(:l

lt -t tt
Tlg'{ Irrsz{ "J I FF'l.

fJ l]
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,.'), , '. ,".1': .,.i,t lt rt:.,1'. ')i:.lt) )t') )t:t ,:!'!,:!!=;, )!!)
,/ /
/ ,-'
'/ i/.'t,-, tt t:.,t!\':: '), ,.:,.,.' .! t!,:. ):!- t)t., ,),

:!'::..rt:t)!,t,:,,1)',i)t t:.,tLl,'.::,:: ,., | :) i : , ,t : t i t 1

i clt :
t,rt.y.l,:,ttt,.,,ll'1t)t(j!:jr'!:;,.t,-i.t..,'ttii.'i,:t','ttt,,tttt!,:1!.:,:t
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!:'.1,i-,!'.t,:j t,,ti : ,.,-::r),: t,,:;:::,,.: tt.t ),: J,r,,,-!),

97
 THERMAI EFFEcrs

Moving particles
> Water can exist in three forms:
solid, liquid, and gas. (The gas is
called water vapour, and it is
present in the air.) Like all materials,
water is made up of tiny particles.
which form it takes depends on
how firmly jts particles stick
together.

Solids, liquids, and gases

Solid Particles vibrate about fixed
positions.
Every material is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Scientists havc developed a model
(description) called the kinetic theory to explain how solids, liquids, and
gases behave. According to this theory, matter is made up of tiny particles
which are constandy in motion. The particles attract each other strongly
when close, but the attactions weaken if they move further apart.
Solid A solid, such as iron, has a fixcd shape and volume. Its particles are
held closely together by strong forces of attraction called bonds. They vibratc
to and fro but cannot change positions.
Liquid A liquid, such as water, has a fixcd volume but can flow to fill any
shape. The particles are close together and attract each other. But they
vibrate so vigorously that the attractions cannot hold them in fixed positions,
and they can move past each other.

Gas A gas, such ashydrogen, has no fixcd shape or volume and quickly fills
any space available. Its particles are raell spaced out, and virtually free of any
atuactions. They move about at high speed, colliding with each other and the
walls of thcir container.

What are the particles?

Liquid Particles vibrate, but can
change posltions.
Everything is made from about 10O simple substances called elements. An atom is the
smallest possible amount of an element. In some materials, the 'moving particles' of
the kinetic theory are atoms. However. in most materials, they are groups of atoms
called molecules. 8elow. each atom is shown as a coloured sphere. This is a simplified
model (description) ofan atom. Atoms have no colour or precise shape.

f'"99.'@-
@
.'
\e,
ol
.. g
,,,,9' @G ? & ,/-nyorcgen
atom
..-
CP q &
@ C
l,on aroms
oxygen
atom
&
Water moIecules
@ rc
en molecules
Hydrogen
Gas Particles move about freelv.
 THERMA! EFrEcrs

Brownian motion: evidence for moving particles

Smoke is made up of millions of tiny bits of ash or oil droplets. If you look at
smoke through a microscope, as on the right, you can see the bits of smoke
glinting in the light. As they drift through the air, they wobble about in zig-
zag paths. This effect is called Brownian rnotion, after t}le scientist Robert
Brown who first noticed the wobbling, wandering motion of pollen grains in
water, in 1827.

The kinetic theory explains Brownian motion as follows. The bits of smoke
are just big enough to be seen, but have so litde mass that they are jostled
about as thousands of particles (gas molecules) in the surrounding air bump
into them at random.

View through
microscope

zig-zag paths
of smoke bits

Energy of particles
The particles (atoms or molecules) in solids, liquids, and gases have kinetic
energy because they are moving. They also have potential energy because Kinetic enerry
their motion keeps them separated and opposes the bonds trying to pull them Energy because of motion.
together. The particles in gases have the most potential energy because they
Potential energy
are furthest apart.
Energy stored because of a
The total kinetic and potential energies of all the atoms or molecules in a change in position or shape.
material is called its int€rnal energy. The hotter a material is, the faster its
particles move, and the more internal energy it has.
Ifa hot material is in contact with a cold one, the hot one cools down and
loses internal energy, while the cold one heats up and gains internal energy.
The energy transferred is known as heat.
The term thermal energy is often used for both internal energy and heat.

4:t
1 Say whedrer each of the following describes a so&d, a 2 Smoke is made up of millions of tiny bits of ash or oil
liquid, or agas: droplets
a) Particles move about frcely at highspecd. a) I(/hat do you sec whcn you usc a microscope ro
b) Particles vibrate and cannot change positions. study illuminated smoke floating in air?
c) Fixed shape and volume. b) \I/hat is the effect called?
d) Particles vibrate but can change positions, c) How does the kinetic theory explain the effect?
e) No fixed shape or volume. 3 If a gas is heated up, how does this affect the motion of
f) Fixed volume but no fixed shape. is particles?
g) Virnully no atnactions between particles. 4 Vhat is meant by the intetal energt of an object?

l,&W!o9lc* en€.5/ a.fi; tusion and vapodzatbfl 5.11; atoms and elements 11.0'l
 THERMAI EFFEcrs
Sun's centre 15000000'c
V Cllnlcal themometer: like the
one below measure the
temperature of the human body
very accurately. Their range is only
a few degrees either side of the
average body temperature of 37'C.
when removed from the body,
they keep their reading until reset.
Thermistor themometer The thermistor is a device which
becomes a much better electrical conductor when ats
temperature rises. This means that a higher current flows
from the battery, causing a higher reading on the meter.
Temperature
The Celsius scale
A temperature scale is a range of numbers for measuring the level of
homess. Everyday temperatures are normally measured on the Celsius scale
(sometimes called the'centigrade' scale). Its unit of temperature is the
degree Celsius (oC). The numbers on the scale were specially chosen so
that pure ice melts at 0oC and pure water boils at 100"C (under standard
atnospheric pressure of 101 325 pascals). These are its rwo fixed points.
Temperatures below OoC have negative () values.
Themometers
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. One simple type is shown
below. The glass bulb contains a liquid - either mercury or coloured alcohol -
which expands when the temperature rises and pushes a'thread' of liquid
further along the scale.
Every thermometer depends on some property (chtacteristic) of a material
that varies with temperature. For example, the thermometer above contains a
liquid whose volume increases with temperature. The two thermometers
below use materials whose electical properties vary with temperature.
All thermometers agree at the fixed points. However, at other temperatures,
they may not agree exacdy because their chosen properties may not vary with
temperature in quite the same way.
digital meter measures
cunent and converb to
a temperature .eading
copper wi.e
constantan
battery (inside)
5upplies current
for thermistor
probe contains
temperature-s€nsing junction
Thermocouple thermometer Two different metals are joined to
form two junctions. A temperature difference between the
junctions causes a tiny voltage which makes a cunent flow
The greater the temperature difference, the greater the current.
 THERMAL EFFEcT5

What is temperature?
In any objcct, thc particles (atoms or molcculcs) arc moving, so thcy have
kinetic encrgy. They move at varying speeds, but the higher the temperaflrre,
(at, ,,r;t !r'\\ (a\.
v)/ "\J vz \)/
then - on average - the faster they movc.

If a hot objcct is placed in contact with a cold one, as on the right, there is a
U) (U"
r,ti", vU I
transfer of thermal cncrgy from one to the othcr. As thc hot object cools
O ,,o.."'"tjt'"O ,o)
down, its particlcs lose kinetic energy. As thc cold objcct hcats up, it particles
gain kinetic energy. When both objccts reach thc samc tcmpcraturc, thc
transfer of cncrgy stops becausc the average kinetic energy per particle is the
'ao energy
same in both: 6 vvrol
Objects at the sarz e temperature have lhe same auerugc kinetic energjt per
particle. The higher the temperature, the greatcr thc avcragc kinetic energy o O a,.o'O lower
per particle.
rOr frtemperature6, 16,
YY
Temperature is not the same as heat. I,br example, a spoonful of boiling water
has exactly the same temperature (100 "C) as a sauccpanful of boiling watcr,
but 1'ou could get far less thcrmal energy (hcat) from it.
o rOr 0 O 'o,

Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale

The Kelvin scale is a
As the temperaturc falls, the particles in a material lose kinetic energy and
thermodynamic scale. lt
move more and more slowly- At -273'C, they can go no slower. -l-his is the
is
based on the average kinetic
lo$.est temperature thcrc is, and it called absolute zero. 'fhe rules of atomic
energy ot particles, rather than
ph5'sics do not allow particles to have zero energy, but at absolute zero, thcy
on a property of a particular
nould har.e the minimum energy possible. substance.
In scicntific rvork, temperaturcs are often measurcd using thc Kelvin scale. The constant volume hydrogen
Its tcmperature unit, the kelvin (K), is the same size as thc degrec Celsius, thermometer contains trapped
but the scale uses absolute zcro as its zero (0 K). You convert from one scale hydrogen gas whose pressure
to the other like this: increases with temperature- lt
gives the closest match to the
Kelvin temperatureft( = Celsius temperature/oC + 273 thermodynamic scale and is
used as a standard against
which other thermometers are
calibrated (marked).

.4a
1-273 100 273 373
AIB
Sa1 rr hich of tie chote tcmpcr3rurc of
is thc lower I higher
a) boiling rvater in "C b) boiling rvatcr in K temperature I temperature
c) absolutc zcro in oC d) absolutc zcro in K
e) melting ice in oC f) melting ice in K.
Illocks A and lJ abovc arc idcntical apart from thcir
2 Every thermomctcr depends on somc property ofa
tcmpcrafurc.
matcrial that varies li'ith rcmpcrature. Whal propcrty is
a) How docs thc motion of t}lc particlcs in A compare
used in cach of the folkru'ing?
with &at in B?
a) A mcrcury-in-glass thermometer.
b) In what direction is thermal energy ffansferred?
b) A thermistor thcrmomctcr.
c) When does thc transfcr of thcrmal encrgy cease?
 THERMAL EFrEcrs

Thermal conduction

temperalure

transferred by conduction

All materials are made up of tiny, moving particles (atoms or molecules). The
higher the temperature, the faster the particles move.
Good conductors
metals e.g. copper If one end of a metal bar is heated as above, the other end eventually becomes
aluminium too hot to touch. Thermal energy (heat) is transferred from the hot end to
,ron the cold end as the faster particles pass on their exfta motion to particles a]l
silicon
along the bar. The process is called conduction.

graphite More thermal energy is transferred every second ifi

a the temperatue difference across the ends of the bar is inoeased
Poor conductors (lnsulators) o the cross-sectional ('end-on') area of the bar is inqeased
glass a the lengtl of the bar is reduced.
water
Thermal conductors and insulators
plastics
Some materials are much better conductors of thermal energy than others.
ruDDer Poor conductors are called iasulators.
wooo
Metals are the best thermal conductors. Non-metal solids tend to be poor
materials f wool conductors, so do most liquids. Gases are the worst of all. Many materials are
I

containinS .l glass wool

(fibreglass) insulators because they contain tiny pockets of trapped air. You use this idea
trapped I plastic foam when you put on lots of layers of clothes to keep you warm. There are some
air L expanded polystyrene more examples at the top of the next page.

The materials above are arranged in You can sometimes tell how well something conducts just by touching it. A
order of conduding ability starting metal door handle feels cold because it quickly conducts thermal energy away
with the best. from your hand, which is warmer. A polysqrene tile feels warm because rt
insulates your hand and stops it losing thermal energy.

steel

A Comparing four good thermal conductors. Ten mlnutes or so after This experiment shows that water is a poor
the boiling water has been tipped into the tank, the length of melted thermal conductor. The water at the top of the
wax shows which material is the best conductor. tube can be boiled without the ice melting.
 THERMAL EFFEcTS

Using insulating materials

Feathers give good thermal

insulation, especially when fluffed
up to trap more air.

In a house, good insulation means lower fuel bills. Above are some of the
ways in which insulating materials are used to reduce heat losses;
1 Plastic foam lagging round the hot water storage tank.
2 Glass or mineral wool insulation in the loft.
3 Sfa[ cavity filled with plastic foam, beads, or mineral wool.
4 Double-glazed windows: two sheets of glass with air between them.
How materials conduct
rJfhen a material is heated, the particles move faster, push electrons in
on neighbouring atom electrons

I
particles, and speed those up too. All materials conduct thermal energy like i\A
this, but the process is slow. In metals, energy is also oansferred by another,
much quicker method.
O''O
In atoms, there are tiny particles called electrons. Most are firmly attached,
but in metals, some are 'loose' and free to drift between the atoms. lfhen a
metal is heated, these free electrons speed up. As they move randomly ooo
within the metal, they collide with atoms and make them vibrate faster. In rhis
way, thermal energy is rapidly tansferred to all parts.

An electric current is a flow of electons - so metals are good electrical

conductors as well as good thermal conductors.

L
ooo
Atoms in a metal

'I Explain each of the following:
a) A saucepan might have a copper bottom but
plastic handle.
b) Wool and feathcrs are good insulators.
c) An aluminium window frame feels colder than
wooden window frame when you touch it.
d) It is much safer picking up hot dishes with a dry
cloth than a wet one.
2 Give threeways in wh.ich insulating materials are used
to reduce thermal energy losses from a house.
3 A hot water rank loses thermal energy even when
a lagged. How could the energy loss be reduced?
4 Look at the experiment shown on the opposire pagc,
comparing four thermal conductors.
a a) !flhich ofthe mctals is the besr conductor?
b) In experiments like this, it is important to make sure
that the test is fair. $/ritc down r&ree features of riis
expenment which make it a fair test.
5 Why are metals much bener thermal conductors rnan
most other materials?

ii4#S,t4lff :tlcEy 4.Ot; partid6 ot matter 5.01; temperature 5.o2; electrical conductoE 8.Oi
 THERMAT EFFEcrs

Convection
Liquids and gases are poor thermal conductors, but if they are free to
circulate, they can carry thermal energy (heat) from one place to another
very quickl-v
cooler
water
sinks rises
Convection in a liquid
In the experiment on the left, the botom of the beaker is being gently heated
in one place only. As the water abovc the flame becomes warmer, it cxpands
and becomes less dense. It rises upwards as cooler, denser water sinks and
displaces it (pushes it out of the way). The result is a circulating stream,
potassium
permanganarc
called a convection current. Where thc watcr is heated, its particles (water
crystals to molecules) gain energy and vibrate more rapidly. As the particles circulate,
colour water F they transfer energy to other parts of the beaker.

Convection does not occur if the water is heated at the top rather than at the
bottom. The warmer, less dense water stays at the top.

Convection in air
Convection can occur in gases as rvcll as liquids. For example, warm air rises
when it is displaced by cooler, denser air sinking around it.
Heated by the Sun, warm air rises above the equator as it is displaced by
cooler, denser air sinking to the north and south. The result is huge
convection currents in the Earth's atmosphere. These cause winds across all
oceans and continents. Convection also causes the onshore and offshore
breezes which somedmes blow at the coast during the summer:

During the daytime, in

air cools
<+-",-
hot sunshine, the land
heats up more quickly
than the sea. Warm air
rises above the land, as it
cooler air
is displaced by
moving in from the sea.
L-
> *
wind towards coast

.,2
". _ I -i' -o ia, i4

At night, the reverse @ ak cools

happens. The sea stays
warmer than the land,
which cools down quickly. warm atr n5e5
Warmer air now rises
above the sea, as it is
:1'l''
displaced by cooler air wind away from coast
moving out from the land. ,@,, &:-
 THERMAI EFFEcrs

Using convection in the home

not Room heating Warm air rising above a convector heater or

cool water radiator carries thermal energy all around the room - though
water rises
unfortunately, the coolest air is always around your feet.
sinks

cold air
sinks

Hot water system Cold water in the storage tank sinks down
to the boiler, where it is heated. The heated water in the boiler
rises to the top of the storage tank. In this way, a supply of
hot water collects in the storage tank from the top down. The
storage tank is insulated to reduce thermal energy losses by
conduction and convection. The header tank orovides the
pressure to push the water out of the taps.

Pradical systems are more complicated than that shown. Refdgerator Cold air sinks below the freezer
There may be separate circuits for the taps and radiaton, and compartment. This sets up a circulating current of air
a pump to assist the flow of water. which cools all the food in the refrigerator.

4:\
Explain the following: Some hot water systems have an immersion heater - an
a) A radiator quickly warms all the air in a room, electrical heating element in the storage tank. In the
even though air is a poor drermal conductor, tank belowj should dle heating element be placed at A
b) The smoke from a bonfue rises upwards. or at B? Explain your ansn'er.
c) Anyone sanding near a bonfre feels a draught.
d) The freezer comparmrent in a refrigerator is placed + to hot water taps
at the top.
e) A refrigerator does not cool the food inside it
properly if the food is too tighdy packed.
possible
On a hot summer's day, coastal winds often blow in positions
from the sea. for heating
element
a) rwhat causes these winds? cold water + ^l
b) lrhy do the winds change direction at night?

ffiFFd$Sfts; io|lhg ard sinldng 3.08; themal conducton 5.03; expansion of liquids 5.09
 THERMAL EFFECTS

Thermal radiation
On Earth, we are warmed by the Sun. Its energy travels to us in the form of
electrornagnetic waves. These include invisible infrared waves as well as
light, and they can tavel through empty space. They heat up things that
absorb them, so are often called thermal radiation.

All objects give out some thermal radiation. The higher their surface
temperature and the greater their surface area, the more energy they radiate
per second. Thermal radiation is a mixture of different wavelengths, as
shown on the left. Warm objects radiate infrared. But if they become hotter,
they also emit shorter wavelengths which may include light. That is why a
radiant heater or grill starts to glow 'red hot' when it heats up.

Emitters and absorbers

Thermal radiation is mainly infrared
waves, but very hot objects also
give out light waves.
Some surfaces are befter at emitting (sending out) thermal radiation than
others. For example, a black saucepan cools down more quickly than a
similar white one because it emits energy at a faster rate.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the
chart below. White or silvery surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect
most of the thermal radiation away. That is whn in hot, sunny countries,
houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside.

emitters

non*hjny

) This chart shows how some

Jeflectors worst.,.,..................................................................best
surfaces compare as emitters,
reflectors, and absorbers of thermal absorbers DesI....,.............,.,,,,....,,,...,,,...,,,..,,,,.,..,,,..,,,,..,,,..,WOrs[

radiation.

thermometers
metalcube (touching backs
containing
of metal plates)
boiling water

non-shiny
merer

Comparing emitters The metal cube is filled with boiling Comparint absorbeB The metal plates are placed at the same
water which heats the surfaces to the same temoerature. distance from a radiant heater. To find out which surface
The thermal radiation detector is olaced in turn at the same absorbs thermal radiation most rapidlt the rises in temperature
distance from each surface and the meter readings compared. are comoared.
 THERMAL EFFECTS

Greenhouse effects
!7hen the Sun's thermal radiation reaches the Earth, the atmosphere acts as a
'heat trap'. This happens because some gases (notably water vapour, carbon
dioxide, and methane) absorb energy sfiongly at certain wavelengths in the
infiared region of the spectrum. The heat-trapping action of fhe amrosphere is
called the greenhouse efrect. $Tithout it, ttre Earth's surface would be around
25 oC cooler than it is. The present concern is that extra carbon dioxide from
buming fuels may be adding to the efffect and causing global warming.

Greenhouses act as heat faps, which is how the greenhouse effect got is name.
However, they work in a different way. Thermal radiation from the Sun passes
easily through the glass or plastic. The ground inside warms up and heat the
air. But the hot air is trapped. It cannot escape by rising and flowing away. The Sun's thermal radiation passes
easily into a greenhouse. But unless
The solar panel
you leave the door open, the
heated air inside cannot escape.
glass
(or clear

netwolk
of water
Fpes

Some houses have a solar panel on the roof like the one above. It uses the
Sun's thermal radiation to warm up water for the house. The blackened layer
absorbs the radiant energy and warms up the water flowing through the pipes.
glass or
The vacuum flask steelwalls
A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has *rese features
silvery
for reducing the rate at which thermal energy flows out (or in): surfaces
1 An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and comection.
2 A double-walled container with a gap between the walls. Air has been
removed from the gap to redtce conduction and conaection.
3 Walls with silvery surfaces to redtce thermal radiation.
A vacuum flask
rlt
whiu sihx4t matt blach ln experiments like those on the opposite page, it is
Which of the above surfaces is dre best at important to make sure that each test is fair.
a) absorbing thermal radiation a) Iflrite down rlree features of the Compating emitter
b) emining thermal radiation experiment that make it a fai! test.
c) reflecting thermal radiadon? b) Repear for the C.rmpLting dbsorbers expetimenl
\When a warm object is heated up, the thermal Vhy, on a sunny day, is it normally hofier inside a
radiation it emits changes. Give tsro ways in which the greenhouse than it is inside a wooden shed?
thermal radiation changes. ln the solar panel above, why does the panel have
What feature does a vacuum flask have to reduce the a) a blackened layer at the back
uansfer of heat by drermal radiation? b) a network of water pipes?

.!4!!dtapLsa eoersf 4.01, global warming 4.07; solar energy 4.08 - 4.09; thermalenergy 5.0'l; conduction 5.03; convection 5.(M;
.dfeitrbmitnedc waves ?,1o -?.11
 THERMAL EFFEcTs
Kinetic theory essentials
According to the kinetic theory,
every material is made up of
tiny, moving particles (usually
molecules). These move at
varying speeds. But the higher
the temperature, then on
average, the faster they move.
In a liquid, attractions keep the
particles together. In a gas, the
particles have enough energy
to overcome the attractions,
stay spaced out, and move
around freely.
) When a liquid evaporates, faster
particles escape from its surface to
form a gas. However, unless the
gas is removed, some of the
particles will return to the liquid.
Liquids and vapours
Evaporation
Even on a cool day, rain puddlcs can vanish and wet clothes dry out. The
water becomes an invisible gas (called rvater vapour) which drifts awaf in the
air. S(/hcn a liquid below its boiling point changes into a gas, this is called
evaporation. It happens because some particles in the liquid move faster
than others. The fastcr ones ncar tJ.c surfacc havc cnough cncrgy to cscape
and form a gas.
'l'hcre are several rvays of making a liquid evaporate more quickll"
Increase the ternperature rWet clothcs dr-v fastcr on a warm day because
more of thc particles (r,r'ater molecules) hatc enough energy to escape.
Increase the surface area 'Water in a puddle dries out more quickly than
rvater in a cup bccausc morc of its molcculcs arc closc to thc surfacc.
Reduce the hurnidity If air is terl' /rarruci this means that it already has a
high s'ater vapour content. In humid air. \ret \.\,ashing dries slowly because
molecules in thc vapour rcturn to thc liquid almost as fast as thosc in the
liquid escape. In less humid air, r-et s-ashing dries more quickly.
Blow air across the surface Wtt clothes drl fastcr on a rrind5, da5r
bccause the mor.ing air carries escaping s ater molecules ara,a-v before many of
them can rerurn to the liquid.
o o
OOgas
a\:r::-aq'
ooe
o^^q_ 1,O\
^o o o t, 6 f
i"..";ie?i;'f b"s"'""":,i,?^ffi '*'g^*?""^l"l*
Boiling
Boiling is a very rapid form of evaporation. \When water boils, as in the
photograph on the letl, vapour bubbles form deep in the liquid.'fhey
expand, rise, burst, and release large amounts of vapour.
Even cold rvatcr has tiny vapour bubbles in it, but thesc are squashed by the
pressure of the atmosphere. At 100'C. the r,apour pressure in the bubbles is
strong enough to overcome atmospheric pressure, so the bubbles start to
expand and boiling occurs. At the top of Mount Everest, rvhere atmospheric
pressurc is lcss, rvatcr rvould boil at onll' 70'C.
The cooling effect of evaporation
Evaporation has a cooling cffcct. For cxamplc, if you wet your hands, the
water on rhcm surts to cvaporatc. As it cvaporatcs, it takcs thermal cncrgy
away from your skin. So "vour hands feel cold.
The kinctic theory cxplains the cooling cffcct likc this. If faster particles
escapc from the liquid, slower ones are left bchind, so the temperature of the
liquid is less than belore.
 THERMAT E FFE crs

Refrigerators use the cooling effect of evaporation. In the refrigerator on

the right, the process works like dris:
1 In the pipes in the freezer compartment, a liquid called a refrigerant
evaporates and takes thermal energy from the food and air.
2 The vapour is drawn away by the pump, which compresses it and turns it
into a liquid. This releases thermal energy, so the liquid heats up.
3 The hot liquid is cooled as it passes tlrrough the pipes at the back, and the
thermal energy is carried away by the air.
Overall, thermal energy is transferred from the things inside the fridge to the
air outside.
Sweating also uses the cooling effect of evaporation. You start to sweat if
your body temperature rises more ttran about 0.5 oC above normal. The
sweat, which is mainly water, comes out of tiny pores in your skin. As it
evaporates, it takes thermal energy from your body and cools you down.

On a humid ('close') day, sweat crnnot evaporate so easily, so it is more

difncr t to stay cool and comfortable.

Condensation
'When
a gas changes back into a liquid, this is called condensation. For
example, cold air can hold less water vapour than warm air, so if humid air is Gas and vapour
suddenly cooled, some of the water vapour may condense. It may become A gas is called a vapour if it can
billions of tiny water droplets in the air - we see these as clouds, rnist, or fog. be turned back into a liquid by
Or it may become condensation on windows or other surfaces. If compressing it.
condensation freezes, the result is frost.

Condensation can be seen ...on windows ...as clouds in the sky ...and as clouds of 'steam' from a kettle
(the vapour itself is invisible)

rllt
1 A puddle and a small bowl are next to each other. 3 Give rzoo practical uses of the cooling effect of
There is the samc amount ofwater in each. evaporation.
a) Explain why the puddlc dries out more rapidly ttran 4 Explain why, on a humid day
the water in dre bowl. a) you may feel hor and uncomfortable
b) Give rar changcs that would make tlte puddle dry b) you do not feel so uncomfortable if there is a breeze
out even more rapidly. blowing.
2 If you water
are wearing wet clothes, and the 5 \t(4rat is the difference between evaporation and
evaporates, it cools you down. How does the kinetic boiling?
theory explain the cooling effect? 6 \X4ry does condensation form on cold windows?

trreffin#stry t07;tineticitteoty 5.fi; htent heat of vaporization 5.11

 THERMAL EFFEcTS

{@ The gas laws (1)

Vhen dealing with a fixed mass of gas, there are always tlree factors to
considerpressure, Lolume, and temperature. A change in one of these factors
alwa-vs produces a change in at least one of the others. Often all ttuee change
at once. This happcns, for examplc, when a balloon rises tt[ough the
atmosphere.

When this balloon rises, the
pressure, volume, and temperature
can all change.
trapped air
To find the laws linhng the pressurc, volume, and temperature of a gas
experimentally, each factor must bc kept constant in turn while the link
between the other two is investigated. In the experiments described on this
spread and the next, the gas being studied is a fixed mass of dt9 air.
Linking pressure and volume (at constant temperature)
In the experiment below, air is trapped in a glass tube. Its volume is reduced
in stages by pumping air into the reservoir so that oil is pushed further up the
tube. Each time the volume is reduccd, the pressure of the trapped air is
measured on the gauge.

pressure volume
kPa cm3

200 50
250 40
400 25

air lrom 500 20

pump
1000 10

50
oil volume/ cm3
reseryoir

Squashing thc air warms it up slighdy. So before taking each reading, you
have to wait a few moments for the air to return to its original temperature.
The gauge actually measures the pressure in the reservoir, but this is the
same as in the tube because the oil transmits the pressure.

Above, you can see some typical readings and the graph they produce.
Results likc this show that the relationship between the pressure and volume
is an inverse proportion. It has thcse features:

I If the volume lalxes, the pressure doables, and so on.

2 Pressure >< uol me has the same value (10000 in this case).
^lways
3 If pressure ts plotted against -]-. ,n" graph is a straight line tlrough the
origin, as shorvn on the left.ootu*n
'lhe findings can be expressed as a la$':

For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely

proportional to the volume.

This is knou'n as Boyle's law.

 THTRMAL EFFEcrs

Here is another way of writing Boyle's law. If the pressure of a gas changes
Pressure essentials
from p, to p, when the volume is changed from tr/, to Zr:
force
Ptx Vt= P2x V2 (at constant temperature) Pressure =
area

Exampb An ai bubble has a volume of 2 cm3 when released at a depth of -

lf force is measur€d in newtons
20m in water. What will its volume be when it reaches the surface? (N) and area in square metres
Assume that the temperature does not change and that atrnospheric (m2), pressure is measured in
pressure is equivalent to the pressure from a column of water 10m deep. pascals (Pa): 1 Pa = 1N/m2.

Standard atmospheric pressure,

In this case: p, = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to 20 m of water called 1 atmosphere (atm), is
= l atm + 2atn = 3atn approximately 100 00O Pa.
Also: p2 = I atm, Vt = 2 cm3, and Z, is to be found.

As the temperature does not change, Boyle's law applies. So:

pt x Vt= p2 x Z2 (at constant temperature)
So: 3x2= 1xZ, (omittine units for simplicity)
This gives Vz= 6,so on the surface, the volume of the bubble is 6cm3.

Boyle's law and the kinetic theory

The kinetic theory explains Boyle's law as follows. In a gas, the molecules are
constantly striking and bouncing off thc walls ofthe container. The force of Kinetic theory essentials

these impacts causes the pressure. If the volume of the gas is halved, as According to the kinetic theory,
shown below, there are twice as many molecules in each cubic metre. So, every a gas is made up of tiny,

second, there are twice as many impacts with each square mete of the moving particles (usually
molecules). These are spaced
container walls. So the pressure is doubled.
out with almost no attractions
A gas that exactly obeys Boyle's law is called an ideal gas. Real gases come between them, and move about
close to this providcd they have a low density, a temperarure well above their freely at high speed. The higher
liquefying point, and are not full of water vapour. Unless these conditions are the temperature, then on
metJ attractions between molecules affect their behaviour. An ideal Eas has no average, the faster they move.
attactions between its molecules.

volume halved

pressure doubled

4l\
Ifyousquash a balloon, the prcssurc insidc it rises. The rcadings below are for a fixed mass ofgas at
How does thc kinctic theory explain *ris? constanl tcmperature:
A balloon contains 6 m3 ofhelium at a pressurc of
100 kPa. As thc balloon rises through the atrnospherc,
pressure/atrn 5.0 4.0 2.O 1.0 0.5 0.4
the pressure falls and the balloon expands. Assuming
volume/cmr 4 5 10 20 40 50

that tie temperature does not change, what is the a) How can you tell that the gas obeys Boyle's lau'?
volume of the balloon when the pressure has fallen to b) Use a calculator to work out values for l/volume.
a) 50 kPa b) 40kPa? Plot a graph ofpressure against l/volume and describe
its shapc.
 THER AL EFrEcrg
+ ++++++ ++ ++++++++ +++++ ++ ++++++++++ ++++++++++ ++++++

The gas laws (2)

@
Linking pressure and temperature (at constant volume)
In the experiment below left, air is rrapped in a flask of fixed volume. The
temperature of the air is changed in stages by heating the water - or putting a
hotter or colder material (melting ice, for examplQ in the container. At eadr
stage, the pr,essure is measured on the gauge.

thermometer pressure
Sauge

Pressuae temperature temperature

kPa 'c K
100 -73 2@
150 27 3@ E

200 127 400 g

2)V 500
3@ 327 600

t+ttthermal energy
0
temperature/ 'C

Above, you can see some typical readings and the graph they produce. The
graph is a straight line which" if extended backwards, cuts the temperature
axis at -273'C. Other gases give the same result - provided conditions are
such that they behave as ideal gases.

Absolute zero and the ldaetic theory According to the kinetic theory' if
On the Kelvin scale,
the temperature of a gas is reduced the molecules move more slowly. As a
result, they strike the container walls with less force, so the pressure &ops. If
temperature is direcdy
proportional to the average
you could go on cooling a gas, its molecules would eventually stop moving
kinetic energy per molecule of
and cause no pressure. The graph shows that t}is would happen at -273 "C.
an ideal gas. At 0 K (absolute
zero), an ideal gas molecule
This is the lowest possible temperanrre and it is called absolute zef,o.
has no kinetic energy.
(Because of atcactions between their molecules, real gases turn liquid before
absolute zero is reached.)
Kelvin teoperatrrre scale This uses absolute zem as its zero (0K), Its
unit, the kelvin (K), is the same size as the degree Celsius ('C). To convert
from "C to kelvin (I9, you iust add 273.
The pnessune law On the left, you can see what happens if the graph above
is redrawn using Kelvin temperatures. The straight line now passes through
the origin and the feaflrres ofa direct proportiot! can be seen:
1 If the Kelvin temperunre doubl4s,the pressure doaDlas, and so on.
2 pressure + Kelvin temperature always has the same value (0.5 in this case).
These results are summed up by the pressule law:
300 500
temperature/ K
 THERMAT EFFEcrs
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Linking volume and temperature (at constant pressure)

lfhen dry air is heated and allowed to expand at constant pressure,
experiments show that aolume + Keluin temperatu re always has the same lalue
for any particular sample. This result can be expressed as a law, often called
Charles's law:

Combined gas equation initialconditions

The results ofthe experiments so far can be combined into a single equation.
If the pressure, volume, and Kelvin temperatue of a fixed mass of (ideal) gas
change as shown on the right:

Q,V, ?,V,
l1 T2

All three gas laws can be obtained from this equation:

If ?is constant, Tr= T, so: ?1V, = prV, (Boyle's law)

?1 P2
If Zis constant, Vr= V, so: (pressure law)
Tt T2

If P is constant, P, = Pr,
vr-v" finalcondition5
so: (Charles's law)
Tt T2

Pr = 3 atrn P, is to be found
Vr= 4mt Vr= rl, x V, -- 2mz
Tt= (27 + 273) K = 300K Tr= (127 + 273)K = 400K
P,,V, P"V,
Tl T2

3x4 P2x2
So: (omitting units for simplicity)
300 400
This gives Pz = 8, so the final pressure of the gas is 8 atm.
L
How does the kinetic theory explain the following? The readings below are for a 6xed mass of gas at
a) A gas exerts a pressure on its containe! walls. constant volume:
b) The pressure incleases with temperature (assuming
that the volume does not change). piessure/ atm 0.78 0.96 1.13 1.31 1.48
According to the kinetic thory, what is the presswe of temperature/ oC -50 0 50 100 150
an ideal gas at absolute zero? \rhy? a gaph, estimate a value for absolute
a) By plotting
A gas in
fixed container is at a pressure of 4 atrn and
a
zeto.
a temperature of 27 oC. \Jfhat will its pressure be if it is
b) Does the graph obey the pressure law? Explain your
heated to a temperature of 177'C?
answer.

r' gttc €l|erS'/UE, tineticth€ory 5.(X; iemp€rature and the Kelvin scale 5.@; ideal gas and Boyle! law 5.07
 THERMAL EFFECTS
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Expanding solids and liquids

If a concrete or steel bar is heated, its volume will increase slightly. The effect
Kinetic theory essentials is called thenrral expansion. It is usually too small to notice, but unless
According to the kinetic theory, space is left for it, it can produce enough force to crack the concrete or buckle
solids and liquids are made up the steel. Most solids expand when heated. So do most liquids - and by more
of tiny, vjbrating particles than solids. If a liquid is stored in a sealed container, a space must be left at
(atoms or molecules) which
the toD to allow for exDansion.
attract each other. The higher ''qrA.,r,"'.@rr,@*",,@4'.Qz@"@"
the temperature, then on
average, the faster the particles
'Q'O,,.O"O,,O''Q., A'A "A "'a^ "@"'9'a, "9 Q "'a"
vibrate.
Q .o'o 0 ,o"@,@ Q
"..A"@".q."r@r',"9,@),".90@,,
o,O 0'@,0 o @'@,
Q'@,'a'@'s,"q',a.'@ "9"qt"a,"'qr*'@*"'o,.*etQ
0 o,,o,,€\'A'@,'A @ .O* -Or, "e',,@r,W,@, "9
@
'a. 8'a.'@"@,'@,''@.'@, "O,,,'Ar"'A.,,"t@r'@,@r"'@,,."'@r,
hot

The kinetic theory explains thermal expansion as follows. When, say, a steel
bar is heated, its particles speed up. TheA vibrations take up more space, so
the bar expands sLightly in all directions. If the tempemture falls, the reverse
happens and the material contracts (gets smaller).

Comparing expansions
O.1 mm The chart on the left shows how much 1 metre lengths of different materials
0.3 mm expand when their temperature goes up by 100"C. For greater lengths and
0.9 mm h.igher temperatue increases, the expansion is more.
0.9 mm
When choosing materials for particular jobs, it can be important to know how
1mm
'l mm much they will expand. Here are two examples:
Steel rods can be used to reinforce concrete because both materials expand
3mm equally. If the expansions were different, the steel might crack the concrete on
I a hot day.
increase in length of
oc
a 'l m bar for a 100 If an ordinary glass dish is put straight into a hot oven, the outside of the
rise in temperature
glass expands before the inside and the strain cracks the glass. Pyrex expands
much less tian ordinary glass, so should not crack.

Allowing for expansion... ... and contraction

Caps are left at the ends of bidges to allow for expansion. When overhead cables are suspended from poles or pylons,
one end of the bridge is often supported on rollers so that they are left slack, partly to allow for the contraction that
movement can take place. would happen on a very cold day.
 THERMAL EtFEcTs
++++++++++++++++++++++++++ f ++++++ i-++-++++++++++++

Using expansion
current currenr
from Io
5upply neatet

In the tJrermoneter above, the liquid in the bulb expands when the
temperature rises. The tube is made narrow so that a small increase in
volume of the liquid produces a large movement along the tube.
bimetal strip
-

l'
bimetal strip: cold

'-"'
.\: control knob contacts

Bimetal thermostat When the

bra5s expands most temperature rises, the bimetal strip
bends, the contacts separate. and
the current to the heater is cut off.
In the birnetal strip above, thin stips of two different metals are bonded When the temperature falls, the
together. \:l(/hen heated, one metal expands more than the other, which makes bimetal strip straightens, and the
the bimetal strip bend. Bimetal strips are used in some thermostats - current is switched on again. In this
devices for keeping a steady temperature. The tlermostat shown on the right way, an approximately steady
is connolling an electric heater. temperature is maintained.

Water and ice

'When
hot water cools, it contracts. However, when watet freezes it expands as
it turns into ice. The force of the expansion can burst water pipes and split
rocks with rainwater trapped in them.

Vater expands on freezing for the following reason. In liquid water, the
particles (water molecules) are close togetJrer. But in ice, the molecules link
f'.ig'ga3,u,i$i-
up rn a very open structure that actually takes up rzore space than in the molecules in liquid water
liquid - as shown in the diagram on the right.
Ice has a lower dzzsity than liquid water - in other words, each kilogram has a
greater volume. Because of its lower density, ice floats on water. When liquid
water is cooled, the molecules start forming into an open structure at 4oC,
just before freezing point is reached. As a result, water expands very slightly
as it is cooled from 4 "C to 0.C. It takes up least space, and therefore has its molecules in ice
maximum density, at 4oC.

L
1 Exptain the following: 2 This question is about rhe thermostat in the diasram at
a) A metal bar expands when heated. dle top oftle page.
b) Overhead cables are hung wit}r plenty of slack in a) Why does rie power to rlre heater ger cur off ifthe
them- temperature rises too much?
c) It wonld zol be a good idea to reinforce corlcretc b) To llirairrtzn a higher temperature, which way would
with aluminium rods. you move the control knob? - to the nglrr so that it
d) A bimetal strip bends when heated. moves towards the contacts, or to tlrc /dt? Erplain your
e) Water expands when it freezes. answer.

!*S'ldB:'daqilyllto; foding 3lf,; kjn€ttc Ot€ory ard par*s 5.th; themometeE 5.(D
 THERMAT EFFEcrs
ES.
42oo joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature
of I kg of water by 1 'C.
U nits
Energy is measured in joules (J).
Temperature is measured in 'C
or in kelvin (K). Both scales
have the same size 'degree',
so a 1'C change in temperature
is the same as a 1K change.
Specific heat capacity
If a matcrial absorbs thermal energ]', then unless it is melting or boiling, its
temperature riscs- However, some materials have a greater capacity for
absorbing thcrmal cncrgy than others. For example, if you heat a kilogram
each of water and aluminium, the rvater must be supplied u'ith ncarly five
times as much encrgy as the aluminium for the same rise in tcmperature:
1kg
4* I
aluminium
,A 9OO joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature of
1kg of aluminium by 1'C.
Scicntifically speaking, water has a specific heat capacity of a200 J(kg"C).
Aluminium has a specific heat capacity of onty 900J/Gg'C). Other specific
heat capacitics arc shown in the table below left.
The encrgy that must be transfcrrcd to an objcct to increase rts temperaturc
can be calculated using ttris equation:
energy transferred = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change
In symbols: energy tansferred = /zc^f
r,r'hcrc rn is the mass in kg, c is the specific heat capacity inJ/(kg'C), and A'-f'
represents the tcmpcrature change in"C (or in K).
The samc cquation can also be used to calculate the energy transferred when
a hot object cools down.
Examplz If ?kg of water cools from 70 "C to 20 "C, how much thermal
energy does it lose?
In this casc, the tempcrature change is 50 oC.
So: cncrgy tansferred = mcL'T = 2 x 4200 x 50 J
= 420 000 J
Heat capacity
The quantrq mass x specilic heat capacity is called the heat capacity' For
example, if there is 2 kg of water in a kcttle;
heat capaciq of the water = 2kg x 4200J/Gg'C) = 8a00J/"C
This means that, for each l oC rise in tcmperatue,8400 joules of energy
must be supplied to the water in the ketdc. A greater mass of water would
havc a higher hcat capacity.
 THERMAL EFFEcTS
++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++-!-++ +++++++++++++++

Linking energy and power

energy Energy is measured in joules (J).

'
POWer = Ilme
Power ls measured in watts (W).
5o: energy = -power x time lime is measured in seconds (s).

Measuring specific heat capacity

Water A typical experiment is shown on the right. Here, the beaker contains
0.5 kg of water. When the 100 watt electric heater is switched on for
230 seconds, the temperature of t}te water rises by l0'C. From these figures,
a value for the specific heat capacity of water can be calculated:
(Omitting some of the units for simplicity)
energy transfcrred to water = mcLT- = 0.5 x c x 10
energy supplicd by heater = power x time = 100 x 230 = 23000J
0.5xcx10=23000
Rearranged and simplified, this gives c = 4600
so the specific heat capacity of water is 4600 J/ftg"C).

This method makes no allowance for any thermal energy lost to the beaker or insulation
the surroundings, so the value of c is only approximate.
Alurninium (or other metal) The method is as above, except that a bbck
of aluminium is used instead of watcr. The block has holes drilled in it for the
water gNes
heater and thermometer. As before, c is calculated from this equation: thermal enr
poiver x timc = fficAZ (assuming no thermal energy losses)

Storing thermal energy

Because of its high specific heat capacity, water is a very useful substance for
storing and carrying thermal energy. For example, in central heating systcms,
\yater carries thermal energl' from the boiler to the radiators around t}le
house. In car cooling systems, water carries unwanted thermal energy from
the engine to the radiator.

Night storage heaters use concrete blocks to store thermal energy. Although
concrete has a lowcr specific heat capacity than water, it is more densc, so the
same mass takes up less space. Electric heating elements heat up the bkrcks
overnight, using cheap, 'off-peak' electricity supplied through a special meter.
In most central heating systems,
The hot blocks release thermal energv through dre day as they cool down.
water is used to carry the thermal
energy.
it-\
The specific heat capacities of copper and water are given c) If, in part b, the copper \ €re replaced by water, how
in t}le tablc on the oppositc page. much thermal cncrgy would this givc out?
A 2101i4/ hcatcr is placcd in 2kg ()f rvater and switched
1 Vater has a vcry high spccific heat capacit).. Give ,?ro
on for 200 seconds.
nrq.ti^rl "c.c rhie
^f a) How much cnergy is needed to raise the
2 a) Horv much thcrmal energy is nccded to raise the
temperatwc of 2 kg of watcr by I'C?
temperature of I kg of copper by 1 oC?
b) How much cncrgy does t}rc hcater supply?
b) If a 10 kg block of coppcr cools liom 100'C to
c) Assuming that no thermal energy is lost, &'hat is the
50"C, holl much thermal energy does it give out?
temperature risc of the rvater?

Bdad toptc$ densig 1.03; thermal energy 4.01 and 5,01; temperature 5.02; electrical power 8,lO
 THERMAL EFFECTS
Kinetic theory essentials
According to the kinetic theory,
materials are made up of tiny,
moving particles (usually
molecules). In solids, the
particles are held together by
strong attractions. ln liquids,
they have more enetgy and are
less strongly held. In gases,
they have enough energy to
overcome the attractions, stay
spaced out, and move around
freely.
++++++++++++++++++++++++i-++++++++++++++++++++++++
Latent heat
'Water
can be a solid (ice), a liquid, or a gas called water vapour (or steam).
These are its three phases, or states.
Latent heat of fusion
Ifice from a cold freezer is put in a warm room, it absorbs thermal energy.
The graph on the left shows what happens to its temperature. I?hile melting,
the ice goes on absorbing energy, but its temperature does not change. The
energy absorbed is called the latent heat offusion. It is needed to separate
the particles so that they can form the liquid. If the liquid changes back to a
solid, the energy is released again.
rra
tce
Ice has a specific latent heat offusion of 330 000 J/kg. This means that
330 000 joules of energy must be transferred to change each kilogram of ice
into liquid water at the same temperature (0"C). For any known mass, the
energy transferred can be calculated using this equation:
energy transferred = mass x specific latent heat
In symbols: energy transferred = ml,
For example, if 2 kg of ice is melted (at 0'C):
energy transferred = mL = 2kg x 330 000 J,&g = 660 000 J
Measuring the speciffc latent heat of fusion of ice In the experiment on
the left, a 100 watt heater is switched on for 300 seconds. By weighing the
water collected in the beaker, it is found that 0.10 kg of ice has melted. From
these figures, a value for I can be calculated:
(Omitting some of the units for simplicity)
energy transferred when ice melts = mL = 0.10L
energy supplied by heater = power x tilne = 100 \7 x 300 s = 30 000 J
So: 0.102 = 30 000, which gives l, = 300 000
So the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 300 000J,rkg.
This rnethod makes no allowance for any thermal energy received from the
funnel or surroundings, so the value of 'L is only approximate.
Linking energy and power
energy
_::- Energy is measured in joules (J).
OOWer =
' tme Power is measured in watts (W).
5o: energy = power x tlme Time is measured in seconds (s).
 THERMAT EFFEcts
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Latent heat of vaporization

If you heat water in a ketde, the temperature rises until the water is boiling at
100oC, then stops rising. If the ketde is left switched on, the water absorbs
more and more thermal energy, but this iust turns more and more of t}te
boiling water into steam, still at 100"C. The energy absorbed is called latent
heat ofvaporization. Most is needed to separate the particles so that they
can form a gas, but some is required to push back the atmosphere as the gas
forms.

f{6'+;t-;i: 3+':!-i\:r

..i. '-\
.,t,
, lke i
water vlpour A jet of steam releases latent

- (steam) j a

heat when it condenses (turns

'':
:i
', liquid). This idea can be used to
oo

..f heat drinks quickly.

' ' *-+* j'
'J
' ''n'
\Water has aspecific latent heat of vaporization of 2 300 000 J/kg. This
means that 2 300 000 joules of energy must be transferred to change each
kilogram of liquid water into steam at the same tcmperature (100'C).
To calculate the energy transferred when any known mass ofliquid changes
into a gas at the same temperature, you use the equation on the opposite
page. However, I, is now the specific latent heat of u dporization.

Measuring the specific latent heat ofvaporization ofwater

In the experiment on the right, the can contains boiling water. When the
100 watt heater has been switched on for 500 seconds, the change in the mass
balance's reading shows that 0.020k9 of water has boiled away. From these
figures, a value for I can be calculated:
(Omining some of the units for simplicity)
energy transferred when water is vap orized = mL = 0.020L
energy supplied by heater = power x time = 100t1(/ x 500s = 50000J
So: 0.0202 = 50 000, which gives l, = 2 500 000
So the specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2 500 000 J/kg.

This method makes no allowance for any thermal energy Iost to the
surroundings, so the value of 1- is only approximate.

-Lti--
Specific latent heat of fusion oficc = 330000 J/kg; specific latent heat ofvaporization ofwater = 2 300 000 J/kg
1 Some crystals were melted to form a hot liquid, which 2 Energy is needed to turn water into watc! vapour
was then left to cool. As it coolcd, the readings in thc (steam). How docs the kinetic theory cxplain this?
table bclow were taken. 3 Hor'"'much encrgy is needed to changc
a) What was happening to thc liquid between 10 and a) 10kg oficc into watet ar rhe same temperarure
20 minutes after it started to cool? tr) 10kg of \a'atcr into lvarer vapour at thc samc
b) Vhat is the melting point of thc crystals in .C? temperaturc?

Time/minutes 0 5 l0 15 20 25 4 A 460 waft rvater heater is used to boil water.

30
Assuming no thermal energy losses, what mass of
Temperature/'C 90 75 6A 68 68 62 58
steam will it produce in 10 minutes?

.!d&l!tl!*i. kinqtk theory and thermal energy 5.01; evaporation, boiling, and condensation 5.06; electrical power 8.10
 THERMAL EFFEcTs ffi

1 Explain in terms of molecules: a) \iVhat is meant by the statement that t scab is hnear?
"
a) t]!e process of evaporation; t3l t2l
b) why the pressure of the air inside a car qrre increases b) Calculate the distance moved by t}le end ofdre
when tle car is driven at high speed. 121 mercury thread when the temperature of the thermometer
rises
(i) ftom 0.0"C to 1.0oC
(ii) from 1.0"C to 100.0'C t31
2 The figure shows an outdoo! water storage tank.
ucl-Es (o)
water level
a) The table gives the melting and boiling points for lead
and oxygen.

mehing point in "C boiling potut in "C

lead 327 1744

ground
oxygen -219 -183

a) (i) Fo! the water molecules in the tank, (i) At 450"C witl the lead be a solid, a liquid or a gas?
l. describe the distance between the molecules
t11
compared to those in solids and gases,
(ii) At -200'C wil the oxygen be a solid, liquid or a
2. describe the movement of the water molecules.
(ii) Explain in molecular terms why water is a liquid,
gas? tU
b) The graph shows how t}Ie temperature of a pure
and not a solid, at a temperature of2ooc. I3l substance changes as it is heated.
b) In terms of molecular movement, explain how
evaporation takes place. l2l
c) Water tank designels wished to reduce *re amount of
500
water evaporating during hot weatier. They investigated
dree factors, which they thought would affect 400
evaporation. In each case write down the most likely
conclusion reachedJ explaining your answer in terms of temperature/ oC 300
the water molecules. All other factors were kept constant,
(i) changing the depth of the tank (assuming it is 200
always full)
'100
(ii) fining a lid
(iii) changing the temperature of the water. [3] 0
d) In further tests, open-topped tanks of t}Ie same size !|me

were constructed and placed in the shade for dre whole of (i) At what temperature does the substance boil? t11
the day. These tanks were made of steel, concrete and a (ii) Sketch the graph and mark with an X any point
rigid plastic, only one matedal being used for each tank. where the substance exists as both a liquid and gas
The tanks were all filled, at the beginning of dre day, with at the same time. tu
water at a temperarure of 15 oC. Suggest which one would (i) All substances consist ofparticles. What happens to
c)
have tre lowest mte of evaporation during a day when the
the average kinetic energy of these particles as the
air ternperature averaged 35 oC, and explain your answer. gas.
substance changes fiom a liquid to a Ill
tzl (ii) Explain, in terms ofparticles, why energy must be
e) On a hot day the wate! level in an open tank of
given to a liquid if it is ro change to a gas. t2l
qoss-sectional area 100m1 dropped by 0.005m in
8 hours. The density of water is I 000 kg/m3 and the SEG

average specific latent heat of vaporisation of the water

is 2 x 106Jikg. Calculate the average rate at which energy A glass botde was heated. State whether t}Ie following
is taken from the Sun's rays to evaporate the water. t3] properties were unchanged, decreased or increased.
a) mass of the botde
UCLES (I)
b) density of dre botde
c) extemal diameter of t}le botde
The scale of mercury-in-glass thermometer is linear.
a
d) volume inside the botde l4l
One such thermometer has a scale extending from - I 0 'C
to 1 10 "C. The leneth of that scale is 240 mm. UCLES (o)
 volume increases volume decteases volume stays the same a) Explain how and why
(i) lamp B lights when *re temperature of the strip
pressurc incrcases prcSsure deqeases prcssure stays the same
increases by 20oC, t3l
Copy the following statements about how gases behave (ii) lamp A lights when the temperature falls by 20'C
and select one phrase from the above boxes to complete I2l
them correcdy. Each phrase may be used once, more than b) State what effect moving dle metal contacts nearer to
once or not at all. the bimetallic strip would have on tlte warning system. []
a) When the pressue on a gas increases and its
WTEC
tempemflrre stays tne satne, lts t1l
b) When the temperature of a gas increases and its
The diagram below shows a tt?e of heater used in
Dressure st€rvs tJle same rts t1l
schools.
c) When the and the volume stays the same the
temperature of a gas decreases. tll
riiTEc
-
a) Describe an experiment to show that a brass rod
expands when it is heated. Draw a labelled diagram of the
apparatus you would use. t4l
b) The diagram below shows a thermostat. It contains a
bimetallic strip made of brass and steel. When heated
brass expands more than steel. The bimetallic strip is used
to switch the heater oII when the temoerature rises above
the Dre-set value.

Hot water is pumped from *re boiler into pipes inside ihe
heater. Fins are attached to those pipes. Cold air is drawn
into the base ofdre heater by an electric fan.
a) Why ale filts attached to the pipes inside the heater? [2]
b) 600kg ofwater pass through the heater every hour.
The temperature of dre water falls by 5 oC as it passes
current through the heater.
out Calculate the amount of hcat energy transfered from the
(i) Vhen the bimetallic sftip is heated the heater is water every hour. The specific heat capacity of water is
switched off. Explain why. 4200J/Gs'c). t3l
(ji) How would you use the conftol knob to make the MEG
heater switch offat a higher temperature? t3l
The graph below shows how the temperature of some
NEAB
liquid in a beaker changed as it was heated until it was
boiline.
bimetallic strip
.-
temperature/'C

20
123456 7
time/minutes

a) What was the boiling point of the liquid? t1l

b) State and explain what difference, if any, there would
be in the final temperature if the liquid was heated more
strongly. t2l
metal contacts
c) State one difference between boiling and evaporation.
The diagram shows a warning system containing a
tll
bimetallic stip. The bimetallic strip has two metals X and
Y fumly joined together. uclEs (o)
 THERMAL EFFEcls @

Photocopy the list of topics below and tick the boxes of the ones that are
included in your examination syllabus. ffour teacher shor.rld be able to tell
you which they are.) Use your list when you revise. The spread number in
brackets tells you where to find more information.

D 'l The kinetic theory of mafter. (5.01) O 21 How a vacuum flask works. (5.05)
fl 2 The different properties of solids, Iiquids, and gases. fl 22 The difference between evaporation and boiling.
(s.oi) (s.06)

O 3 The motion of particles in solids, liquids, and gases. E 23 Factors affecting the rate at which a liquid
(5.01) evaporates. (5.06)

D 4 Atoms and molecules. (5.01) D24 The cooling effect of evaporation its uses. (5.06)

E 5 Brownian motion. (5.01) Q25 Why condensation occurs. (5.06)

E 6 The meaning of internal energy. (5.01) 026 Boyle's law. (5.07)

O 7 The Celsius temperature scale. (5.02) 0 27 How the kinetic tleory explains Boyle's law. (5.07)

D 8 The principles of D 28 The pressure law. (5.08)

- liquid-in-glass thermometers
- electrical thermometers. (5.02) Q 29 How the kinetic theory explains the pressure law
(s.08)
B 9 The dilference between heat (thermal enerw) ard
ranha,antra /s nr\ E 30 Absolure zero and the kinetic theory explanadon.
(5.08)
Q 10 The Kelvin temperaue scale (5'02)
fl31 chadest law. (5.08)
O 11 The link between the Kelvin and Celsius scales.
(5.02) D 32 The combined gas equation (5'08)

u 12 The factors affecting thermal conduction. (5.03) Q 33 why solids and liquids normallv expand whn
heated. (5.09)
E 13 Examples of good and poor thermal conductors.
(5.03) D 34 Effects and uses of tlermal expansion' (5 09)

E14 Uses of thermally insulating marerials. (5.03) O35 How water changes volume when it fieezes, and
t}le effects tttis can produce. (5,09)
D 15 \X/hy some materials are bener rhermal conductors
than others. (5.03) D36 Specific heat capacity. (5.10)

D'16 Convection currents and why t]-rey occur. (5.04) O37 Calculating the thermal energy changes that occur
when the temperarure of an object changes. (5.10)
D 17 Examples and uses of convection in liquids and
gases. (5.04) A 38 Using materials to store thermal energy (5 10)

E18 The nature of thermal radiation. (5.05) D39 Specific latent heat offusion (of ice) and its
measurement. (5.1l)
D 19 How different surfaces compare as emitters,
reflectors, and absorbers of thermal radiation. (5.05) Q40 Specific latent heat of vaporization (of water) and
its measurement. (5.I 1)
D 20 Thermal radiation and the greenhouse effect. (5.05)

@ OUP this pate may be photocopied solely by the purchaser,s institute