REMOTE SENSING OF ENVIRONMENT 23:253-271 (1987) 253

Aircraft and Satellite Remote

Sensing of Desert Soils and Landscapes

G. W. PETERSEN,* K. F. CONNORS,~ D. A. MILLER, f

R. L. DAY,* AND T. W. GARDNER$
Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

The remote sensing of desert soils and landscapes using Thematic Mapper (TM), Heat Capacity Mapping Mission
(HCMM), Simulated SPOT, and Thermal hdrared Multispectral Scanner ('rIMS) data is discussed. These studies were
all conducted in arid or semiarid study sites. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data for southwestern Nevada
discriminated among alluvial fan deposits with different degrees of desert pavement and varnish as well as different
vegetation cover. Thermal-irdrared data acquired from the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) satellite were
used to map the spatial distribution of dinrnal surface temperatures and to estimate mean annual soil temperatures in
semiarid east central Utah using diurnal data [or five dates throughout a year. Simulated SPOT data [or northwestern
New Mexico identified geomorphie features, such as differences in eolian sand cover and fluvial incision, which are
correlated with surface age and geomorphic stability of landscape components. The Thermal Inkared Multispectral
Scanner (TIMS), which is an aircratt scanner that provides six-channel spectral capability in the thermal region oI the
electromagnetic spectrum, was used to depict surface geologic features of the Saline Valley in southeastern California.
These research projects are presented as a summary of some of the sensors and analytical techniques that are useful in
the study of desert soils and landscapes.

Introduction capabilities for image analysis, interpreta-

Softs play a vital role in the biospheric
processes of energy balance, hydrology,
biochemistry, and biological productivity.
Spatial information on soil characteristics
is essential if biospheric processes on re-
gional, continental, and global scales are
to be evaluated.
Previous research has shown the utility
of digital aircraft and satellite remote
sensor data in the softs and geologic map-
ping process. Remotely sensed data are
used in conjunction with field observation
to define mapping unit composition and
extend mapping to inaccessible areas. The
digital form of data from aircraft and
satellite multispectral scanners makes it
possible to utilize high speed computing
*Department of Agronomy.
iOffice for Remote Sensing of Earth Resources.
Department of Geosciences.
©Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 1987
59. Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
tion, and classification. The growing
availability of higher resolution (spatial
and spectral) digital data provides new
challenges for investigation of their appli-
cation to softs and geomorphic mapping
problems.
As has been shown by previous re-
search, remote sensing offers a potential
for providing information on soft char-
acteristics over large areas. However, it is
the intent of this paper to restrict the
discussion to the remote sensing of desert
softs and landscapes. Four research proj-
ects that have been conducted at Penn
State University are described. A differ-
ent type of remote sensor was used for
each project. Therefore, the paper has
been subdivided, according to sensor type,
into the following four sections: Thematic
Mapper (TM), Heat Capacity Mapping
Mission (HCMM), Simulated SPOT, and
0034-4257/87/$3.50
254
Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
(TIMS).
Thematic Mapper (TM)
Introduction
The research in southern Nevada in-
vestigates the use of remotely sensed
imagery for predicting the hydrologic re-
spouse to precipitation events in arid
watersheds. Using multispectral Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM), Systeme Prob-
atoire d'Observation de la Terre (SPOT),
Seasat radar, aircraft-acquired multispec-
tral visible and near inhared data, and
digital elevation models (DEM), surface
features such as vegetation cover, soft tex-
tures, sudace roughness, soil moisture,
slope gradients, and flow paths will be
determined. Because these surface fea-
tures interact to regulate the quantity of
water which infiltrates and that which
contributes to runoff, these remotely
sensed landscape characteristics can be
used to predict the hydrologic response of
watersheds. Numerical hydrologic and
sediment transport computer models will
be used to predict water discharge, sedi-
ment eroded by overland flow and chan-
nelized flow, and sediment deposition.
The Landsat TM bands are particularly
useful for surface hydrology studies be-
cause of their ability to discriminate soil
from vegetation (Band 1), to determine
biomass (Band 4), and to identify rock
and soil mineralogy (Band 7). All of these
characteristics influence irffiltration prop-
erties of a surface and the amount of
runoff and sediment movement. The TM
has been usehtl in diseriminal~ng surficial
geology and geomorphic units in Nevada
(Peterson, 1984), soils according to
mineralogy and surface texture in Texas
G.W. PETERSEN
(Thompson and Henderson, 1984), desert
alluvial deposits (Merifield and Yang,
1985), and clays, iron oxides, and
carbonates in Nevada (Borengasser et al.,
1984). Landsat TM and the airborne
oceanographic Lidar define stream chan-
nel cross sections which have been used
in a dynamic storage routing model
(Helwa and Ragan, 1986).
The nature of remotely sensed data
provides advantages for input to surface
hydrology and sediment transport mod-
els. Remotely sensed data are an areal
average while traditional inputs to models
are point measurements, which are then
used to represent areal averages over por-
tions of the watersheds. Remotely sensed
data also measure the unique spectral re-
sponse of the combined affects of soil
type, soft moisture, vegetation cover, and
surface roughness, some of the same char-
acteristics that control surface hydrology.
Because of the digital form of remotely
sensed data, it may be readily input to
models. Furthermore, in areas where
ground truth data are limited, remotely
sensed data may be the only data avail-
able.
Applications of remote sensing to
surface hydrology and sediment transport
models are c a t e g o ~ by the relation-
ship between the model and the data
(Rango, 1985; Engman, 1981; Link, 1983;
Peek et al., 1981, 1983). The first ap-
proach is to make minor modifications to
existing models to improve the correla-
tion between model parameters or states
and remotely sensed variables (Johnson
et al., 1982). The second approach is to
make major modifications or to create
new models that are capable of accepting
remotely sensed input directly (Rango,
1985; Engrnan, 1981; Link, 1983). This
study takes the first approach.
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES 255

Objectives sorption. The molecular water and

This study is part of an ongoing project aluminum/magnesium-hydroxyl groups
at Plutonium Valley, Nevada and Walnut aid in the identification of day minerals
Gulch, Arizona being conducted by Los and quartz.
Alamos National Laboratory and Penn
State University. This cooperative project Site description
will determine if remotely sensed data
The study site is the Plutonium Valley
can be used to predict, within the accu-
watershed in southern Nevada, part of
racy of conventional technology, the hy-
the Nevada Test Site which is under the
drologic response of two arid watersheds
control of the U~S. Department of En-
using hydrologic and sediment transport
ergy. This watershed was used to test
models at two different scales (Wobber,
nuclear bomb satety shots in the 1960s.
1986). A low resolution, parametric model
The presence of plutonium serves as a
will use satellite imagery for > 10 km2
tracer for erosion and sedimentation and
watersheds and a high resolution, physi-
contaminant transport studies. Bedrock
cally based, numerical model will use
consists of Tertiary tuff and basalt, and
aircraft imagery for < 1 km2 watersheds.
Paleozoic limestone and is mantled by
The eventual goal is to predict radioac-
gravelly alluvial fans and alluvium. The
tive contaminant movement using com-
climate is arid, and vegetation coverage is
puter models with remotely sensed input.
sparse.
This paper summarizes Thematic Mapper
data analysis for Plutonium Valley.
Methodology
The TM data were registered to a
Platform and sensor characteristics
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
The Thematic Mapper (TM) is a projection through the use of ground
seven-band sensor aboard the Landsat-4 control points using the Earth Resources
and 5 satellite platforms. This multispec- Data Analysis System (ERDAS) GCP,
tral system collects data at 30 m resolu- COORD2, and RECTIFY programs
tion in Band 1 (0.45-0.52 /~m), Band 2 (ERDAS, 1985). The Plutonium Valley
(0.52-0.60 #m), Band 3 (0.63-0.69/xm), watershed was extracted from the recti-
Band 4 (0.76-0.90 /~m), Band 5 fied data set for input to a hydrologic and
(1.55-1.75 #m), and Band 7 (2.08-2.35 sediment transport model for the
/~m) and 120 m resolution in Band 6 watershed area only. The watershed
(10.4-12.5 pm). The TM was designed boundary was point digitized on a digitiz-
for agricultural applications such as dis- ing tablet with the ERDAS DIGPOL pro-
crimination of crop types, biomass mea- gram. The ERDAS CUTTER program
surements, vegetation stress analyses, and was used to extract the watershed from
determination of soft moisture conditions. the image using the digitized watershed
It was also designed for lithologic dis- boundary to effectively mask out the
crimination. Band 5 detects molecular image area exterior to the watershed. The
water absorption, and Band 7 detects same procedure was followed for the
aluminum and magnesimn-hydroxyl ab- Seasat data with the exception that a
256
low-pass filter using the ERDAS
DCONVLV program was implemented
to remove speckle, or random noise, prior
to any other processing. The rectified data
sets were combined in one eight-band
(seven TM and one Seasat band) data set
using the ERDAS SUBSET program.
Principal component analysis (ERDAS
PRINCE program) was used to reduce
the size of the data set from eight to three
bands. The first three principal compo-
nents account for 98% of the variance in
the eight-band data set. Unsupervised
classification (ERDAS CLUSTER pro-
gram) was used to find spectrally distinct
classes in the three-band principal com-
ponent image. An infared to red band
ratio image was also calculated using the
ERDAS DRATIO program. The 7.5-rain
Digital Elevation Model was processed
using D E M p r o g r a m s ( D E M S U B ,
DEMJOIN, DEMWIND, and LAND-
FORM) written by R. L. Day at Penn
State University.
Results and discussion
PreLiminary investigations of the TM
data indicate that surface water flow lines
are detectable on the alluvial fans and fill.
Bedrock properties, such as hydrothermal
alteration and varnish on desert pave-
ment which may influence surface runoff,
can also be discriminated. Plate III is a
false color composite of Bands 1, 4, and 6
of the TM data. Pale yellow surface water
flow lines can be seen in the center of the
image. Dark brown areas represent older
alluvial fan surfaces. Purple areas are rel-
atively young alluvial fan deposits. Light
blue areas are in the mountains; these
areas also have high near infared to red
band ratios, possibly indicating greater
amounts of vegetation cover. The white
G.W. PETERSEN
area on the left part of the image is a
large playa.
At least five features can be dis-
criminated from the combined TM,
Seasat, and DEM data set. Features gen-
erally seem to be correlated with slope
classes, which presumably have affected
the amount of surface erosion and deposi-
tion and moisture content and hence
sediment particle size and vegetation
growth. Two features of the valley floor
with the same slope characteristics have
different reflectances which can be corre-
lated with two distinct periods of alluvial
deposition. The near infrared (Band 4) to
red (Band 3) band ratio indicates vegeta-
tion differences between the valley floor
and the uplands and the variety in vege-
tation cover in the mountains.
Completion of this project will involve
future data analysis, field investigations,
and computer modeling. Low-resolution
(generally satellite-derived) remotely
sensed data will be used as input to a
watershed-scale, distributed, parametric
model for daily prediction of water and
sediment discharge. High-resolution
(aircraft-derived) remotely sensed data
will be used as input to a subwatershed-
scale, physically based, kinematic cascade
model for event prediction.
Heat Capacity
Mapping Mission (HCMM)
Introduction
The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission
was the first of a series of Application
Explorer Missions involving the place-
ment of satellites in special orbits de-
signed to collect unique types of surface
information. Project motivation stemmed
from feasibility studies attempting to
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES
measure thermal inertia (the ability of a
material to resist temperature change) by
using thermal infrared data to measure
maximum and minimum diurnal surface
temperatures (NASA, 1978). A review of
studies utilizing HCMM data can be
found in The Heat Capacity Mapping
Mission ( HCMM) Anthology (Short and
Stuart, 1982).
Soil temperature is an important soil
property that impacts agricultural pro-
ductivity and genetic soil development.
Biological, chemical, and physical
processes affecting seed germination,
seedling mortality, plant growth rates,
root growth, and species adaptability are
influenced by soft temperature as is the
geographic distribution of soils. Field
studies have defined topographic posi-
tion, moisture condition, and surface
cover as primary factors controlling soft
temperature throughout a yearly period
(Shul'gin, 1965; Carter and Ciolkosz,
1980; Schmidlin et al., 1983).
Soils are classified by the Soil Con-
servation Service into temperature re-
gimes based on their Mean Annual Soil
Temperature (MAST) and are field-
mapped as part of the National Cooper-
ative Soil Survey (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
MAST can be accurately determined by
measuring soil temperature at four equally
spaced times throughout a yearly period
at levels below the depth of diurnal tem-
perature fluctuations (Smith et al., 1964)
or from a single bore hole measurement
at a depth below the level of seasonal
fluctuations (McDole and Fosbert, 1974).
MAST is normally estimated for soil
surveys because of the impracticality of
direct field measurement. Several least
squares regression models have been de-
veloped that predict MAST based on geo-
257
graphic location, topographic position,
surface cover, and moisture conditions
(Carter and Ciolkosz, 1980; Schmidlin
et al., 1983). Other methods predict
MAST from weather station air tempera-
~ r e data and vegetative cover type (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975; MueUer, 1970).
Recent studies have utilized airborne
and satellite-based thermal infrared
sensors to measure long-wave thermal
radiation emitted from land and water
surfaces in order to estimate surface tem-
peratures. Such remotely sensed thermal
infrared data have been used in applica-
tions involving microclimate modeling
and soil moisture m e a s u r e m e n t s
(Schmugge, 1978; Carlson 1986),
groundwater hydrology (Cartwright,
1979; Huntley, 1978), geologic mapping
(Vincent, 1975; Kahle and Walker, 1984),
and crop physiology (Millard et al., 1978;
Pinter et al., 1979).
Objectives
The combination of orbital and sensor
characteristics of the HCMM satellite
provided a unique opportunity to mea-
sure the spatial distribution of surface
temperatures in semiarid and arid regions
repeatedly over both diumal and annual
cycles. Therefore a study was undertaken
in east-central Utah with specific objec-
tives to:
a. Use HCMM thermal infrared data
to measure apparent soil surface
temperatures in desert areas and
evaluate relationships between
surface temperature variability and
surface physiography.
b. Evaluate the feasibility of using
HCMM multitemporal data to mea-
sure soil surface and plant canopy
temperatures and to thereby delin-
258
eate and map soils into their respec-
tive Mean Annual Soil Temperature
(MAST) regimes.
Platform and sensor characteristics
The HCMM satellite was launched 26
April 1978 by a Scout launch vehicle into
a sun-synchronous circular orbit inclined
97.6 ° retrograde to the equator and col-
lected data for over 2 years. The sun-syn-
chronous orbit allowed coverage of the
entire Earth's surface between 85 ° north
and south latitudes every 16 days. This
entire area received diurnal coverage at
approximately 12-h intervals. The nomi-
nal ascending equatorial crossing time of
2:00 p.m. produced north middle latitude
crossing times of 1:30 p.m. and 2:30 a.m.
The HCMM satellite contained a two-
channel Heat Capacity Mapping Radi-
ometer (HCMR) that was a modified ver-
sion of the Surface Composition Mapping
Radiometer (SCMR) flown on Nimbus 5.
The HCMR collected both visible/near
infrared (0.45-1.1 #m) and thermal in-
frared (10.5-12.5 /~m) data. The
visible/near infrared band corresponded
to a broadband equivalent of the Landsat
MSS and had a nominal pixel resolution
of 500 × 500 m. The thermal infrared band
had a nominal pixel resolution of 600 ×
600 m with a Noise Equivalent Tempera-
ture difference of 0.3°K at 280°K. Data
preprocessing by NASA resulted in a
481.5 m square pixel.
Site description
The study site consisted of approxi-
mately 925,400 h bounded by the Book
Cliffs to the north and the La Sal Moun-
tains to the southeast. The Green River
forms a western boundary and joins the
Colorado River which flows southwest-
G.W. PETERSEN
erly across the site. The town of Moab,
UT lies near the center of the site.
The study area lies in the Canyonlands
section of the Colorado Plateau Physio-
graphic Province. The general physio-
graphic structure consists of broad, fiat
parallel folds of sandstone and shale at
lower elevations progressing upward
across a stepwise succession of plateaus
mantled with glacial till towards the ig-
neous La Sal Mountains. Elevations range
from 1180 m in the canyons and plateaus
to over 3810 m in the La Sal Mountains.
Annual precipitation ranges from less than
22 cm in the arid canyons to 22-63 cm in
the high dry subhumid mountains.
Methodology
The change in average daily soil tem-
peratures throughout a yearly period can
be represented by a sine curve fluctuat-
ing symmetrically about the mean annual
soil t e m p e r a t u r e (MAST). Multiple
observations of average daily tempera-
tures throughout a year via HCMM data
should therefore allow the sine curve to
be mathematically "fit," thereby result-
ing in an estimate of MAST.
HCMM daytime and nighttime ther-
mal infrared data sets for five dates
throughout a yearly period were spatially
registered and digitally overlaid using the
ORSER (Office for Remote Sensing of
Earth Resources) image processing soft-
ware system (Turner et al., 1982). Aver-
age Daily Temperature (ADT) data sets
were calculated from each of the five
pairs of daily temperature data sets by
averaging the daytime and nighttime ob-
servations on a pixel by pixel basis. The
five ADT data sets were then used to
"fit" a sine curve describing the annual
soil temperature response at each pixel
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES
location using least squares regression
methods, which also provided statistical
reliability estimates. The major outcome
of the "fit" was an estimate of MAST,
about which the sine curve fluctuates
symmetrically. MAST data sets were pro-
duced and used to digitally map the spa-
tial distribution of MAST across the study
site (Plate IV). MASTs were also divided
into classes corresponding to USDA soil
temperature regimes used to classify soils.
Results and discussion
Evaluation of MAST distribution across
the study area showed an expectedly
strong influence of topography. An in-
verse relationship between MAST and
elevation gradient was apparent. Warmest
temperatures (greater than 16°C) were
found in the deep, complexly incised
canyons of the Green and Colorado Rivers
and generally became cooler as elevation
increased into the La Sal Mountains.
Aspect effects on MAST were evident
along steep, northeastern-facing escarp-
ments of major valleys. Temperatures
there were approximately 2°C cooler than
adjacent flat-lying surfaces at similar
elevations.
The effect of soil moisture on MAST
was also apparent. Irrigated farmland
temperatures were 4-6°C cooler than
surrounding nonirrigated soils, and soils
immediately bordering the Colorado River
showed relatively cool temperatures as
well.
MAST imagery illustrated the apparent
effects of material density and composi-
tion. Patterns of relatively cool tempera-
tures coinciding closely with soils derived
from marine shale deposits along the base
of the Book Cliffs contrasted sharply with
surrounding sandstone-derived materials
259
at similar elevations. These shale-derived
soils also showed unusually low nighttime
temperatures on each of the five over-
passes, suggesting that cold air drainage
may have contributed to the cool temper-
atures. Daytime and nighttime imagery
consistently showed up to 9°C tempera-
ture differences between sandy soils in
Salt Valley and adjacent bedrock out-
crops. However, the di/ferences were not
apparent in MAST imagery. Apparently,
the materials have differing diurnal tem-
perature amplitudes that fluctuate about
the same mean.
Soil survey personnel who were map-
ping soils in the study area qualitatively
evaluated MAST map products derived
from HCMM data and concluded that
the MAST maps showed temperature
patterns that they had observed in the
field. Most of the area was classified into
the mesic temperature regime with some
thermic soils in the hot canyons and val-
ley bottom and some frigid, cryic, and
pergeUic in the high mountains. Areas
which they suspected of having thermic
temperature regimes but were not
mapped as such, due to map scale consid-
erations, were delineated on the MAST
imagery. They also indicated that MAST
imagery would be useful as a tool during
the initial stages of a soil survey to delin-
eate areas that may require detailed field
observations.
In conclusion, HCMM provided multi-
temporal, high-resolution, diurnal thermal
infrared data that could be used to de-
termine the dynamic nature of soil tem-
peratures. Such information is practically
impossible to obtain using conventional
field methods, thereby making satellite
systems the only realistic tool to gather
the information. This study shows that
thermal sensors on satellites with diurnal
260
orbits can be used to study the dynamics
of surface microclimate.
Simulated SPOT
Introduction
The research in northwestern New
Mexico investigated the utility of simu-
lated Systeme Probatoire d'Observation
de la Terre (SPOT) imagery for the study
of geomorphic features and landscape
stability in a semiarid region. An exten-
sive geomorphic data base for the site
(Gardner and Dttffy, 1985; Gutierrez,
1983; Mills and Gardner, 1983; Wells,
1982, 1983; Wells et al., 1983a, b; Wells
and Gardner, 1984) allows for the delin-
eation of surface features that are related
to a particular geomorphic process or set
of processes. Correlation of surface reflec-
tance with surface characteristics permits
recognition of geomorphic features and
inference of process types and rates.
Remote sensing is one useful tool in the
identification of unstable areas, the im-
pact of man's disturbance, and natural
factors contributing to landscape instabil-
ity and environmental degradation.
Several investigations have attempted to
identify semiarid, surficial, geomorphic
processes, or at least the direct results of
those processes from Landsat imagery.
Albedo changes determined from mul-
titemporal Landsat data were related to
desertification and soil erosion in Utah
(Robinove et al., 1981) and in West Africa
(Coiner, 1980). Changes in reflectances
caused by changes in vegetation density,
degree of erosion, soil type, geology, or
land use were used to identify areas with
different aridity in Brazil (Lombardo and
de Carvalho, 1980), geomorphic surfaces
G. W. PETERSEN
(Frank, 1984) and sediment yield/runoff
(Owen and Shown, 1976) in Utah, and
severity of wind erosion in Texas
(Baumgardner et al., 1973). Drainage
density, runoff rate, sediment yield, and
perennial and ephemeral stream locations
were manually interpreted from Landsat
data from Wyoming (Shown and Owen,
1976). Extensive and/or spectrally dis-
tinct surfaces with high and low infiltra-
tion rates were distinguished with Land-
sat date in New Mexico (Gardner and
Duffy, 1985). Arroyos as narrow as 20 m
were detected on high contrast images
and arroyos as narrow as 45 m were
detected on low contrast images for
Arizona (Morrison and Cooley, 1973).
Objectives
The overall objective of this research
was to investigate the utility of the new-
est generation of high resolution, digital
satellite imagery (SPOT) to characterize
surface hydrology and geomorphology in
an arid region. The general objective in-
cludes a subset of specific, task-oriented
objectives. These include:
a. Evaluation of the classification level
of the simulated data for the stan-
dard land cover classification scheme
(Anderson et al., 1976) used by re-
mote sensing scientists and compari-
son of simulated SPOT classification
with Landsat-3 classification.
b. Evaluation of the simulated data set
to identify specific components of
the hydrologic system, areas of
potential rtmoff, and relative land-
scape stability.
c. Evaluation of the effectiveness of
different analytic techniques for Ob-
jectives a and b.
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES
Platform and sensor characteristics
SPOT, launched in early 1986, is a
French observational satellite containing
high resolution, visible (HRV) range in-
struments in a multispeetral and panchro-
matic mode (Chevrel et al., 1981). The
SPOT spectral bands include three multi-
spectral bands: 0.50-0.59 btm (Band 1),
0.61-0.68 /~m (Band 2), 0.79-0.89 gm
(Band 3), with an instantaneous field of
view (IFOV) resolution of 20 m and a
broad, panchromatic band at 0.51-0.73
gm (Band 4 or P) with 10 m IFOV
resolution (Bengi, 1982).
As part of a SPOT Image simulation
program, data were acquired on 19 June
1983 at 18:33 GMT with a Daedalus
AADS 1268 Digital Multispectral Scanner
System flown in a Lear jet 25-C at ap-
proximately 6.35 km with IFOV of
7.9-9.2 m. Several corrections were ap-
plied to the aircraft data to simulate SPOT
satellite data (SPOT Image Corp., 1983,
Saint and Weill, 1984). Spectral bands
and ground resolution were the main
parameters matched to the anticipated
real SPOT data (Saint and Weill, 1984).
Data were resampled spatially to degrade
the resolution, normalized to that of "a
typical satellite scene," and geometrically
corrected for mean ground speed, aircraft
altitude over a reference plane, and crab
angle (SPOT Image Corp., 1983; Saint
and Weill, 1984). Radiometric corrections
included calibration between bands and
to a reference panel, and a linear combi-
nation of the spectral bands of the
Daedalus scanner to simulate SPOT spec-
tral bands (SPOT Image Corp., 1983;
Saint and Weill, 1984). Because four pan-
chromatic pixels (10 m) correspond to
each multispectral pixel (20 m), the 20 m
multispectral pixel was divided into four
261
10 m pixels, each with the same multi-
spectral response.
Site description
The study area is located northeast of
the town of Crownpoint, NM, in the San
Juan Basin and is centered around Kim-
me-ni-oli Wash, an ephemeral, discon-
tinuous arroyo and southern tributary of
the Chaco River. Bedrock consists of
gently north-dipping upper Cretaceous,
continental yellowish-gray to grayish-
orange, fine to medium-grained sand-
stone, dusty yellow to olive-gray sandy
shale and mudstone, dark-gray to black
shale, and coal of the Menefee Formation
(Hackman and Olson, 1977). Bedrock is
discontinuously mantled by quaternary
alluvium and eolian deposits. The climate
is high (elevation) desert. Summer pre-
cipitation is in the form of high intensity,
local thunderstorms. Vegetation consists
of rangeland grasses, forbes, cacti, and
shrubs.
Dominant geomorphic processes within
Kim-me-ni-oli Wash drainage basin are
eolian erosion and deposition, slope
sheetwash, fluvial headward extension and
incision, lateral stream migration, piping,
and pedogenesis. During the Quaternary,
these surficial geomorhic processes have
produced a landscape composed, in gen-
eral, of three components (Uplands, In-
termediate, and Valley Floor) which
consists of diverse geomorphic units in
complex spatial associations. These
landscape components differ in both type
and rate of surfieial processes as well as
age and are regarded as fundamental sub-
divisions of the surface in Kim-me-ni-oli
Valley.
The upland landscape component is
characterized by Holocene eolian sheet
262
sands which were deposited during high
rates of eolian transport and deposition.
Soils of the eolian-mantled uplands have
high (mean value of 27.0 cm/h) infiltra-
tion rates (Gardner and Dully, 1985) and
a reddish brown, argillic horizon.
The intermediate landscape compo-
nent is characterized by bedrock and dis-
continuous surfaces produced by slope
wash and partial deflation. Coppice dune
fields occupy most of this component with
individual dunes ranging in size from 20
to 100 cm in diameter and from 10 to 30
cm in height. The dunes consist of eolian
sand trapped and stabilized by clumps of
vegetation. Infiltration rates on the dune
fields are moderate (Gardner and Dully,
1985). Locally severe deflation has created
blowouts exposing subsurface saltpans
(rich in gypsum, calcium carbonate, and
sodium montmorillonitic clay) at times
leaving a gravel lag of sandstone and
ironstone rock fragments. Very limited
exposures of badlands are present near
sandstone and mudstone bedrock out-
crops.
The valley floor c o m p o n e n t is
characterized by locally rapid tributary
headward extension and drainage in-
tegration, lateral stream migration, and
sheetwash. The alluvial deposits are mildly
alkaline, fine sands, and silts with local
clay and salt accumulations behind dams.
Infiltration rates are generally lower than
the upland component (mean value of 9.7
c m / h ) due to thin, montmorillonite crusts
formed by raindrop impact on the highly
dispersive, sodium rich soils (Gardner and
Dully, 1985).
Surface age and rates of modern geo-
morphic processes were used to divide
the three landscape components into rela-
tive stability classes where stability is de-
fined as the "rate of modification of
G.W. PETERSEN
landscape component of a given age"
(Wells, 1982). Landscapes with low fluvial
and eolian erosion rates and old softs are
defined as stable. Early to mid-Holocene
ratio-carbon ages (Wells et al., 1983a),
low rates of modern fluvial and eolian
erosion, and soils with argillic horizons
indicate that the eolian-mantled upland
component is stable relative to the inter-
mediate and valley floor component.
Rates of fluvial erosion and deposition on
the valley floors are significantly greater.
Mills and Gardner (1983) document a
maximum tributary headcutting rate of
12.3 m / y r and maximum lateral channel
migration rate of 5.1 m / y r on the younger
valley floor. Based on the young or weakly
developed soils, active erosion and depo-
sition, and mid-Holocene to recent radio-
carbon dates (Wells et al., 1983a) on the
valley floors, this component is consid-
ered unstable. The intermediate compo-
nent is considered to be of intermediate
age and geomorphic stability. Because
coppice dunes are present and vegetated
with shrubs, there does not appear to be
large-scale sand movement from eolian
erosion. The only feature of the inter-
mediate component for which geomor-
phic process rates and surface ages are
reported are the badlands. Badlands are
extensive in northern tributary drainage
basins of the Chaco River, but are much
less extensive in the southern basins (e.g.,
Kim-me-ni-oli Wash). Northern basin bad-
lands have been dated as younger than
5600 to 2800 years BP (Wells, 1983).
Instrumented watersheds in some of these
badlands had erosion rates of 0.1-6.3
c m / y r (Wells et al., 1983b). Erosion by
rilling and sheetwash is reported to be at
a rate of 0.3-2.0 c m / y r and erosion by
creep, sheetflow, and piping at a rate of
0.1-0.5 c m / y r (Gutierrez, 1983).
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES 263

Methodology computer programs except where other-

wise noted are from the ORSER image
Methods used in this study include dig- processing system (Turner et al., 1982).
ital analysis of simulated SPOT data and Digital classification of the simulated
ground investigation. Ground data col- SPOT data was accomplished with a su-
lected included vegetation species; per- pervised Euclidean distance analysis. Su-
cent vegetative cover; surface soil Munsel pervised methods were used to derive
color (dry and moist); surface soil texture; feature signatures from homogeneous
percent, size, lithology and color of areas used the ERDAS FIELD program
surface rock fragments ( > 2 mm); per- (ERDAS, 1985) which allows interactive
cent cover of coppice dunes, sheet sand, editing of a feature signature. Evaluation
exposed subsoil and exposed bedrock; and of training field accuracy was based on a
erosional state. Percent cover was esti- qttick-look parallelipiped classifier. The
mated using percent of surface coverage scene was classified for each feature after
diagrams. Rock fragment size was esti- the training field mean and standard
mated by visual observation. Erosional deviation were determined and displayed.
state was estimated by the USDA Soil Training field signature means and stan-
Conservation Service method where dard deviations that represent recogniz-
slightly eroded surfaces have few rills able ground features were retained and
a n d / o r deflated areas and severely eroded heterogeneous or poorly selected training
surfaces are guillied and/or blown out; area signatures were deleted. Signatures
moderately eroded surfaces are in an in- for similar ground features define a fea-
termediate condition (Soil Survey Staff, ture class. The ORSER CLASS program
1962). Color aerial photographs flown in uses feature class signatures (means) and
1977 and reproduced at a scale of an Euclidean distance classifier for final
1:24,000 served as a base map for the scene classification (Turner et al., 1982).
New Mexico field investigations. Photo- Pixels are assigned to feature classes by
graphic color, tone, texture, and patterns pixel signature similarity to input feature
were compared with ground features, signatures derived from training fields.
where ground features are defined as rel- Limiting distances at three standard devi-
atively homogeneous identities distinct ations for 99.7% confidence intervals (for
from one another in vegetation cover, soft the channel with the maximum standard
color, soil texture, and/or geomorphic deviation) were used for classification.
processes. Data collected within feature Where overlap occurs in multispectral
boundaries delineated on the aerial pho- channel space between feature class
tos included 320 sampling points distrib- limits, the feature class mean that was
uted throughout the study area. closest to the pixel signature was chosen
Digital classification of the simulated as the feature class for that pixel.
SPOT data included: supervised Euclide- The resulting classified data set was
an distance analysis and parametric linear smoothed with the ORSER DISPLAY
discriminant analysis. Comparisons were program to improve the appearance of
also m a d e b e t w e e n unsupervised the output map (ORSER LMAP pro-
Euclidean distance classification of gram) by retaining only contiguous blocks
Landsat-3 and simulated SPOT data. All of a given feature. A clean parameter of 3
264
was used, i.e., three of the neighboring
pixels must be classified the same as the
pixel in question or the classification of
that pixel is changed to be like its neigh-
bors.
Accuracy of classification results was
evaluated by comparing digitized plani-
metric area of features on the classifica-
tion map with a zoom transferscope su-
perimposed ground truth map for a small
strip of the classification maps. Landsat-3
data analysis methodology was identical
to the simulated SPOT Euclidean dis-
tance analysis.
A landscape stability map was created
from the classified map of surface fea-
tures using ERDAS. The classified map
was treated as one layer of a geographic
information system (GIS) and was sub-
jected to 1) a series of proximity searches,
2) tests for coincidence between proximal
areas and the original classified map, and
3) overlays of the searches, coincident
areas, and the original map. These
analyses were conducted for fea~res
whose stability classification was depen-
dent on their spatial relationship to other
features.
The NEIGHBOR procedure in SAS
(Statistical Analysis System) (Goodnight
and Sade, 1982) uses nonparametric lin-
ear discriminant analysis. Two sets of sig-
natures were used in this procedure: a
training set and a test set. Training sig-
natures were raw pixel values from blocks
of pixels; each block represented a homo-
geneous ground surface feature. A nearest
neighbor discriminant analysis defined
functions to separate training signa~res
into user-defined feature classes repre-
sentative of ground surface features. Test
feature signatures were classified by the
discriminant fimctions defined from the
training signatures. The test signatures
G . W . PETERSEN
were init:'ally labeled for feature class by
the operator. Individual pixel signatures
were extracted with the USTATS pro-
gram by outputting raw pixel reflectances
of a block of "homogeneous" pixels. All
pixels in a block were initially labeled as
though they were the same featttre.
NEIGHBOR relabels test pixels accord-
ing to the feature class to which the
discriminant functions have classified the
pixels.
Results and discussion
Euclidean distance analysis of simu-
lated SPOT data was used to distinguish
among geomorphic features that in-
fluence surface hydrology, erosion poten-
tial, and landscape stability. Level III and
possibly Level IV classification (Anderson
et al., 1976) of geomorphic features is
attainable with the high spatial resolution
of the simulated SPOT imagery.
Euclidean distance analysis of the multi-
spectral bands identified the same fea-
tures visible on the decorrelated image
(Plate V) eolian-mantled uplands (dark
green to blue on Plate V), coppice
dunes (tan), surface exposure of subsoil
(B-horizon) (reddish orange to yellow),
poorly vegetated silty and fine sandy areas
(pink), saltpans (white), well-vegetated
fine-grained areas (red to black), and
sandy areas vegetated with shrubs (white
and blue). Landscape stability maps were
generated from landscape component
ages and rates of fluvial or eolian processes
on each geomorphic feature. The pan-
chromatic band discriminates between a
7-13 m wide arroyo, active tributary
headcuts, and the stable valley floor.
Comparison of simulated SPOT data
with Landsat-3 data illustrates improve-
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES
ments in digital classification of small,
geomorphic features that are important in
determining landscape stability. Landsat-
3 analysis (Gardner and Dttffy, 1985) for
the same area was not able to delineate
the wash or tributaries. Identification of
areas of rapid lateral migration and active
tributary headcut extension is critical in
locating sites of instability and erosion.
The continual coverage available from
satellite data at this resolution provides a
means of monitoring stream and tributary
migration over large areas with repeat
periods much shorter than generally
available from aerial photographic cover-
age.
Thermal Infrared
Multispectral Scanner (TIMS)
Introduction
A new thermal infrared airborne spec-
trometer (TIMS) recently developed by
personnel at the Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory (JPL) shows significant promise for
softs and geologic studies. The spectral
channels and sensitivity of the TIMS
sensor offer a unique opportunity for col-
lection of data potentially useful in a
variety of settings including softs and geo-
logic materials identification, land
use/cover discrimination, and agricultur-
al applications. Several studies conducted
by JPL personnel have shown the utility
of TIMS for discrimination of geologic
and soils materials. Kahle and Goetz
(1983) were able to distinguish silica-rich
igneous rocks, hydrothermal alteration
products, volcanics, and carbonates. A1-
luvial fan units were found to be related
to the composition of the source material
or the development of desert varnish on
the surface or a combination of both fac-
tors. TIMS was successfully applied to
265
alluvial fan mapping in Death Valley, CA
where units were discriminated on the
basis of both composition and relative age
differences (GiUespie et al., 1984). Kahle
and Walker (1984) used emissivity and
thermal inertia images generated from
TIMS data to discriminate bedrock and
alluvium units in Death Valley. The
success of these projects and the clear
potential for TIMS to provide useful in-
formation for softs and geomorphic re-
search in arid regions prompted the cur-
rent study to further evaluate the TIMS
sensor.
Objective
The objective of a research project
conducted by the Office for Remote
Sensing of Earth Resources (ORSER) at
Penn State University and JPL was to
investigate the use of TIMS for softs and
geomorphic studies.
Platform and sensor characteristics
The TIMS is a thermal infrared spec-
trometer with six channels in the range
8.2-11.7 #m. The thermal sensitivity of
the instrument (noise equivalent delta
temperature NEAT ~<0.1°C at 300°10
and the internal reference blackbodies al-
low for an accurate estimate of surface
thermophysical properties. TIMS re-
sponds to the spectral photon radiance
(photons/s m 2 sr/xm) of whatever is within
the field of view (FOV). Two thermal
reference sources, allowing for instrument
calibration, are mounted in the scan head
so that the scan mirror views one before
and one after scanning across the FOV.
One of these reference sources may be
either heated or cooled and is used as the
lower temperature blackbody. The other
reference source can be heated only and
266 G.W~PETERSEN

is used for the higher temperature Paleozoic era, followed by intense fold-
blackbody. The TIMS is designed such ing, thrusting, and uplifting during Early
that scene output data numbers (DN) are Mesozoic time. Late Mesozoic massive
linearly related to the input photon radi- intrusions of quartz monzonite cut older
ance. This linear relationship can be de- strata and were broken up by Late
termined channel-by-channel and scan- Cenozoic (Late Tertiary and Quaternary)
by-scan to reduce the DN to physical strike slip and block faulting and
units (photons/sm2sr/~m). When scene volcanism. The youngest deposits in the
brightness temperature is desired rather area consist of Quaternary and Recent
than scene photon radiance, a look-up unconsolidated alluvium and related de-
table method may be used to reduce radi- posits from the surrounding mountains.
ance to temperature (Palluconi and These deposits include alluvial fan
Meeks, 1985). material, landslide deposits, recent al-
luvium, playa deposits, dune sand, and
Site description valley fill material. For the most part, the
The area selected for this study is Quaternary and younger deposits form
located in the extreme northern Mojave gently to moderately sloping alluvial fans
Desert in Inyo County, California, ap- extending from the mountain fronts to-
proximately 9.90 km north of Los Angeles ward the valley center (McAllister, 1956).
and 39.0 km southeast of San Francisco. The soils of Saline Valley (Wardlaw,
Saline Valley, a deep basin approximately 1979) have four sources of parent
56 km long and 39. km wide is, typical of m a t e r i a l - - y o u n g e r alluvium and
the dosed, undrained basins within the lacustrine deposits, older, semiconsoli-
Basin and Range Province of southwest- dated alluvium, eolian materials, and bed-
ern United States. The valley floor, with a rock. Younger, lower alluvial fans and
central playa lying at approximately 39.0 dune sand areas are typically Entisols,
m above sea level, is surrounded on all while higher, older faals and terraces have
sides by peaks reaching as high as 3350 argillic horizons and duripans and are
m. The Inyo Mountains form the western classified as Aridisols. These older, more
rim of the valley with the Nelson Range stable fans and terraces have varying
to the south, the Panamint Mountains to amotmts of desert pavement and desert
the east, and the Saline Range to the varnish development.
north.
Methodology
Saline Valley is located in a unique
geologic setting near the western margin Multispectral scanners seldom make full
of the Basin and Range Province. The use of the dynamic range available when
region is characterized by high uplift rates recording scene radiance values. There-
within mountain ranges, considerable fore, image contrast enhancements are
topographic relief, and later Tertiary and nearly always required as a first step in
Quaternary volcanism of the basalt-rhyo- information extraction. However, most
lite bimodal type. The geologic record in multispectral scanners such as TIMS also
the uplifted mountains surrounding Saline exhibit high interchannel correlations.
Valley shows virtually continuous marine This combination of low dynamic range
miogeosynclinal deposition during the utilization and high correlation hinders
REMOTE SENSING OF DESERT SOILS AND LANDSCAPES
effective color composite generation of
multispectral images.
Separate contrast enhancements of the
individual component channels of the
color composite will somewhat improve
image quality. However, due to the corre-
lation that exists, the full color range
available will still be underutilized. Soha
and Schwartz (1978) describe a method
for dealing with this problem. Their
method, known as decorrelation enhance-
ment, combines a well known multi-
variate statistical technique--principal
component analysis--with a variance
equilization step to produce a more easily
interpreted image. The basic procedure is
briefly outlined below.
The principal component technique
(also known as the Karhunen-Loeve
transformation) is a linear transformation
which results in a rotation and translation
of the original coordinate axes of the
probability density function of a multi-
dimensional data set. The resulting prin-
cipal component (PC) channels are un-
correlated and are arranged in order of
decreasing variance, with the first PC
axis containing the largest variance, the
second PC axis containing the next largest
variance, and so on. After performing a
PC transformation and equalizing vari-
ances, each of the uncorrelated compo-
nents may be contrast enhanced sep-
arately and color composited for display.
Although a broad color range is available,
display colors are usually altered substan-
tially and are difficult to relate to the
original scene. Also, the signal/noise
ratios for lower order PC axes will have
an adverse effect on image display qual-
ity.
As shown by Soha and Schwartz, the
above problems may be addressed by
performing an additional rotation which
9.67
is the inverse of the original PC rotation.
This rotation places the uncorrelated
channels back into the coordinate system
of the original image components without
introducing additional correlation and
preserves the original, basic color rela-
tionships. Also, the rotation back to origi-
nal image space has the effect of dis-
tributing the noise found within the PC
components more evenly among the new
components, thus becoming less apparent
in the composite image display.
In summary, the decorrelation en-
hancement procedure favored by Soha
and Schwartz (1978), and the one utilized
in this study, consists of a PC transforma-
tion followed by variance eqnalization,
followed by an inverse rotation to original
image space. The variance equalization
may be in the form of either a linear or
nonlinear transformation. In this study a
nonlinear transformation to approximate
a Gaussian distribution was performed.
Results and discussion
The decorrelation procedure outlined
above was performed on Channels 1, 3,
and 5 of the Saline Valley TIMS data
(Plate VI). As in previous work using this
decorrelation enhancement technique
with TIMS data (Kahle and Goetz, 1988;
Gillespie et al., 1984), it appears that
spectral differences (which are primarily
related to the diagnostic emissivity
minimia of silicates in the 8-12 #m re-
gion of the spectrum) are displayed as
color differences, while temperature vari-
ations are displayed as intensity dif-
ferences. Due to the nature of the trans-
formation the colors in the enhanced
image are similar to those in a conven-
tional color composite of the same chan-
nels, although they are more saturated.
268
Based on previous mapping and field
observation the decorrelated image ap-
pears to delineate a variety of surface
units. Mesozoic granitic formations on the
west side of the valley were distinguish-
able from Permian marine sediments
found in the same area. Alluvial fans on
the western side of the valley reflect these
source materials. The salt-encrusted playa
in the central portion of the valley is
distinguished due to the relatively fiat
response of the salts in the thermal in-
frared. Very gravelly loamy sand deposits
at the fringe of the playa are delineated.
Alluvium composed chiefly of quartz
monzonite and derived weathering prod-
ucts extends into the valley from the
north. Variations in this unit reflect
changing patterns in alluviation which re-
sult in some surfaces being abandoned
and eventually stabilizing with incipient
desert pavement and varnish. Pleistocene
basalt flows and Mesozoic basalts and
granitic formations are shown on the
eastern side of the valley. Patches of older
Quaternary alluvium are delineated from
surrounding Tertiary basalt flows in the
northeast portion of the valley. The de-
correlated image depicts the surface geo-
logic features of the valley and is a com-
plement to previous mapping and field
observation.
This is paper No. 7556 o f the Journal
Series o f the Pennsylvania Agricultural
Experiment Station. The authors thank
the Ecological Research Division, Office
o f Health and Environmental Research,
Department o f Energy and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration for
their support o f the research described in
this publication. Thanks are particularly
extended to Dr. Frank J. Wobber, Depart-
ment o f Energy, and Dr. A. B. Kahle, Jet
G.W. PETERSEN
Propulsion Laboratory, for their assis-
tance and guidance throughout these re-
search projects.
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