Lesson 7

• Electromagnetic Induction
• Faraday’s Law
• Lenz’s Law
• Self-Inductance
• RL Circuits
• Energy in a Magnetic Field
• Mutual Inductance
• Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• The RLC Circuit
• Alternating Current
• Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic Induction
• The principle of induction
• Any electric field that changes over time will
produce a magnetic field in the space around
it.
• Any magnetic field that changes over time will
produce an electric field in the space around
it.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday found that an electric current can be induced in a circuit (the secondary
circuit in our setup) by a changing magnetic field. The induced current exists for
only a short time while the magnetic field through the secondary coil is changing.
Once the magnetic field reaches a steady value, the current in the secondary coil
disappears. In effect, the secondary circuit behaves as though a source of emf were
connected to it for a short time. It is customary to say that an induced emf is produced
in the secondary circuit by the changing magnetic field.

the SI unit for magnetic flux is the tesla – square meter, which is called the weber
(abbreviated Wb).
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s Law of Induction
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
Example : One Way to Induce an emf in a Coil
Lenz’s Law

As the magnet is moved toward the loop, a

current is induced in the loop. The current
produces its own magnetic field, with
magnetic dipole moment oriented so as to
oppose the motion of the magnet. Thus, the
induced current must be counterclockwise
as shown.
 Self-Inductance
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. After the switch is
closed, the current produces a magnetic flux through the
area enclosed by the loop. As the current increases toward
its equilibrium value, this magnetic flux changes in time and
induces an emf in the loop.
This effect is called self-induction because the
changing flux through the circuit and the
resultant induced emf arise from the circuit
itself. The emf εL set up in this case is called a
self-induced emf.

(a) A current in the coil produces a magnetic field directed to the left.
(b) If the current increases, the increasing magnetic flux creates an induced emf in the coil having the polarity shown by the dashed battery.
(c) The polarity of the induced emf reverses if the current decreases.
 Self-Inductance
• To obtain a quantitative description of self-induction, we recall from
Faraday’s law that the induced emf is equal to the negative of the time
rate of change of the magnetic flux.
• The magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field due to the current,
which in turn is proportional to the current in the circuit.
• Therefore, a self-induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of
change of the current. For any coil, we find that
 Self-Inductance
• Example: Inductance of a Solenoid
 Self-Inductance
Example: Calculating Inductance and emf
 RL Circuits
• A circuit element that has a large self-inductance is called an
inductor and has the circuit symbol

• Because the inductance of the inductor results in a back emf,

an inductor in a circuit opposes changes in the current in that
circuit. The inductor attempts to keep the current the same as it
was before the change occurred.
• If the battery voltage in a circuit is increased so that the current
rises, the inductor opposes this change, and the rise is not
instantaneous.
• If the battery voltage is decreased, the presence of the inductor
results in a slow drop in the current rather than an immediate
drop.
• Thus, the inductor causes the circuit to be “sluggish” as it
reacts to changes in the voltage.
 RL Circuits

A series RL circuit. As the current increases toward its maximum value, an emf that
opposes the increasing current is induced in the inductor.

Using Kirchhoff's Law

 RL Circuits
A mathematical solution of the equation represents the current in the circuit as a
function of time. To find this solution, we change variables for convenience, letting
 RL Circuits

Plot of the current versus time for the RL circuit Plot of dI/dt versus time for the RL circuit
 RL Circuits
• Example: Time Constant of an RL Circuit
(i) Find the time constant of the circuit shown in the Figure

Solution

(ii) The switch is closed at t = 0. Calculate the current in the circuit at t = 2.00ms.

Solution
 Energy in a Magnetic Field

Although this expression was derived for the special case of a solenoid, it is valid for any region
of space in which a magnetic field exists.
 Energy in a Magnetic Field
• Different energy-storage mechanisms are at work in
capacitors, inductors, and resistors. A capacitor stores a
given amount of energy for a fixed charge on its plates;
as more charge is delivered, more energy is delivered.
• An inductor stores a given amount of energy for
constant current; as the current increases, more energy
is delivered.
• Energy delivered to a resistor is transformed to internal
energy
 Mutual Inductance
• Very often, the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by a circuit varies
with time because of time-varying currents in nearby circuits. This condition
induces an emf through a process known as mutual induction, so called because
it depends on the interaction of two circuits

A cross-sectional view of two adjacent coils. A current in coil 1 sets up a magnetic field and
some of the magnetic field lines pass through coil 2.
 Mutual Inductance
• The mutual inductance M12 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1:

If the current I1 varies with time, we see from Faraday’s law that the emf induced by
coil 1 in coil 2 is

In mutual induction, the emf induced in one coil is

always proportional to the rate at which the current in
the other coil is changing.
Oscillations in an LC Circuit
Example: Oscillations in an LC Circuit
In the Figure, the capacitor is initially
charged when switch S1 is open and S2 is
closed. Switch S2 is then opened, removing
the battery from the circuit, and the
capacitor remains charged. Switch S1 is then
closed, so that the capacitor is connected
directly across the inductor.
(i) Find the frequency of oscillation of the circuit.
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
(ii) What are the maximum values of charge on the capacitor and current in the circuit?
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit

(iii) Determine the charge and current as functions of time.

 The RLC Circuit
Because the rate of energy transformation to
internal energy within a resistor is I2R , we
have

Using Kirchhoff's Law

A series RLC circuit.

Switch S1 is closed and the capacitor is

charged. S1 is then opened and, at
t = 0, switch S2 is closed.
 Alternating Current
AC Sources
 Alternating Current
Resistors in an AC Circuit At any instant, the algebraic sum of the
voltages around a closed loop in a circuit
must be zero (Kirchhoff’s loop rule)
 Alternating Current
Resistors in an AC Circuit
Plots of the instantaneous current iR and
instantaneous voltage ΔvR across a resistor as
functions of time. The current is in phase with
the voltage, which means that the current is
zero when the voltage is zero, maximum when
the voltage is maximum, and minimum when
the voltage is minimum. At time τ=T, one cycle
of the time-varying voltage and current has
been completed.

The root-mean-square, rms current.

The average power delivered to a
resistor that carries an alternating
current is
 Alternating Current
• Example: What Is the rms Current?
 Alternating Current
Inductors in an AC Circuit
Alternating Current
Example : A Purely Inductive AC Circuit
In a purely inductive AC circuit, L = 25.0 mH and the rms
voltage is 150 V. Calculate the inductive reactance and
rms current in the circuit if the frequency is 60.0 Hz.

Solution
 Alternating Current
• Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Alternating Current
 Alternating Current
• The RLC Series Circuit
(a) A series circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a
capacitor connected to an AC source.
(b) Phase relationships for instantaneous voltages in the
series RLC circuit.

The current at all points in a series AC circuit has the

same amplitude and phase.
 Alternating Current

The denominator of the fraction plays the role of resistance and is called the impedance Z
of the circuit:
Alternating Current
 Electromagnetic Waves
• The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves, which are predicted by
Maxwell’s equations, have the following
properties:

1. The electric field and the magnetic field

each satisfy a wave equation.

2. The waves travel through a vacuum

with the speed of light c, where
 Electromagnetic Waves
3. The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation. (Hence, electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves.)
4. The instantaneous magnitudes of E and B in an electromagnetic wave are related
by the expression

5. The waves carry energy. The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is described
by the Poynting vector S, where

6. Electromagnetic waves carry momentum and hence exert pressure on surfaces.

If an electromagnetic wave whose Poynting vector is S is completely absorbed
by a surface upon which it is normally incident, the radiation pressure on that
surface is

The magnitude of the Poynting vector represents the rate at which energy flows through a unit surface area perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. Thus, the magnitude of the Poynting vector represents power per unit area.
 Electromagnetic Waves
• The electric and magnetic fields of a sinusoidal plane electromagnetic
wave propagating in the positive x direction can be written

The average value of the Poynting vector

for a plane electromagnetic wave has a
magnitude

Representation of a sinusoidal, linearly polarized

plane electromagnetic wave moving in the positive x
direction with velocity c. The wave at some instant.
Note the sinusoidal variations of E and B with x.
 Electromagnetic Waves
• Example: An Electromagnetic Wave
A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave of frequency 40.0 MHz travels in free space in the x
direction, as in the Figure
(i) Determine the wavelength and period of the wave.
(ii) At some point and at some instant, the electric field has its
maximum value of 750 N/C and is along the y axis. Calculate
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at this
position and time.
(iii) Write expressions for the space–time variation of the
components of the electric and magnetic fields for this
wave.
 Electromagnetic Waves
• Solution (i)

(ii)

(iii)