ELECTRONICS PAPER 07

SET 02
I. Answer any FIVE questions. Each questions carry 8 marks: 05x08=40

1) Explain the following characteristics of data transmission circuits:

a. Band Width Requirements:

Characteristics of Data Transmission Circuits is the most instances consists of pulse-type energy. The
data stream is similar to a square-wave signal with rapid transitions from one voltage level to another, with
the repetition rate depending on the binary representation of the data word. For instance, if an 8-bit word has
the value 01010101, the resulting voltage graph would appear as a series of four-square waves with each
negative half-cycle equal to each positive half-cycle. If, however, the data word has the form 00001111, the
voltage graph would appear as a single square wave with negative and positive half-cycles equal but longer
than the first example. Figure 14-16 shows the voltage graphs for these and other binary words. It can be
seen that data circuits must provide a bandwidth for the data transmissions they carry. This will be governed
by the pulse rate variations just explained, and by the fact, indicated in earlier, that even a single square
wave occupies a frequency range because of the harmonics present.

Since many data transmissions utilize telephone channels, the bandwidth of the telephone is an
appropriate consideration. The internationally accepted standard telephone channel occupies the frequency
range of 300 to 3400 Hz, this referred to within the industry as a 4-kHz channel. In certain difficult or
expensive applications, such as HF radio or some submarine cables, 3-kHz circuits, in which the frequency
range is 300 to 2800 Hz, are used. Neither channel will encompass all the audible spectrum, but each will
cover the range into which speech falls and convey enough of the components of speech to ensure
intelligibility and voice recognition. The signals which fall outside the, channel bandwidth is attenuated by
filters so that they will not interfere with other signals.

When data is sent over telephone channels, the speed must be limited to ensure that the bandwidth
required by the Characteristics of Data Transmission Circuits will not exceed the telephone channel
bandwidth. The faster the data is transmitted, the greater the bandwidth will need to be to accommodate it.
 b. Echo Suppressors:

Echo suppressors or echo cancellers are used on long-distance circuits, in an effort to overcome
echoes caused by circuit imbalances. This is of significance to Characteristics of Data Transmission Circuits
because a lot of it occurs over the public switched telephone network, nationally and internationally.

Although the use of echo suppressors improves voice communications, it is incompatible with
Characteristics of Data Transmission Circuits. Because a lot of data transmissions are both ways, or quickly
alternating from one direction to the other, they require the capability of bidirectional transmission at
standard levels, or at least rapid response and interrupt capability. For this type of operation to be
accomplished, it is necessary to disable the echo suppressor. In fact, so-called “tone-dialable” echo
suppressors have been designed to accommodate the needs of data users. If a 2025-Hz tone is applied to the
line for approximately 300 ms prior to the start of transmission, such an echo suppressor will be disabled
and bidirectional communication can proceed. If a gap in the transmission greater than 100 ms occurs, the
echo suppressor will be reactivated.

2) Explain the working of MTI radar with the help of a block diagram and a suitable waveform.

Basically, the Moving Target Indicator Radar Block Diagram compares a set of received echoes with
those received during the previous sweep. Those echoes whose phase has remained constant are then
cancelled out. This applies to echoes due to stationary objects, but those due to moving targets do show a
phase change; they are thus not cancelled nor is noise, for obvious reasons. The fact that clutter due to
stationary targets is removed makes it much easier to determine which targets are moving and reduces the
time taken by an operator to “take in” the display. It also allows the detection of moving targets whose
echoes are hundreds of times smaller than those of nearby stationary targets and which would otherwise
have been completely masked. MTI can be used with a radar using a power oscillator (magnetron) output,
but it is easier with one whose output tube is a power amplifier, only the latter will be considered here.
 The transmitted frequency in the Moving Target Indicator Radar Block Diagram of Figure 16-12 is
the sum of the outputs of two oscillators, produced in mixer 2. The first is the stab, or stable local oscillator
(note that a good case can be made for using a varactor chain here). The second is the coho, or coherent
oscillator, operating at the same frequency as the intermediate frequency and providing the coherent signal,
which is used as will be explained. Mixers 1 and 2 are identical, and both use the same local oscillator (the
stab); thus phase relations existing in their inputs are preserved in their outputs. This makes it possible to use
the Doppler shift at the JF, instead of the less convenient radio frequency f0 + fc... The output of the IF
amplifier and a reference signal from the coho are fed to the phase-sensitive detector, a circuit very similar
to the phase discriminator.

The coho is used for the generation of the RF signal, as well as for reference in the phase detector,
and the mixers do not introduce differing phase shifts. The transmitted and reference signals are locked in
phase and are said to be coherent; hence the name of the coho. Since the output of this detector is phase-
sensitive, an output will be obtained for all fixed or moving targets.

The phase difference between the transmitted and received signals will be constant for fixed targets,
whereas it will vary for moving targets. This variation for Moving Target Indicator Radar Block Diagram is
due to the Doppler frequency shift, which is naturally accompanied by a phase shift, but this shift is not
constant if the target has a radial component of velocity. If the Doppler frequency is 2000 Hz and the return
time for a pulse is 124 μs (10 nmi), the phase difference between the transmitted and received signals will be
some value Φ, (the same as for stationary target at that point) plus 2000/124 = 16.12 complete cycles, or
16.12 X 2π = 101.4 rad. When the next pulse is returned from the moving target, the latter will now be
closer, perhaps only 123 μs away, giving a phase shift of 101.4 X 123/124 = 100.7 rad. The phase shift is
definitely not constant for Moving Target Indicator Radar Block Diagram. The situation is illustrated
graphically, for a number of successive pulses, Figure 16-13.

It is seen from Figure 16-13 that those returns of each pulse that correspond to stationary targets are
identical with each pulse, but those portions corresponding to moving targets keep changing in phase. It is
thus possible to subtract the output for each pulse from the preceding one, by delaying the earlier output by a
time equal to the pulse interval, or 1/PRF. Since the delay line also attenuates heavily and since signals
must be of the same amplitude if permanent echoes are to cancel, an amplifier follows the delay line. To
ensure that this does not introduce a spurious phase shift, an amplifier is placed in the undelayed line, which
has exactly the same response characteristics (but a much lower gain) than amplifier 1. The delayed and
undelayed signals are compared in the subtractor (adder with one input polarity reversed), whose output is
shown in Figure 16-13d. This can now be rectified and displayed in the usual manner.
 3) Explain with a Block Diagram, the working of a satellite earth station.

The communication is established to the satellite through earth station. the earth station can he
located on the ship at the sea, or it can he located on the space craft or actually on the earth. The location
of the earth station is decided depending upon the ease of control of satellite and the function of the
satellite. The type of earth stations depends upon the (a) function of the station, (b) type of service, (c)
frequency bands used, (d) transmitters, (c) receiver and (f) antenna characteristics. The four major
subsystems of any earth station are, receiver, antenna, transmitter and tracking equipment. The special
earth stations like TVRO (TV receiver only or direct broadcast satellite receivers) does not have
transmitting function. Some other earth stations a very special. like tracking and control of satellites.
Fig shows the basic block diagram, of a satellite earth station.

The baseband signal is applied to the encoder. Encoder converts the format ready for modulation.
The carrier is modulated by the encoded baseband signal. The modulated carrier is then upconverted to the
uplink frequency of the satellite. The amplifier then amplifies this signal to high power level, ready for
transmission. The signal is then passed through the polarization feed of the antenna.

The signal received from the antenna is of different frequency (downlink frequency) and is very
small in amplitude. This signal is amplified by the low noise amplifier. It is then down converted to the
intermediate frequency by the down converter. This signal is then demodulated and decoded to get
baseband signal.

Transmitter Section: In the large earth stations many channels are required to be transmitted.
The amplifiers used are High Power Amplifiers (HPAs). These amplifiers have wide bandwidth at
microwave frequencies. These amplifiers are normally klystron or Travelling Wave Tubes (TWT) based.
The power capacity of these amplifiers varies from 500 to 2000 watts. The outputs of the HPAs are
combined through bandpass filters. The 70 MHz IF is upconverted. The configuration of HPAs to be
employed depends on the, number of carriers to be transmitted and type of multiplexing used.

Receiver Section: It has low noise amplifier (LNA), down converter, demodulator, decoder and
baseband signal treatment equipment. Normally the same antenna diplexer separation the downlink and
uplink frequencies at the earth stations. The first stage of the receiver should have very low noise and
sufficiently high gain. The LOW Noise Amplifiers (LNAs) cover 500 MHz band.
 4) Draw the simplified block diagram of optical fiber communication system and explain the
function of each block.

The optical fiber consists of three main elements:

1 Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter consists of
driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
Driver circuit drives the light source.
Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2 Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and environmental protection to the
optical fibers contained inside. Each optical fiber acts as an individual channel.
Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two individual optical fibers.
Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical receiver and passes it to electronic
circuit where it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated and distorted with increasing distance because
of scattering, absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this signal is then again converted into optical
signal by the optical transmitter.
3 Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector, amplifier and
signal restorer.
Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal as there are chances of
noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo detectors.

For short distance communication only main elements are required.

Source- LED
Fiber- Multimode step index fiber
Detector- PIN detector
For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need for couplers, beam splitters,
repeaters, optical amplifiers.
Source- LASER diode
Fiber- single mode fiber
Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD)
 5) Explain the following:

a. Base Station:

• A Base station transmits and receives user data in the cellular network to customer phones and
cellular devices. It is connected to an antenna (or multiple antennas).
• BS is a fixed point of communication for customer cellular phones on a carrier network.
• BSs (Base stations) are company specific. However one single site may host multiple base stations
from competing telecommunication companies.
• Different types of base stations can be setup according to the coverage required, as follows:
Macrocells
Picocells

b. MTSO:
The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites, contains the cellular processor
and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, controls call processing, provides
operation and maintenance, and handles billing activities. The cellular switching center was known as
MTSO in earlier analog telephone systems such as AMPS.Currently MTSO is referred by name "MSC" or
Mobile Services Switching Center in GSM.

It serves handoff initiated by mobile or BTS based on channel conditions as well as movement of the
mobile. It provides mobile to PSTN subscriber connectivity. One MTSO can serve more than one base
stations (i.e. BTS/BSC). As a result handoff is very smooth for larger coverage. MTSO is responsible to
provide connections of all mobile phone users with the telephone central office. This makes long distance
communication possible.
c. PSTN:

PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network also known as traditional circuit-switched
telephone network formerly it was known as only Public Telephone Network. PSTN refers to a
telecommunications network which allows voice communication between people at different sites. Public
Switched Telephone Network uses an old technology which uses copper wires to carry analog voice signal.
It is operated by local, national and international carriers.

Public Switched Telephone Network is based on Circuit Switching concept. When a dedicated path is
established between two phones a circuit is established between them. All Landlines are Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN).

d. Hand Off:

In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring an
ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to another Base Station. When a mobile moves into
a different cell while the conversation is in progress then the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) transfers the
call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.

When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses for the
mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or data connectivity for
mobile users goes on without interrupting.
II. Answer any FOUR questions. Each questions carry 5 marks: 04x05=20
1. At the input to the receiver of a standard telephone channel, frequency range is 300Hz to
3400Hz, the noise power is 50𝝁𝒘 and the signal power is 20mW. Calculate the Shannon limit
for the channel capacity of the above channel under these conditions, and then when the signal
power is halved.
2. Calculate the unmodulated carrier frequency for the below figure. Also sketch the modulating,
unmodulated carrier and modulated output waveforms. Rx=Ry=56K𝜴, C=0.01𝝁𝑭 and
fi=200Hz.
3. Calculate the maximum range of a radar system which operates at 10GHz with a peak pulse
power of 500 kW, if its minimum receivable power id 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 W, the capture area of its antenna
is 5𝒎𝟐 and the Radar cross-sectional area of the target is 25𝒎𝟐 . Also, express range in terms of
nautical miles.
4. An earth station transmits at 5.62GHz from an antenna of diameter 6m. The transmitter
generates an output of 8kW. The satellite is 39920km from the earth station. The efficiency of
the transmitting antenna being 0.7. Calculate: (a) Path loss (α); (b) Transmitting antenna gain
(Gt); (c) Transmitting power in dB/W, (d) Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP); (e)
Received power at the satellite.
5. A glass fiber with core refractive index of 1.48 and a cladding index is 1.46. Find the critical
angle, the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle. If the outer medium is air.
6. How “Mobile-to-Mobile” call is established? Explain.

• The originating mobile unit initiates the call in the, same manner as it would for a mobile-to-wireline
call.
• The cell-site controller receives the caller's identification number and the destination telephone
number through a reverse control channel, which are then forwarded to the MTSO.
• The MTSO sends a page command to all cell-site controllers to locate the destination party (which
may be anywhere in or out of the service area).
• Once the destination mobile unit is located, the destination cell-site controller sends a page request
through a control channel to the destination party to deter-mine if the unit is on or off hook.
• After receiving a positive response to the page, idle user channels are assigned to both mobile units.
• Call progress tones are applied in both directions (ring and ring-back).
• When the system receives notice that the called party has answered the telephone, the switches
terminate the call progress tones, and the conversation begins.
• If a mobile subscriber wishes to initiate a call and all user channels are busy, the switch sends a
directed retry command, instructing the subscriber's unit to reattempt the call through a neighbouring
cell.
• If the system cannot allocate user channels through a neighbouring cell, the switch transmits an
intercept message to the calling mobile unit over the control channel.
• If the called party is off hook, the calling party receives a busy signal.
• If the called number is invalid, the calling party receives a recorded message announcing that the call
cannot be processed.
III. Answer any FIVE questions. Each questions carry 2 marks: 02x05=10
1. A periodic digital waveform has a pulse width of 20𝝁𝒔 and a period of 200𝝁𝒔. Determine the
frequency and the duty cycle.

Frequency (f) = 1 / Period (T)

Duty cycle (%) = (Pulse Width / Period) * 100

Given: Pulse Width = 20μs

Period = 200μs

Let's calculate the frequency first:

Frequency (f) = 1 / Period (T)
f = 1 / 200μs
f = 5,000,000 Hz (or 5 MHz)

Now, let's calculate the duty cycle:

Duty cycle (%) = (Pulse Width / Period) * 100
Duty cycle = (20μs / 200μs) * 100
Duty cycle = (0.1) * 100
Duty cycle = 10%

So, the frequency of the waveform is 5 MHz, and the duty cycle is 10%.

2. Doppler radar is incapable of indicating the range of the target-Justify.

The statement "Doppler radar is incapable of indicating the range of the target" is not
accurate. Doppler radar is actually capable of determining both the speed (velocity) and the range of
a target.

Doppler radar operates on the principle of the Doppler effect, which is the change in
frequency or wavelength of a wave as observed by an observer moving relative to the source of the
wave. In the case of radar, it is used to detect moving targets by measuring the frequency shift of the
returned radar signal caused by the motion of the target.

By analysing the frequency shift of the radar signal, the Doppler radar can determine the
relative velocity of the target, whether it is moving toward or away from the radar system. This
information is useful in various applications, such as weather radar for detecting precipitation, speed
enforcement radar for traffic monitoring, and military radar for tracking moving objects.

In addition to measuring the Doppler shift, modern radar systems use various techniques like
time-of-flight measurements or pulse timing to determine the range of the target. By knowing the
time it takes for the radar signal to travel to the target and back, the range can be calculated.

So, Doppler radar is not limited to measuring only the target's speed; it is capable of
indicating both the target's velocity and its range.
3. Satellite transponders use alternate polarization for adjacent channel-Justify.

Satellite transponders use alternate polarization for adjacent channels to reduce interference
and improve signal isolation between neighbouring channels. This technique is known as
"polarization reuse."

The concept of polarization reuse takes advantage of the fact that signals with different
polarization can be effectively isolated from each other. In satellite communication, the polarization
of the transmitted signal can be either horizontal (H) or vertical (V), where the electric field of the
radio waves is oriented in the respective directions.

Adjacent satellite channels are often spaced closely together to maximize the efficient use of
the available frequency spectrum. Without polarization reuse, the signals from neighbouring
channels could interfere with each other, leading to a decrease in signal quality and potential data
loss.

By employing alternate polarization for adjacent channels, the interference is minimized

because the receiving satellite dish can be equipped with a feedhorn that is sensitive to a specific
polarization. This effectively filters out signals from adjacent channels that have a different
polarization.

For example, if one channel uses horizontal polarization (H), the adjacent channel can be
configured to use vertical polarization (V). This way, the interference between the two adjacent
channels is greatly reduced, allowing for higher spectral efficiency and improved overall
performance of the satellite transponders.

4. Compare first, second, third, fourth and fifth generation optic fiber cables with reference to the
parameter-Repeater Spacing.

Generation Technique Used Repeating Space

1st Generation Step wave Index 10km

"graded-index fiber" (GI fiber) or
2nd Generation 50km
"multimode graded-index fiber."
3rd Generation Dispersion-shifted fiber 100km

4th Generation WDM Technique >10,000km

5th Generation Roman Amplification Technique 24,000km – 35,000km

5. How Light Emitting Diode works? Explain.

When the pn junction is unbiased, the depletion region contains immobile charges of opposite
polarities that form a barrier across the depletion zone.

When the pn junction is forward biased. the barrier

width decreases, the holes are injected into the n-layer
where they encounter free electrons and recombine.
Similarly, electrons injected into the p-layer become
minority carriers and they encounter holes and recombine
with them. When each electron hole pair recombines, a
single photon of light is released whose energy content is
equal to the bon gap energy level. The intensity of light
is proportional to the forward current conducted by the junction.
 The LEDs used for fiber optics are usually of gallium arsenide type (GaAS).

The centre wavelength of the emitted radiation can be

shifted by adding various dopants such as phosphorus, indium,
aluminium, etc,.

The radiation spectrum of LED is as shown in the figure.

The radiation is, concentrated as a centre wavelength of 0.57pm
(570 nM) and has a spectral width of 0.02pm.

6. What are macro-cell and micro cell with respect to cellular communication.

In cellular communication, macro-cells and micro-cells are two different types of cell sizes used in
the network to provide wireless coverage to users. These cell sizes are designed to optimize the
utilization of radio frequency spectrum and accommodate varying user densities in different areas.

Macro-cell:
• Macro-cells are the largest cell size in a cellular network. They provide coverage over a relatively
large geographic area, often ranging from several kilometers to tens of kilometers in diameter.
• Macro-cells are typically used in areas with a high concentration of users, such as urban and
suburban areas, where there is a demand for broad coverage and capacity to serve a large number
of users simultaneously.
• Base stations (cell towers) for macro-cells are usually placed at higher elevations, such as on tall
buildings or communication towers, to maximize coverage range and reduce the number of
required base stations.
• Due to their large coverage area, macro-cells are ideal for providing wide-area coverage and
handling high-capacity traffic.

Micro-cell:
• Micro-cells are smaller cell sizes compared to macro-cells, covering a much smaller geographic
area, usually ranging from a few hundred meters to a couple of kilometers in diameter.
• Micro-cells are deployed in areas with high user density, such as shopping malls, busy streets,
stadiums, and other crowded public places.
• By using micro-cells in densely populated areas, network capacity can be increased, and users
can experience higher data rates and better call quality.
• Base stations for micro-cells are often installed at streetlamp poles, building rooftops, or other
structures at a lower height compared to macro-cell towers.
• The use of micro-cells helps to offload traffic from macro-cells, reducing congestion and
improving the overall network performance.

In summary, macro-cells and micro-cells are different cell sizes used in cellular communication
networks to provide wireless coverage. Macro-cells cover larger areas and serve high-density user
populations, while micro-cells cover smaller areas and are deployed in densely populated or high-traffic
locations to enhance network capacity and user experience. The combination of macro-cells and micro-
cells optimizes the network's efficiency and provides seamless coverage in various environments.

7. Write four applications of Bluetooth.

• Wireless Audio Streaming
• Hands-Free Calling in Cars
• Wireless File Transfer
• Smart Home Devices
IMPORTANT REVISION