre started the demand for
change. Finally, Robespierre arrested and guillotined in July 1794. Reign of Terror ended with the end of
Robespierre.

Women Before the Revolution?

In spite of revolution, women did not get right to vote and their position in the society remained
unchanged.
Most of the women were deprived of education. Daughters of nobles or wealthier persons of third
estate could study in convent.
After that they were married by their families even against their will. Women who belonged to third
estate had to work hard. They sold flowers, fruits, vegetables and
employed as servant in house hold. After work they had to cook and look after for their families.
During the Reign of Terror women’s clubs were closed and many women were put in jail.
In due course of time, revolutionary government came and introduced laws to improve the lives of
women.
For example - Many state schools were created, schooling was made compulsory for all girls,
marriage against the will of girl was prohibited, divorce was made legal and could be applied for
by both women and men, they could train for jobs, could run businesses, could become artists.
But to get the voting rights women had to struggle for about next two hundred years in many
countries including France. Finally, women got right to vote in the year of 1946 in France.