Foundations 3

5. STABILITY OF EXCAVATIONS
Slope stability:
To understand the principal modes of slope failure, it is
necessary to understand the basic concepts of soil
strength. See “Soil identification – Chapter 2”
Soil divided into cohesionless and cohesive types where
cohesionless soil is one whose grains do not show
any tendency to stick together. The shear strength is
thus solely to the friction developed between the
grains.
• When an embankment composed of a
cohesionless soil fails, it fails as shown in
figure 10. Material from the upper part of
the slope breaks away and falls to the
toe of the slope until the face of the
embankment reaches the natural angle of
repose for the soil.
Fig. 10: Slope failure
of COHESIONLESS
soil.

Think of dry sand (such as desert sand)

that will come to a resting point being the
natural angle of repose i.e. +/- 45º. The
more it is disturbed by loads from the top,
the lower the angle of repose will become
as it slips down.
Think of a material for example clay where the cohesion between
particles is very strong. The more moisture it absorbs, the more
prone it will be to movement due to the increase in weight
because of the moisture. A load from a moving vehicle or pressure
from the top from say rain, will force down onto the soil making it
tear away in bulk (due to the strong cohesion) and “slip” down the
slip pane. Once it has slipped down, it will force upwards creating
a bulge at the foot of the plane.

Fig. 11: Slope failure of

COHESIVE soil
Think of a material for example clay where the cohesion between particles is very strong. Thep.96b
more
moisture it absorbs, the more prone it will be to movement due to the increase in weight because of
the moisture. A load from a moving vehicle or pressure from the top from say rain, will force down
onto the soil making it tear away in bulk (due to the strong cohesion) and “slip” down the slip pane.
Once it has slipped down, it will force upwards creating a bulge at the foot of the plane.

Level dropped
Forces from
above

Fig. 11: Slope failure of

COHESIVE soil

Bulge
• In a cohesive soil, on the other hand,
shear strength is provided primarily by the
attraction between soil grains (called
cohesion). Failure of a highly cohesive soil
typically occurs as shown in figure 11
where a large mass of soil has moved
along a surface, called a slip plane. The
natural shape of this failure surface
resembles the arc of an ellipse but is
usually considered to be circular in soil
stability analyses.
Embankment failure during construction:

The stability of embankments are affected

by external factors like
• weather conditions for example rainfall,
• ground water level,
• the presence of loads for example
materials and equipment near the top of
the embankment/excavation &
• the presence of vibration equipment or
other sources such as moving vehicles.
 Fig. 12:
Subsidence and
bulging

Fig. 13: Formation

of tension crack
Remember
what
happened
when the
soil’s weight
increased
due to the
water
“added”
through the
rainfall?
Embankments?
The power
of moving
soil
Stability of cut bottom – page 172
Whenever cohesive soil is excavated, heaving
(or rising) of the bottom of the cut will occur due
to the weight of the soil on the sides of the cut.
Most noticeable where cut has been restrained –
See figure 15 page 172

Where water is present in cohesionless soil and

the sides of the cut are restrained and the
bottom of the cut is below groundwater level,
water will flow up through the bottom of the
excavation – See figure 16 page 173
The upward flow of water reduces the effective
pressure between the soil grains in the bottom of
the cut:
• This will lead to the forming of quicksand which
is unable to carry any loads applied or
• If the water is strong enough to move the
surrounding soil, will cause failure of the
surrounding supporting soil banks – Why?
SOIL TYPE?

Fig. 15 – Heaving of cut bottom

 Bulging up.
What effect
will this
SOIL TYPE: movement
Clay? Strong have on a
cohesion structure?

Fig. 15 – Heaving of cut bottom

Prevent embankment failure – page 172
The previous method study will assist in the
procedure of preventing embankment failure,
Side slopes may be cut back to an angle
equal or less than the angle of repose of the
soil, or by providing lateral support for the
excavation. Both side and bottom stability
may be increased by de-watering the soil
surrounding the excavation
Other methods:
• retaining walls to protect permanent slopes
• piling or inserting stone columns to increase the
shearing resistance of the potential slip plane
• soil reinforcement (earth reinforcement) – See
figure 17 page 173
Lateral support through piling
 Piling
Isolated
footings

“Lateral support” through piling. No conventional retaining wall.

Reinforced concrete retaining wall. No lateral support through piling.
SOIL REINFORCEMENT:
Involves
• embedding high-tensile-strength,
• non-bio-degradable elements in a compacted
soil mass.
• The tensile elements are attached to facing
material, usually of concrete to prevent erosion
or raveling of soil at the cut surface.
• Has the advantage of being a less expensive
method than that of concrete retaining walls
What other elements are embedded into what type of
material?
Brickwork embedding brick reinforcing
(“brickforce”) where the reinforcing is embedded
into the mortar between the layers
Embankment support: Retaining wall with soil
reinforcing

Connecting straps
 The following will explain the procedure of
creating a retaining structure such as a wall or
walls through soil reinforcement.
Brick reinforcement is used to strengthen
brickwork and the high tensile straps in this
procedure, act in exactly the same manner.
1
Section view

Precast
block with
hooks

Mountain
face

Connection
into Levelled out
mountain surface
face
2
Section view

High tensile strap

connected to
connection point

Layer of filling material as per

engineer’s specification
3
Section view

Next high tensile strap

connected to next
connection point

Next layer of filling material on top of

the strap
4

Next high tensile strap

connected to next
connection point

Next layer of filling material on top of

the strap
5

Next precast block placed on top of

the one below – the process is
repeated up the level required

Next layer of filling material on top of

the strap
 6
Section view

Where there is no fixed surface such as a mountain face, blocks

are spaced away from each other, inter connected to counter act
on one another. The same principle applies as per the previous
explanation but without the fixed mountain face.
7
Filling material
on top of straps

High tensile straps

Precast
inter connected to the
blocks
opposite block
with hooks
8
Filling material on top of straps. Weight
forcing down onto the straps
9
Section view

Pulling forces acting in opposite direction

Pulling forces acting in opposite direction

Pulling forces acting in opposite direction

Pulling forces acting in opposite direction

Connected blocks being “pulled” towards each

other by means of the straps, the weight of the
filling material, forcing down onto the straps
 Filling material below straps
with next layer on top

Precast
blocks
with hooks

High tensile straps

inter connected to
fixed points on the left
Embankment support: Retaining wall (Elevation)
6.PROTECTION OF WORKS
Cave-ins are responsible for fatal accidents: How
is this avoided:
• Sloping or benching the sides of the
excavation
• Supporting the sides of the excavation by
shoring
• Placing a shield between the worker and the
sides of the excavation
Only exception to the previous 3 precautions:

1. Where the excavation was done in stable rock

2. Where the excavation is not deeper than 1,5m

A competent person must be appointed to identify

existing and predictable hazards in the
surroundings or working conditions which are
unsanitary, hazardous or dangerous to
employees and who has authorization to take
prompt measures to eliminate them
a.) SLOPING & BENCHING
* Must be designed by an Engineer
* Major disadvantage is the space required for
the excavation plus the slopes - Refer to
Table 2 page 175
Excavation into hard
rock n.e. 1,5m deep.

Are the embankments

considered safe?
b.) SHORING & SHIELDING
* Lateral support for the sides of an excavation
is usually provided by shoring
* A shoring system that completely encloses
an excavation is essentially a cofferdam,
which is a structure to keep the water/soil out
of the excavation
* Timber: (See figure 18 page 172)
Employs vertical uprights placed against the
sides of the excavation, supported by
horizontal beams
* Aluminium hydraulic: (See figure 19
page 176)
Employs pre-fabricated vertical rails as
uprights with attached hydraulic cross braces
* Lagging:
Sheeting placed horizontally between the open-
ends of H-beams with tiebacks providing lateral
support
* Sheet piling:
Sheeting of concrete, steel or timber that is
designed to be driven into the soil by a pile driver
* Trench shields:
Also called trench boxes, are used in place of
shoring to protect workers during trenching
operations – See figure 20 page 176. The top of
the shield should extend above the sides of the
trench to avoid objects falling in from the sides

Slurry trenches – Self study page 176

Gabions: wire baskets filled with stone acting as retaining structures but still
allowing water to pass through without creating erosion
Lateral support through piling
Lateral support through piling
Holes for ground anchors being drilled
Holes for ground anchors being drilled
Ground anchors placed, awaiting tensioning
 The following pages explain the procedure of
placing piles as lateral support creating shoring
to protect the embankment of a deep basement
excavation.
* Note that the same principles as for normal
piling are followed, but in this case, the piling is
done on the perimeter of the basement.
* Note that the total depth of the basement can
not be excavated in one action and needs to be
done in increments or stages as specified by
the design engineer.
* The number of piles as well as the diameter
and depth of the piles are to be specified by the
design engineer.
The depth of the
excavation will be
determined by the
engineer based on
adjacent forces acting
onto the excavation such
as buildings close by, the
total depth of the
excavation, the soil type
and the cohesion
strength of it. The
excavation needs to be
done in increments
specified by the
engineer, for example
2,0m. Surely one can not
merely excavate 15m
deep without protecting
the embankment
 Take note at the
angle at which
the hole is drilled
Enlarged at the end of
the anchor to create a
tension force once
anchor is stressed
 The excavation will
continue in the
increments of the
depth specified by
the engineer for
example 2,0m

12
 1st excavation increment

2nd excavation increment

Soil nailing
Plan view
Plan view of basement – piling on perimeter
Pneumatically placed concrete on arches over mesh reinforcing
after ground anchors were placed between piles
Lateral support through piling
creating shoring
Soil anchors
 Steel H-beams inserted into the soil, on the perimeter, with
precast concrete slabs slotted in between creating lagging/shoring
Shoring with timber frames
Shoring with timber frames
Shoring with timber frames
p.153 H-beams inserted into the soil, on the perimeter, with timber
Steel
slotted in between creating lagging/shoring
 Plan view

TIMBER TIMBER
10.7 DE-WATERING EXCAVATIONS
De-watering is the process of removing water from an
excavation, usually by pumping water out of the
excavation (also refer to the de-watering of caissons)
May be accomplished by lowering the groundwater table
before excavations begin by placing pipelines in areas
with high groundwater levels. Alternatively, water can be
pumped out during excavations. Removal of water or the
lowering of the water table, may however result in soil
settlement in the surrounding areas which in turn can
lead to foundation settlement or even foundation failure
in the buildings near the excavated areas.
Wellpoint system – See figure 10-22 page 171
The perforated assembly placed on the bottom of the inlet
pipe for a well and is used to identify each well in a de-
watering system – Self study page 171-172
Lowering ground
water level

De-watering

How would one de-water deep basement excavations?

Vacuum wells are wellpoints that are sealed at the surface
by placing a ring of clay around the well casing. A
vacuum pump is connected and the resulting differential
pressure between the well and the surrounding
groundwater will accelerate the flow of water into the well

Electro-osmosis is the process of accelerating the flow of

water by the application of a direct current – Self study
pages 172

10.8 PRESSURE GROUTING (SEALING) –

understand the principles
Grouting or pressure sealing is the process of injecting a
grouting agent into soil or rock to increase it’s strength or
stability, protect foundations or reduce groundwater flow
Grouting patterns include:
1. Blanket grouting: covers a large horizontal area to a
depth of up to 15m
2. Curtain grouting: produces a linear deep, narrow zone
of grout that may extend to a depth of 30m
3. Special grouting: employed for a special purpose
example to consolidate rock or soil around a tunnel, fill
individual rock cavities or provide additional foundation
support

Grouting methods – See figure 10-24 page 173

1. Slurry grouting: injection of slurry consisting of water
and grouting agent into soil or rock
2. Chemical grouting: injection of a chemical into a soil,
primarily into sand and other fine gravel to cement soil
particles together for structural support
3. Compaction grouting: process of injecting a very stiff
mortar into soil to compact and strengthen it;
compaction grouting is able to create grout bulbs or
grout piles in the soil which serve to densify the soil
and provide foundation support

Injection methods – See figure 10-25 page 174

Principal method involves drilling a hole and then inserting
an injector pipe equipped with expandable seals into
the hole. Grout is then injected at the desired depths
Basement excavation: shoring ?
p.161
Embankment protection: Engineering Building, UP campus
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