Date 23/08/2023

Assignment on Breeding for Resistance/Tolerance to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses (PPB810)

By: Zeleke Keimeso Lango. ID: PAU-UI-0834

Submitted to
Prof. Stephen Abolusoro
 1. What do you understand by the word “Biotic Stress”?

Biotic stress (from the Greek bios, “life”) is stress that occurs as a result of damage done to an
organism by other living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, beneficial and
harmful insects, weeds, and cultivated or native plants.  

It is different from abiotic stress, which is the negative impact of non-living factors on the
organisms such as temperature, sunlight, wind, salinity, flooding and drought. The types of biotic
stresses imposed on an organism depend on the climate where it lives as well as the species'
ability to resist particular stresses. Biotic stress remains a broadly defined term and those who
study it face many challenges, such as the greater difficulty in controlling biotic stresses in an
experimental context compared to abiotic stress. Biotic stress in plants is a state of the plants, in
which living organisms, predominantly viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, arachnids,
and weeds disrupt the normal metabolism of the plants. All these agents reduce the growth,
vigor, and productivity of the plants. The agents causing biotic stress directly deprive their host
of its nutrients and can lead to death. Biotic stress can become major because of pre- and
postharvest losses. Many biotic stresses affect photosynthesis, as chewing insects reduce leaf
area and virus infections reduce the rate of photosynthesis per leaf area. Despite lacking an
adaptive immune system, plants can counteract biotic stresses by evolving themselves to certain
sophisticated strategies. The defense mechanisms which act against these stresses are controlled
genetically by the plant’s genetic code stored in them. The resistant genes against these biotic
stresses present in the plant genome are encoded in hundreds.
2. Enumerate with examples the causes of biotic stresses in plants.

Biotic stresses cause damage to plants via living organisms, including fungi, bacteria, insects,
and weeds. Viruses, although they are not considered to be living organisms, also cause biotic
stress to plants. These biotic stress agents induce a variety of diseases, infections, and damage to
crop plants, lowering agricultural yields. For example, plant-parasitic nematodes feed on the
contents of plant cells and can feed on all sections of the plant, but they predominantly cause
soil-borne illnesses and affect the root system. They cause wilting and stunting, which are signs
of nutritional inadequacy. Viruses cause not only local but also systemic damage to plants,
causing stunting, chlorosis, and deformities in many areas of the plant, despite the fact that they
rarely kill their hosts. Plants are harmed when insects feed or lay eggs on them. Viruses can be
transmitted to plants by piercing-sucking insects via their stylets. Some insect larvae may live
inside the plant and disturb the normal physiology of the plant as in the case of Lixus spin in
Amaranthus stem base. There are two types of fungus parasites: nectrotrophs, which use toxins
to kill host cells, and biotrophs, which do not. They induce vascular wilts, leaf spots, and
cankers, among other symptoms, and can infect different sections of the plant when combined
with bacteria. The method by which weeds, considered as unwanted and unprofitable plants,
inhibit the growth of desirable plants such as crops or flowers is not by direct damage, but by
competing with the desirable plants for space and nutrients. Because weeds grow quickly and
produce an abundance of viable seed, they are often able to dominate environments more quickly
than some desirable plants. Another yet important group of plants are the parasitic higher plants
such as Striga senegalensis which parasitize plant roots but grow like normal weeds.

3. List and explain the various mechanisms utilized by plants for resisting biotic
stresses.

Plants have developed various mechanisms to overcome biotic stresses caused by different living
organisms like fungi, virus, bacteria, nematodes, insects, etc. Some of the mechanisms utilized
by plants for resisting biotic stresses are:
i. Physical barriers: Plants have developed physical barriers such as:
a. Thorns: Thorns are sharp, pointed structures that grow from the stems or
branches of plants. They can be found in many different plant species, such as
roses and cacti. They can provide protection against herbivores, such as deer,
rabbits, and other animals that feed on plants.
b. Spines: Spines are modified leaves or leaf parts that can provide protection
against herbivores. For example, cacti have spines that protect them from being
eaten by animals in arid environments.
c. Trichomes: Trichomes are hair-like structures that grow on the surface of leaves
and stems. They can be found in many different plant species and can provide
protection against herbivores by making it difficult for them to feed on the plant.
Trichomes can also secrete toxic compounds that deter herbivores from feeding on
the plant.
d. Cell walls: Cell walls are a physical barrier that surrounds plant cells. They
provide protection against pathogens by preventing them from entering the plant.
For example, the cell walls of plants can prevent fungal spores from penetrating
the plant.
e. Epidermis layer: The epidermis layer is a layer of cells that covers the surface of
leaves and stems. It provides a physical barrier against pathogens and herbivores.
For example, the epidermis layer of leaves can prevent insects from feeding on the
plant.
ii. Chemical defenses: Plants produce a variety of chemical compounds that can deter
or kill herbivores and pathogens. Some examples of chemical compounds that plants
produce to deter or kill herbivores and pathogens are: -
a. Alkaloids: Alkaloids are a class of chemical compounds that can be toxic to
herbivores and pathogens. For example, nicotine is an alkaloid produced by
tobacco plants that can deter herbivores from feeding on the plant.
b. Terpenoids: Terpenoids are a class of chemical compounds that can have a
variety of functions, including defense against herbivores and pathogens. For
example, menthol is a terpenoid produced by mint plants that can deter herbivores
from feeding on the plant.
 c. Phenolics: Phenolics are a class of chemical compounds that can have a variety
of functions, including defense against herbivores and pathogens. For example,
tannins are phenolic compounds that can bind to proteins in the digestive systems
of herbivores, making them difficult to digest.
d. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR): SAR is a defense mechanism in which a
plant that has been infected by a pathogen can produce a systemic response that
makes it more resistant to future infections. This response involves the production
of chemical compounds such as salicylic acid, which can activate defense
mechanisms in other parts of the plant.
e. Hormonal signaling: Plants use hormones such as jasmonic acid and salicylic
acid to signal the presence of biotic stress and to activate defense mechanisms.
For example, jasmonic acid can activate the production of chemical compounds
that deter herbivores from feeding on the plant.
iii. Induced defenses: Plants can also induce defenses in response to biotic stress. Induced
defenses are activated only when the plant is under attack by a pathogen or insect pest.
Induced defenses include the production of toxic chemicals, pathogen-degrading enzymes,
and deliberate cell suicide. One type of induced defense is defense priming, which is an
adaptive strategy that improves the defensive capacity of plants. This phenomenon is
marked by an enhanced activation of induced defense mechanisms upon subsequent
exposure to biotic stresses. Induced defense is facilitated via defensive enzymes such as
catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and polyphenol
oxidase. These enzymes help the plant to produce toxic compounds that can kill or repel the
invading pathogen or insect pest. For example, flavonoids are cytotoxic and interact with
insect digestive enzymes, leading to insect mortality.

Here are some examples of induced defense mechanisms in plants:

a. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR): This is a type of induced defense mechanism that
is activated throughout the plant in response to a pathogen attack. SAR involves the
production of salicylic acid, which triggers the expression of defense-related genes and
the production of pathogenesis-related proteins.
 b. Jasmonic acid (JA) pathway: This is another type of induced defense mechanism that is
activated in response to insect herbivory. JA triggers the expression of genes involved in
the production of toxic compounds that can repel or kill the insect pest.
c. Proteinase inhibitors: These are proteins that inhibit the activity of digestive enzymes in
insect pests, leading to reduced feeding and growth.
d. Phytoalexins: These are toxic compounds that are produced by plants in response to
pathogen attack. Phytoalexins can kill or repel the invading pathogen.
iv. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR): SAR is a defense mechanism in which a plant that has
been infected by a pathogen can produce a systemic response that makes it more resistant to
future infections. It is a defense mechanism in plants that is activated throughout the entire
plant in response to a pathogen attack. It is a form of induced resistance that occurs after the
plant has been exposed to specific elicitors from virulent pathogens. SAR involves a complex
signaling pathway and the production of various defense-related molecules to enhance the
plant's ability to fight off future pathogen attacks.

Here is an explanation of the SAR mechanism in plants:

a. Recognition of pathogen attack: When a plant is attacked by a pathogen, it recognizes

the presence of the pathogen through specific receptors on the cell surface. This
recognition triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of SAR.
b. Production of salicylic acid (SA): One of the key components of SAR is the
accumulation of the signal molecule salicylic acid (SA). SA is synthesized and released
by the plant cells in response to pathogen attack. SA acts as a signaling molecule that
triggers the expression of defense-related genes and the production of pathogenesis-
related proteins.
c. Activation of NPR1: SA induces the activation of a protein called NPR1 (nonexpressor
of pathogenesis-related genes 1). NPR1 plays a crucial role in regulating the expression
of defense genes. When SA levels increase, NPR1 is converted into its active form and
translocates into the nucleus, where it interacts with transcription factors to initiate the
expression of defense-related genes.
d. Expression of defense genes: The activation of NPR1 leads to the expression of a wide
range of defense-related genes. These genes encode proteins that are involved in various
 defense mechanisms, such as the production of antimicrobial compounds, pathogen-
degrading enzymes, and reinforcement of cell walls.
e. Systemic spread of defense: Once SAR is activated in a specific area of the plant, it
spreads systemically throughout the entire plant. This systemic spread allows the plant to
prepare other parts of its body for potential future pathogen attacks. The defense
responses are primed and ready to be activated more quickly and effectively upon
subsequent pathogen encounters. Examples of systematic acquired resistance (SAR) in
plants:
 Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV): When tobacco plants are infected with TMV, they
activate SAR and produce high levels of salicylic acid. This leads to the expression of
defense genes and the production of pathogenesis-related proteins, which help the plant
resist TMV infection.
 Arabidopsis thaliana: This model plant species has been extensively studied for its SAR
response. When Arabidopsis is infected with a pathogen, it activates SAR and exhibits
enhanced resistance to subsequent pathogen attacks.
v. Hormonal signaling: Hormonal signaling plays a crucial role in the resistance mechanisms
of plants against biotic stresses. Plant hormones act as signaling molecules that regulate
various defense responses, allowing plants to defend themselves against pathogens and
herbivorous insects. Here are some examples of hormonal signaling resistance mechanisms in
plants.
 Salicylic acid (SA): SA is a key hormone involved in plant defense against biotic
stresses. It is produced in response to pathogen attack and activates defense responses,
including the expression of defense-related genes and the production of antimicrobial
compounds. SA is also involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR), as mentioned in
the previous answer.
 Jasmonic acid (JA): JA is another important hormone in plant defense. It is primarily
associated with defense against herbivorous insects. When plants are attacked by insects,
JA is synthesized and triggers the expression of defense genes, leading to the production
of toxic compounds that deter or kill the insects.
 Ethylene: Ethylene is a hormone that regulates various aspects of plant growth and
development, including defense responses. It is involved in both biotic and abiotic
 stress responses. Ethylene signaling can activate defense mechanisms, such as
the production of defense-related proteins and the reinforcement of cell walls, to protect
plants from pathogen attacks.
vi. RNA interference (RNAi): RNAi is a mechanism in which small RNA molecules can
silence genes that are involved in pathogen virulence.
vii. Decentralized mechanisms: Plants have decentralized well-defined mechanisms for light-
derived ROS in tissues subjected to biotic stress.

4. Differentiate between Tolerance and Resistance

Plant tolerance and plant resistance are two different ways that plants deal with stressors in their
environment. The main difference between tolerance and resistance is related to how the plant
defends itself.

Plant Tolerance: Tolerance is a plant's ability to grow and produce an acceptable yield despite a
pest attack. Tolerance is typically attributed to plant vigor, regrowth of damaged tissue, and a
plant's ability to produce additional stems/branches. Tolerance enables a plant to avoid, tolerate,
or recover from damage from inclement weather, pests, or herbivores, under conditions that
would typically cause a greater amount of injury to other plants of the same species. For
example, some plants can tolerate drought by reducing their water use and increasing their root
growth.

Plant Resistance: Resistance means that a plant is able to prevent or reduce the damage caused
by a pest or pathogen. Resistance can be either constitutive or induced. Constitutive defenses
include morphological and structural barriers (cell walls, epidermis layer, trichomes, thorns,
etc.), chemical compounds (alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, etc.), and systemic acquired
resistance (SAR). Induced defenses include hormonal signaling and RNA interference (RNAi).
For example, some plants can produce chemical compounds that deter herbivores from feeding
on them.

5. List and explain the various methods of controlling diseases in plants

Plant disease control relies very much on the knowledge of the disease; its initiation,
development and symptomology. The different method highlights a recognition of several
techniques for the control of a single disease depending on the crop, the season, the severity and
the availability of resources. Disease control can be localized or on an international network. The
guiding principles include: the ease of application of the methods, the availability of resources
and materials, the cost of control; the economic threshold of the disease and the safety of the
harvested crop for consumption and processing. Decisions as to the methods to adapt should be
based on sound economic and scientific principles.

There are several methods of controlling diseases in plants, including cultural, physical,
chemical, and regulatory methods. Here is a list and explanation of each method:

1. NON-CHEMICAL METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL

Control methods include:

A. PHYTOSANITATION AND PLANT QUARANTINE (REGULATORY METHODS)
the Plant Quarantine of planting materials is the regulation of movement of planting
materials and their major diseases from one region to the other. This is the restriction of
diseases to their natural environments. The rationale for this is that diseases tend to be more
virulent and devastating when introduced to new areas where the natural enemies of the
causal agents are not known. Every country or region of the world has lists of diseases
occurring elsewhere which are prohibited in their zones. The Quarantine method is divided
into two:
i. The prohibition method whereby some plants known to harbor devastating diseases
are prevented from entering a country either through the sea or the airports or through
land borders. The swollen shoot of cocoa and the sigatoka disease of bananas fall into
this group. These are very serious diseases capable of causing complete crop failures.

ii. Inspections which could be pre-entry, at the point of entry or post entry are carried
out by trained people. Diseased materials are destroyed immediately. Where
incubation periods are long, such plant materials are grown in phytotrons to
determine infectivity. Disease- free materials are then released to importers, while
diseased ones are destroyed.

There are several abuses of this method as people fail to declare imported materials.
Mass education of dangers posed by such acts may be useful.
 Many countries are grouped according to common interests, enforcing common
phytosanitary regulations. A regional body, the Inter- African Phytosanitary
commission was set up by the OAU to regulate movement of plant diseases in the
African region.

B. CULTURAL METHODS: These methods refer to growing practices that reduce pathogen
levels or reduce the rate of disease development.

Examples of cultural methods include:

i. Isolation- susceptible crops may be isolated from each other to minimize easy
dissemination of diseases. The occurrence of cucumber and lettuce mosaic virus is about
3% when a new crop is spatially separated from an old one whereas 60% cross infection
is normal at adjacent relay plantings, separation from known weed hosts also helps to
control the infection. This method is very effective only for stylet-borne virus diseases
which are inactivated if not transmitted immediately but not against persistent diseases.
ii. Cover crops and other barriers- Non-susceptible crops towering over susceptible
economic crops create barriers against wind-disseminated spores and insect vectors of
diseases. Rows of corn at intervals over vegetables or cowpeas can considerably reduce
foliage diseases. Barrier crops are trapping points of aphids and leaf hoppers which
discharge their acquired viruses on resistant plants.

iii. Rouging and Field sanitation- Removal and destruction of infected plants debris
prevent dissemination of diseases. Weeding and packing of weed refuse also assist in the
control of many diseases. Cleaning of hands, tools and implements before moving from
one field to the other is also very important. Pruning and destroying diseased branches
and stands can be rendered ineffective as in the case of swollen shoot of cocoa in Nigeria
and Ghana if attention is not paid to sanitation. Despite destruction of over 63 million
cocoa trees, swollen shoot still remains with us because the same cutlasses are used on all
trees whether healthy or diseased; pruning knives should be sterilized when moving from
tree to tree.

iv. Crop density- close spacing of plants to an optimum level reduces vector incidence
because movement of pathogen is reduced compared with widely spaced crops. Hence,
 maximum crop density consonant with good husbandry is desirable to minimize wind and
insect –transmitted viruses.

v. Area of Field- Disease incidence is high in the periphery (edges) of fields. The incidence
is restricted to the edges on large fields but general and more severe in small fields.

vi. Crop Rotation- Rotation of susceptible and resistant or tolerant crops is a very efficient
way of controlling diseases caused by soil borne pathogens. The problem is however
compounded by the fact that when more than one disease occurs on the field, it can be
used in combination with other cultural practices.

vii. Improving of Growing Conditions- Timely application of fertilizers to well-prepared

field will encourage rapid growth of the crop at the disadvantage of the diseases.

viii. Non-hosts- Non- hosts of some disease pathogens may be planted after a very
susceptible crop. Marigold, Crotolaria and some Amaranthus varieties are known to be
resistant to some very virulent nematodes.

ix. Addition of Soil Amendments- Acid, alkaloid, toxin released from soil amendments
are known to control many plant diseases. The pathogens are prevented from growing
and infecting the crops because of organic acids which they release into the soil. These
acids and other alkaloids are toxic to pathogens that occur in the soil.

C. PHYSICAL CONTROL METHODS

The physical agents used in plants disease control are temperature and radiation. Heat treatment
can be used for soil sterilization, disinfection of propagules, freeing plants from viruses and for
protecting plant products before storage.

i. Soil sterilization- soil sterilization in glass houses and nurseries is achieved by

passing hot water or stream through the soil. Heat sterilization can also be achieved
by the use of electricity. Whichever way, a minimum temperature of 82 oC for 30
minutes will be adequate.

ii. Propagule treatment- hot water treatment of seeds, bulbs, cuttings and nursery stock
is commonly used to kill pathogens and stop their growth within the plants. This is
 the most effective control for nematode diseases of bulbs and citrus root stocks. Their
effectiveness is based on the fact that dormant plant organs resist higher temperatures.
The temperature of water and the duration will vary with different host-pathogen
combinations. 43oC for 3 hours is optimum for Ditylenchus dipsaci in bulbs whereas
52oC for 11 minutes is adequate for loose smut of wheat.

iii. Virus elimination by Heat- this is the most successful and widely used therapeutic
method against virus diseases. Dormant plant materials such as bud wood, tubers,
bulbs and dormant trees are subjected to hot water at temperatures ranging from 35 o-
45oC and times ranging from few minutes to several hours. Although some viruses
can be cured by heat, elongated viruses are resistant to heat.

iv. Hot- air treatment of storage organs- Treatment of storage organs with hot air
removes excess moisture from their surfaces and hastens healing of wounds. For
example, sweet potatoes kept at 28oC- 32oC for 2 weeks are healed of wounds and the
entrance of Rhizopus and soft- rotting bacteria is prevented. Hot air curing of tobacco
leaves prevents fungal and bacterial leaf diseases which can affect the quality of
cigarettes.

v. Refrigeration- post harvest diseases of fleshy perishable plant products are

controlled by refrigeration. Low temperatures at times slightly above freezing point
will inhibit pathogen growth and disease spread.

vi. Radiation- various electromagnetic radiations such as UV light, X-rays and Gamma
rays as well as particle radiation have been studied for disease control with some
satisfactory results. This method is of great promise for the future.

D. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHODS

This is the use of other microorganisms known to be antagonists or parasites of disease

pathogens. A broader knowledge of diseases has attracted considerable interest in recent years
to biological control and it holds promise for the future; these methods include:

a. Hyperparasitism- this is the control of pathogens with other microorganisms or viruses

which parasitize or antagonize the pathogens. The best known cases include:
 (i) Bacteriophages or phages (Bacteria- destroying viruses) are known to exist
naturally for most pathogenic bacteria. When Bacteriophages are mixed with the
pathogenic bacteria or seeds are treated with the Bacteriophages, they are the
most effective. Successfully controlled diseases include Crown gall caused by
Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants caused by
Pseudomonas solanacearum. No cure has been achieved once the disease has
developed because the phages cannot reach all the cells.

(ii) Mycoparasites- some fungi and bacteria are antagonistic to or are parasites of
some phytopathogenic fungi. For example, the mycella of Pythium, Fusarium and
Helminthosporium are parasitized by fungi not pathogenic to plants. Their action
is based on enzymatic or toxic secretions which cause lysis of hyphae and death
of the fungus. Addition of some soil amendments encouraged increased
population of the mycoparasites.

(iii) Parasites of Nematodes- many plant parasitic nematodes are parasitized by soil
fungi, protozoa, bacteria and viruses. There are also several predators including
other nematodes especially of the family Mononchidae. In vitro studies have been
effective especially with predacious fungi like Dactylaria sp or Dactylella. Spp

b. Tissue Culture- control of many vascular diseases can be achieved by meristem tissue
cultures. Pathogen free seedlings are generated this way for virus, bacterial and fungal
diseases.

c. Cross Protection and Interference- this is the protection of a crop by a mild strain of
virus from a more virulent strain of the same virus. It is a laborious method prone to
mutations, double infections and danger of spread to and higher virulence in other crops.

Interference has been achieved by protecting a bean crop against obligate fungal
pathogens with virus inoculations.

E. BREEDING FOR RESISTANCE

This is the cheapest and most reliable control measure although it takes so long to achieve.
Resistant varieties will be highly cost saving. When resistance to disease is controlled by a
 group or groups of complementary genes, such resistance is called “Polygenic or generalized
resistance and the controlling genes are called “minor genes”. Monogenic resistance is
controlled by single genes and manifest complete resistance under most environmental
conditions.

A mutation in the pathogen will break down the resistance. As a rule, a combination of single
and complementary gene resistance is desirable

The process is long and arduous although cheap. Local sources of resistance are first sought
before looking into wild relatives and later into exotic varieties. The resistance can
breakdown over time with environmental changes and mutations. It must therefore be a
continuous exercise.

F.INTEGRATED CONTROL

Since there is no single full proof disease control method there is always the need to integrate
two or more control methods in field situations. The combination of methods will make for
increase efficiency in disease control. In a crop rotation for example, there may be the need to
knock down pathogen population with chemical control where some resistant or tolerant crops
are inefficient in disease control. There is the allowance to control two or more pathogens
simultaneously on the same crop.

2. CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS

Caution should be exercised with the use of chemical control and it should be the last resort
when all other methods have failed. It could also be used in the event of an epidemic so that the
disease can be arrested and curtailed using other control measures. The hazards of handling
pesticides should be known to such handlers and since most farm produce are consumed;
pesticides should be selected bearing in mind their persistence and efficacy. Pesticides may kill
outright by contact or inhibit germination, growth and multiplication of the pathogens. Common
pesticides include: Fungicides, nematicides, bactericides and herbicides for higher parasitic
plants (e.g. Striga hermontheca)

These chemicals can be used in the following ways:

 a. Seed dressing- Seeds for planting may be soaked in liquid formulation at required
dosages for limited times and wettable powders can be made into slurries in which the
seeds are coated. The essence is to protect the germinating seedling from seed-borne
and soil-borne pathogens.

b. Foliage sprays and Dusts- The foliage of crops can be protected from fungal and
bacterial infections during growth and they may be cured of ongoing infections. Dusts
are however wasteful as they can be blown off easily by wind.

c. Soil Treatment- soils may be drenched with liquid formulations to kill pathogens to
kill pathogens prior to planting. Granular pesticides may also be applied to soil during
the life of the plant to serve as protectant or curative treatments, some organo-
chorines like D.D., and D.R.C.P. may be applied three weeks to planting to allow
seed germination.

d. Treatment of tree wounds- plantation crops may be wounded by lightning, falling

trees and pruning during rehabilitation of farms. Such wounds provide entry for
pathogens. Chemicals can be applied to such cut surfaces to seal off the wound and
prevent invasion by other pathogens.

e. Control of insect Vectors- most virus diseases are transmitted by insects. Insecticidal
sprays on the crops will prevent incidence of these diseases. This control can also
take care of voracious defoliators on the crop.

f. Treatment of planting materials other than seeds- cuttings, root stocks, culms,
bulbs and tubers do host a variety of disease pathogens. Chemical treatment with
liquid formulations mixed with water serve as dips for planting materials just before
planting.

It is important to note that a correct diagnosis is the most important step in the eventual control
of a plant disease. Most diseases have a fairly well-established control protocol, and gardeners
should employ a combination of methods to effectively manage a specific problem.

6. Briefly explain the relevance of Host, Pathogen and Environment in Disease

incidence
 The relevance of host, pathogen, and environment in disease incidence is crucial in
understanding and managing plant diseases. Here is an explanation of their significance:

a. Host: The host refers to the plant species or variety that is susceptible to a particular
pathogen. The main host factor affecting disease development is the occurrence of
individuals in the host population that are susceptible to the particular pathogen. For a disease
epidemic to occur, the host plant population must be largely susceptible to attack by the
pathotypes of the pathogen in the vicinity. The characteristics of the host plant can influence
disease incidence in the following ways:
i. Genetic susceptibility: Some plant varieties are more susceptible to diseases than
others due to their genetic makeup.
ii. Plant health: Weak or stressed plants are more vulnerable to diseases, while healthy
plants with strong immune systems are more resistant.
iii. Plant density: High plant density can create favorable conditions for disease spread,
as pathogens can easily move from one plant to another.
b. Pathogen: The pathogen is a disease-causing organism, such as a fungus, bacterium, virus, or
nematode. It the main factor which determines whether or not disease occurs at all is the
presence or absence of a pathogenic strain of the pathogen. The presence or absence of the
pathogen is the overriding factor that determines whether or not disease occurs. The
characteristics of the pathogen can affect disease incidence in the following ways:
i. Pathogenicity: Different pathogens have varying abilities to infect and cause disease
in plants.
ii. Virulence: Some strains or races of pathogens are more aggressive and can cause
more severe disease symptoms.
iii. Survival and dispersal: Pathogens can survive in the environment or on plant debris,
and their ability to disperse and infect new hosts can impact disease incidence.
c. Environment: The environment plays a crucial role in disease incidence by influencing the
growth and spread of both the host and the pathogen. Environmental factors that affect disease
incidence include:
i. Temperature: Temperature has a much greater effect on disease development in
temperate climates than in the tropics, where temperatures are relatively uniform
throughout the year. However, in the tropics diurnal fluctuations in temperature,
 which are greater than the seasonal fluctuation, do affect plant pathogens. Many
pathogens are induced to sporulate at night by the combination of the drop in
temperature and the increase in humidity after nightfall.
ii. Humidity: High humidity can create favorable conditions for pathogen infection and
disease spread.
iii. Rainfall: Excessive rainfall can lead to increased moisture, which can favor pathogen
growth and disease development.
iv. The edaphic environment: Soil pH, fertility, and drainage can affect the health and
susceptibility of the host plant. Soil-borne diseases are affected mainly by
environmental conditions in the soil (the edaphic environment). As with the aerial
environment, wetness is often a critical factor. Some pathogens such as the
pythiaceous fungi causing damping off and eucalypt dieback require a period of soil
saturation to allow germination of survival propagules and infection of roots. The
zoospores of pythiaceous fungi require free water for their release and mobility. They
also require a soil temperature above a critical level for optimum activity.

We can see the relevance of the host, pathogen and environment using the disease triangle

The disease triangle.

Disease triangle can be described as three sets of two-way interactions (pathogen—environment,
host—environment and host—pathogen).

The amount of disease that develops in a plant community is determined by the host, the
pathogen and the environment and can be depicted in the form of a disease triangle. A fourth
factor, namely 'human interference' (making a disease square) can be added, but, as the other
three aspects have a degree of human influence, the disease triangle is sufficient as a framework
for discussing the various factors that affect disease. It is important to note the arrows indicating
interactions between the various factors in the disease triangle. It is the balance of these
interactions that determines whether or not disease develops to destructive levels in a
particular situation. Development of epidemics requires the interaction of a highly virulent
pathogen and a susceptible plant host in an environment that favours the development of disease.
The environment can affect both the susceptibility of the host (e.g. by predisposing it to
infection) and the activity of the pathogen (e.g. by providing the conditions of leaf wetness
required for spore germination and infection). The pathogen can affect the host and the host can
influence the pathogen (e.g. by secreting chemical factors). Similarly, the host can influence the
environment (e.g. by influencing the microclimate within the canopy). An understanding of
these factors and their interactions for a particular disease in a particular locality allows
prediction of disease outbreaks and intervention to reduce the amount of disease.

Interactions among factors

Although the disease triangle can be described as three sets of two-way interactions (pathogen—
environment, host—environment and host—pathogen), this is an over-simplification. All three
groups of factors interact in any field situation, often in non-linear ways that are difficult to
quantify and predict.

A generalized disease triangle showing the factors that affect the occurrence of a plant disease.
Arrows show the possible interactions between these factors.

In general, understanding the interplay between the host, pathogen, and environment is essential
for effective disease management. By implementing appropriate cultural practices, using
resistant plant varieties, and considering environmental conditions, it is possible to minimize
disease incidence and its impact on plant health.