Measurements

SCI 401: General Chemistry

Quantitative and Qualitative Observations
● Quantitative Observations
○ This is called a measurement.
○ Number and a Unit (scale)
○ Both parts must be present in order for the measurement to
be meaningful.

● Qualitative Observations
○ Does not involve a number
Standard Systems of Units
● English System
● Metric System

NASA lost its $125-million Mars Climate Orbiter because

spacecraft engineers failed to convert from English to metric
measurements when exchanging vital data before the craft
was launched
SI System
● In 1960, an international
agreement set up a
system of units called the
International System
(leste me International in
French), or theSI system.
● Based on the metric
system and units derived
from the metric system
Prefixes used in SI System
● Because the
fundamental units
are not always
convenient,
prefixes are used
to change the size
of the unit.
Volume
● Physical quantity that is very important in chemistry.
● Volume is not a fundamental SI unit but it derived from length.

Conversion Factors for Volume

1L = 1 (dm)3 = (10cm)3 = 1000cm3
1cm3 = 1mL
1L = 1000cm3 = 1000mL
Basic Types of Quantity
1. Fundamental Quantities
○ Basic quantity
○ Quantities measured by direct method
○ Fundamental units are the units assigned to fundamental
quantities
The fundamental units meter, kilogram and second (MKS) are the standard
units for length, mass, and time, respectively. However for smaller quantities,
centimeter, gram, and second are used as fundamental units (CGS). It is
important to consider these units, particularly in solving problems.
Basic Types of Quantity
2. Derived Quantities
● Quantities that emanate or a result of the combination of
fundamental quantities after a set of operations.
● Area, volume, and density are some examples of derived quantities.
Significant Figures
● Certain Digits
● Uncertain Digits

Record the Certain

Digits and the 1st
Uncertain Digit.

Significant Figures
of a Measurement
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Non-zero integers
2. Zeros. (There are 3 classes of Zeros)
a. Leading Zeros
b. Captive Zeros
c. Trailing Zeros
3. Exact Numbers
Non-Zero Integer
● Non-zero integers always count as significant figures. The number
1458 has four (4) non-zero digits, all of which count as significant
figures.
● 164,854 has 6 significant figures
● 25 has 2 significant figures
Zeros
a. Leading Zeros
● Zeros that precede all the non-zero digits.
● These do not count as significant figures.

Example

0.0025

This has only 2 significant figures.

The 3 zeros only indicate the position of the decimal point.

Zeros
b. Captive Zeros

● Zeros between non-zero digits.

● These always count as significant figures.

Example

1.80205

This has 6 significant figures.

0.02055

This has 4 significant figures.

Zeros
c. Trailing Zeros
● Zeros at the right end of the number
● They are significant only if the number contains a decimal
point
Example
100
This has 1 significant figure.
1.00 x 102
This has 3 significant figures.
Exact Numbers
● Determined by counting instead of measuring
● Examples of exact numbers are the 2 in 2πr (the circumference
of a circle) and the 4 and the 3 in 4/3πr 3 (the volume of a
sphere).
● Exact numbers also can arise from definitions. For example, 1
inch is defined as exactly 2.54 centimeters. Thus, in the
statement 1 = 2.54 cm, neither the 2.54 nor the 1 limits the
number of significant figures when used in a calculation.
Exponential Notation
Advantages
● The number of significant figures can be easily indicated,
● Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small
number.
● A number in scientific notation has two parts. The first part
is a number between 1 and 10 (N). The second part is a
power of 10 (10n) as shown below

N x 10n
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
For multiplication or division

● The number of significant figures in the result is the same as the

number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
For addition or subtraction

● The result has the same

number of decimal places
as the least precise
measurement used in the
calculation.
Precision and Accuracy
● Describe the reliability of measurements
● Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the
true value.
● Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several
measurements of the same quantity.
Precision and Accuracy
Types of Errors
● Random Error
○ Means that a measurement has an equal probability of being high
or low
○ Example is the Blood Pressure (BP)
● Systematic Error
○ This type of error occurs in the same direction each time; it is
either always high or always low.
○ Example is the temperature measured using thermal scanner
Types of Error
● Fig. (a) indicates large
random errors (poor
technique).
● Fig. (b) indicates small
random errors but a
large systematic error
● Fig. (c) indicates small
random errors and no
systematic error
Dimensional Analysis
It is often necessary to convert a given result from one system of
units to another. The best way to do this is by a method called the
unit factor method or, more commonly, dimensional analysis.
Common Conversion Factors
Common Conversion Factors
Common Conversion Factors
Temperature
● Fahrenheit
○ The scale is now defined by setting the freezing point of water at 32°F
and the boiling point of water at 212°F.
● Celcius
○ The Celsius scale was developed in a similar way, but with the freezing
point of pure water set at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C.
Temperature Conversion Factor
Celcius to Fahrenheit
o
F = (1.8 x oC) + 32
Fahrenheit to Celcius
o
C = (oF - 32) / 1.8
Celcius to Kelvin
K = oC + 273.15