1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying - Students

ARCH 3124
Chapter One
Introduction to Surveying
14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 1

Out line
 Introduction
 Definitions
 The Need for Surveying
 Types & Classification of surveying
 Units of Measurements & Scale
 Theory of Errors in Surveying
 Accuracy & Precision
 Sources of Errors
 Definitions of Terms used for describing
errors
Some Surveying Instrument
Compass
Theodolite
Total Station
14-Mar-23 3
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
HISTORY OF SURVEYING

History of Surveying
• Historically surveying starts with the settlement of people
in one place and started to domesticate animals and crops.
• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was

conserved.
Armies were being kept to preserve the borders of the
city/states.
• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

arts because, as noted previously, from the earliest times it
has been necessary to mark boundaries and land divisions.
14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To 6

Surveying
DEFINITIONS OF SURVEYING

Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining the
relative positions of natural and man-made features
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface, and the
presentation of this information either graphically or
numerically.
 Why it is an art?
 Why it is a Science?
 Why relative positions?

Definition of …
Why it is an art?
 Because only a surveyor who possesses through

understanding of surveying techniques will be able to
determine the most efficient methods required to obtain
optimal results over a wide variety of surveying problems.
Why it is a Science?
 Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze

field data, accuracy and reliability depends on
understanding scientific principles underlying and
affecting survey measurement.

Definition of …
Why relative positions?
 When we say the relative positions of points it

means that determining the relative positions of
points in reference to another Objects reference
point/station.
For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North-

east of Akaki Town. In this example, it is obvious
that the (relative position) location of AASTU is
described with reference to Akaki Town.

Definition of …
 After taking the measurements in the field,

computations are done and the plans and the maps
are prepared in the office.
 These plans and maps are used for:
• planning of engineering works
• making boundaries
• computation of areas and volumes, and
• various other purposes.

Definition of …
• Engineering Surveying is defined as those

activities involved in the planning and execution
of surveys for the location, design, construction,
maintenance, and operation of civil and other
Engineered Projects.
• Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all

methods for measuring, processing, and
disseminating information about the physical
earth and our environment.
NEED FOR SURVEYING

Need For Surveying
Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way
of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:
1. Map the earth above and below sea level.
2. Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea.
3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information

which aid in managing our environment
5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of

the earth and
6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets, etc.

Need For …
The two fundamental reasons for taking
measurements in Surveying.
i. to determine the relative positions of existing

features or objects on or near the surface of the
earth.
ii. to layout or locate the desired positions of new

points or objects which are to be placed or
constructed on or near the surface of the earth.

Need For …
♠ Surveying plays an essential role in the planning,
design, layout and construction of our physical
environment and infrastructure.
♠ Surveying is the link between design and

construction.
♠ In addition to its customary applications in

construction and land-use projects, surveying is
playing an increasingly important role in modern
industrial technologies.
Need For …
Thus, surveying is the Firs stage for all Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized
are:
 to fix the national and state boundaries;
 to establish National control points;
 to collect field data;
 to prepare plan or map of the area to be surveyed;
 to analyze and to calculate the field parameters for setting
out operation of actual engineering works.

Need For …
Surveying activities during the construction process
Before Construction Under construction After construction
Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)

data collection phase plan or map
of construction on the construction
Observations
in the field
Presenting
Processing the Field checks of documentation
observations construction to the client
(office)
Drawing maps,
plans or providing Deformation
Providing data
numerical data Monitoring/
and services to
the client Load Tests
Presenting
documentation
to the client
14-Mar-23 18
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
TYPES & Principles of SURVEYING

Types & Principles of Surveying
Since surveying is a vast discipline, it needs detail
understanding from different perspectives
So it can be classified based on different norms,

Principles & aspects:
 Based on the shape (nature) of the earth
 Based on the purpose for which they are conducted
 Based on the instrument used
 Based on field of observation

Classifi…Shape of the Earth
 The shape of the

earth is an oblate polar semi-axis = b
spheroid.
equatorial semi-axis = a
oblate spheroid
 It is an ellipsoid
of revolution, equator
flattened at the
poles and
bulging at the
equator

Earth’s surface showing
mountains and other irregularities
GEOID – equipotential surface

perpendicular to gravity and
approximating mean sea level
ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the
geoid using a mathematically
b definable figure (a = semi-major axis;
b = semi-minor axis)
a
a= 6378km
b= 6356km
Surveying is categorized in to two based on the
principle whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or the earth is assumed to be a flat plane.
i. Plane Surveying
ii. Geodetic Surveying

i. Plane Surveying is the type of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is ignored and the earth
is assumed to be a flat surface.
♠ All distances and horizontal angles are assumed

to be projected on to a horizontal plane.
♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is

concerned with small portions of the earth’s
surface and the areas involved.

ii. Geodetic Surveying is the type of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is taken in to account
♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the

measurements and representation of the Earth,
including its gravity field, in a 3D, time varying space.
♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to

determine the precise location of a system of widely
spaced points on the surface of the earth.

Classification of Surveying
Based on Instruments Used

Classifi…Instrument Used
Based on the instruments used, it can be classified as:
i. Chain surveying
- is the simplest type of surveying in which linear

measurements are taken with a chain or tape
ii. Compass surveying
- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are

measured with the help of a magnetic compass, in
addition to the line or measurements with a chain
or a tape.
iii. Leveling
This is a type of survey in which a leveling

instrument is used for determination of relative
elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical
plane.
iv. Theodolite surveys
A theodolite is a very precise instrument for

measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

v. Photogrammetric surveys
Photogrammetry (Aerial) surveying is a science of taking

measurements with the help of photographs, mainly
used for topographic mapping of vast areas.

Classification of Surveying
Based on Purpose of the
Surveying

Class… Purpose of the Surveying
Based on the purpose for which they are conducted,
i. Route surveying
-These surveys are especial types of surveys

conducted along a proposed route for establishing
precise position of highway, railway, sewer line, high
tension electric lines, etc.
-Route survey is done along a wide strip.
-In general, route surveying also includes the staking

out and calculation of the earth work
ii. Property survey
It is performed in order to establish the positions of
boundary lines and property corners:
• when ever ownership is to be transferred
• when a large tract of land is to be subdivided in to

smaller parts called parcels.
• before the design and construction of any public or

private land- use project can get underway
• to mark property corners with permanent monument

iii. Control Survey
Used to establish a network of

horizontal and vertical
monuments that serve as a
reference framework for other
survey projects.

iv. Topographic Survey
• Made to collect data or information
• to produce a map showing the configuration of the

terrain (natural and man made features) and
• the location of natural and man-made objects.

v. Construction survey
- is performed in order to mark the position of new

features on the ground
- It is applicable in most/many engineering projects

in order to represent the location of building
corners, road center lines and other facilities that
are to be built such as pipe lines, bridges,
canals…etc.

vi. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
vii. City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and

development of towns including roads, drainage, water
supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally
referred to as city survey.
viii. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and

the bottom of bodies of water. Also known as
bathymetric surveying.
Surveying
Other types of Surveying

• City survey
• Mine survey
• Hydrographic survey
• Astronomic survey
• Satellite survey
• Geological survey
• Engineering survey

Phases of Surveying

Phases of Surveying
There are two phases:

- Field Phase
- Office Phase

Phases of Surveying
• Office Work phase
1. Planning and design of the survey specifications
2. Calculations and adjustment of data
3. Preparation of plans, maps, etc.
• Field Work phase
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed
2.Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3.Performing measurements
4.Setting out in the field
5.Recording of measured data

Units of Measurements
&
Scale

Basic measurements in surveying
Surveying basically consists of the following
four measurements
1. Horizontal distance
- Is measured in a
horizontal plane.
- If it is measured along a
slope, it should be
reduced to its
horizontal equivalent.

2. Vertical distance
- Is the vertical distance measured to determine the

difference in elevations (height) of the various points.
- it is in a vertical direction that is parallel to the

direction of gravity; at any point, it is the direction of
a freely suspended plum bob cord or string.
- The most commonly used reference surface for

measuring vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL).

3. Horizontal angle
An angle measured
between two
intersecting lines in a
horizontal plane is
called horizontal
angle.

4. Vertical angle
A vertical angle
between two lines of
sight is measured in
a plane that is
vertical at the point
of observation.

Measurements

Measurement
• Measurement is the process of Comparing
unknowns with standards or
• Measurement is the process of estimating or determining

the magnitude of a quantity
• The difference between the measured and its
true value is called the measurement error


•A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a
physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention or
by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the
same physical quantity.
There are two systems of measurements:
• M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system (SI =

System International)
• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)

Units of Measurements…
1. Linear units of measurements

• Length: meter (m), Kilo meter (Km), inch (in), feet
(ft), mile, yard
• Area: Sq.m (m2), Sq.Km, Sq.ft, hectar (ha)
• Volume: Cu.m (m3), Cu,ft

Units of Measurements…
2. Angular units of measurements
There are three systems in use for angular unit:
i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts.

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

1 radian = 57.300

Conversion of Units
•We can convert measurements from one unit to
another unit or within the same system (English or
Metric) or between the two systems.
•To convert measurements, it is necessary to know

conversion factors between measurements.

Conversion of Units…
i. The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m)
1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1km
1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm
1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm
1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm

ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter
square (m2)
1 hectare = 100m X 100m=104m2 = 1 ha
1 sq.km= 1000m X 1000m=106 m 2 = 1km2 = 100 ha
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic

meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters=1 cubic centimeter meter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter

» Conversion of length » Conversion of length
1Km = 1000m 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m = 100cm 1 foot = 0.3048m
1cm= 10mm 1 foot = 12inches
1 mile = 1.6093 km
» Conversion of length » Conversion of length

1sq.cm = 102 mm 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1sq.m = 104 cm 1 foot = 0.3048m
1sq.Km = 106 m 1 foot = 12inches
1 mile = 1.6093 km

» Conversion of area » Conversion of Volume
1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm 1 cu. m = 106 cu.cm
1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm 1 cu. cm = 103 cu.mm
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km 1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
» Conversion of Angles » Conversion of Angles

1 degree = 60min 1 gon = 9/10 deg
1 min = 60sec, 1 deg = 10/9 gon,
1 min = 60sec 400 gon = 3600
1 gon = 100mgon 1 radian = 57.300
1 mgon = 10cgon
Scale of a Map

Scale of a map
 The scale of a map is defined as the ratio of a distance
on the map to the corresponding measured distance
on the ground
 The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on
the map to distance on the ground or vice versa
 Scales of a map are generally classified as large,

medium and small
 A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size

than a small scale map

Scale of a map…
 Large denominator numbers refer to small scale,
where as small denominator numbers are an
indicative of a large scale
-----Large scale:- 1: 1,000 or more
example 1:500
-----Medium scale:- 1:1,000 to 1:10,000
example 1: 5,000
-----Small Scale:- 1: 10,000 or less
example 1:50,000
Representations of Scale
Scale of a map can be represented:
i. By statement (Verbal) (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
ii. By representative fraction
iii. By graphical Scale
i. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-

– Simple terms are used to define a noticeable surface feature
on this scale.
– A verbal map scale describes a location or object by

expanding abbreviations, for example “One inch to the
mile
Surveying
Representations of Scale…
ii. By representative fraction (RF)-
 This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the

representative fraction.
 The RF is always written with the map distance as 1 and

is independent of any unit of measurement.
Note:The unit in the numerator and denominator must be

the same (scale is unit less).
E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map

represents 5000 cm (50m) on the ground.

Representations of Scale…
iii. By graphical Scale:
 A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that

its map distance corresponds to its length on the
ground
 It is used to convert distances on the map to actual

ground distances
 It is also used to determine straight line distance

between two points on a map

Surveying
RF
Graphical
Statement

Surveying
Theory of Errors in Surveying

Theory of errors
It can be stated unconditionally that
1. No measurement is exact,
2. Every measurement contains errors,
3. The true value of a measurement is never known, and

thus
4. The exact sizes of the errors present are always

unknown.
****The true value of a quantity is, a value which is, absolutely

free from all types of errors*****

Types of Errors in measurements
 The surveyor’s task is to keep errors in measurement
with in prescribed or agreed limits.
 In order to do so, he/she must know source of errors,
types of errors, the effects of errors and how to
evaluate his/her results.
 There are three basic types of errors. These are;
– Mistakes (Gross) errors
– Systematic ( Cumulative) errors
– Accidental (Random) errors

A. Mistakes (Gross errors)…
• These are serious faults and occur when the
surveyor blunders through lack of experience and
lack of care. Some of these are:
. Incorrect booking of measurements For
example, recording 79.36 or 73.69 instead
of 73.96
• Mistakes can be eliminated only by proper and
careful methods of observing & booking and
constantly checking both operations.

B. Systematic (cumulative) errors
• These are constant errors, which can be calculated and

so corrected. For example
• if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a

temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c
the tape will be about 3.5mm too long.
• This means when the measured distance is 30m, the

actual distance is 30.0035m.
• Hence, there is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every

30m tape length.
C. Accidental (Random) Errors
• A random error (or accidental error) is an error
produced by irregular causes that are beyond the
control of the observer.
• These errors are remaining after mistakes &
systematic errors have been eliminated.
• These errors can be +ve or -ve.
• These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series
of measurements, and are, therefore, also called
compensating errors.

Accuracy & Precision
• Accuracy is the measure of the absolute
nearness of a measured quantity to its true
value.
• It is an indication of how close it is to the
true value of the quantity that has been
measured.
N.B: Accuracy – Result to be right

• Precision is the degree of consistency
between observations based on the sizes of
the discrepancies in a data set.
• The precision of a measurement has to do
with the refinement used in taking the
measurement, the quality of an instrument.
N.B: Precision – Method to get right

• Precision in a measurement is influenced by:
1. care used in making a measurement
2. refinement of instrument construction
3. Least count of the scale
4. Number of times the measurement is
repeated

Accuracy Vs Precision
ACCURACY
High
Low
Low
PRECISION
High

Sources of Errors
Natural errors
• Curvature, refraction, strong winds, Temperatures
variations, loose muddy and swampy areas
Instrumental errors
• Sag, Vertical and horizontal Axis, lateral and
collimation error plate level test, cross hair ring Test,
collimation in azimuth test, vertical circle, Index Test.
Personal Errors
• Mistakes in reading and recording, focusing, setting
up, holding staffs

Degree of accuracy
The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in
the measurements .
It is usually expressed as the ratio of the error to the
measured quantity.
For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000

indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.

Surveying

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ARCH 3124

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 1

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 5

• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was

• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To 6

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 7

 Why relative positions?

 Because only a surveyor who possesses through

 Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 9

 When we say the relative positions of points it

For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North-

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 10

 After taking the measurements in the field,

 These plans and maps are used for:

• planning of engineering works

• computation of areas and volumes, and

• various other purposes.

• Engineering Surveying is defined as those

• Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 13

of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:

1. Map the earth above and below sea level.

3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands

4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information

5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of

6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets, etc.

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 14

i. to determine the relative positions of existing

ii. to layout or locate the desired positions of new

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 15

♠ Surveying is the link between design and

♠ In addition to its customary applications in

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 17

Before Construction Under construction After construction

Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 19

So it can be classified based on different norms,

 Based on the shape (nature) of the earth

 Based on the purpose for which they are conducted

 Based on the instrument used

 Based on field of observation

 The shape of the

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 21

GEOID – equipotential surface

ii. Geodetic Surveying

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 23

♠ All distances and horizontal angles are assumed

♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 24

♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the

♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 25

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 26

- is the simplest type of surveying in which linear

ii. Compass surveying

- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are

This is a type of survey in which a leveling

iv. Theodolite surveys

A theodolite is a very precise instrument for

14-Mar-23 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 28