4

Short-Circuit Calculations

4.1 Symmetrical Components
Symmetrical components are the traditional method used to calcu-
late short-circuit currents and voltages for AC power systems. Dr. C. L.
Fortescue developed this method while investigating problems of single-
phase railway systems in 1918. Symmetrical components allow the use of
single-phase “loop” or “node” equations to develop short-circuit currents
and voltages on single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase systems. The big
advantage of symmetrical components is the elimination of the need to
include transformer turns ratios and winding connections in calculations.
(Transformer data is used to develop base values and to incorporate phase
shifts into calculations.)
Three-phase loop or node equations can be used to calculate short-circuit
values on simple power systems (one machine, one line, one transformer).
However, for the typical power system, loop and node equations become
unwieldy, even with today’s computing capability, because transformer
turns ratios and transformer winding connections need to be included
when traditional loop (Kirchoff’s Laws) and node (Norton’s Laws) calcula-
tions are used for circuit analysis.
When unusual power system configurations, such as a single-phase
transformer connected line-to-line on the primary and line-to-ground on
the secondary, are addressed, it is a good idea to use symmetrical compo-
nents to calculate short-circuit values and loop or node equations to verify
the results.
The fundamental principles of symmetrical components are as follows:

1. Single-phase methods can be used to solve problems on three-

phase systems.
2. Sequence networks have been developed to calculate voltages and
currents. These networks are designated the positive sequence
network, the negative sequence network, and the zero sequence
network.

57
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
58 Protective Relay Principles

3. Each sequence has its own line conductors, transformer equiva-

lent circuits, generator equivalent circuits, etc.
4. Each sequence is independent of the other sequences (for bal-
anced fault conditions).
5. Per unit quantities are used in calculations.
6. Single phase-to-ground faults are calculated as Aφ to ground
faults.
7. Phase-to-phase faults are calculated as Bφ to Cφ faults.
8. Currents are calculated at the fault bus. Current dividers are used
to calculate currents at other points in each sequence network.
9. Voltages are calculated at the fault bus. Voltage dividers are used
to calculate voltages at other points in each sequence network.
10. Positive sequence voltage is maximum at a generator and mini-
mum at a fault bus.
11. Negative and zero sequence voltages are maximum at a fault bus
and zero at their respective reference buses.
12. Phase voltage (or current) can be calculated if sequence voltage (or
current) is known.
13. Sequence voltage (or current) can be calculated if phase voltage
(or current) is known.

Theories, rules, equivalent circuits, methods to calculate squence imped-

ances, etc., have been developed to allow easy application of symmetrical
components. A brief introduction to symmetrical components follows.
A single-line diagram of a simple system that consists of two genera-
tors, two transformers, and one transmission line is shown in Figure 4.1.
This simple system will be used to demonstrate the use of symmetrical
components.
Various generator impedances are provided by the manufacturer in
percent at rated generator voltage and MVA. For short-circuit analysis, use
of the following impedance values should be considered. Xd″ (generator
subtransient reactance) is the generator impedance at the instant a three-
phase fault occurs on the terminals of a generator. Xd′ (generator transient
reactance) is the generator impedance a few cycles after a three-phase fault
occurs on the terminals of a generator. Xd (generator synchronous reac-
tance) is the generator impedance after a three-phase fault persists on the
terminals of a generator. Xd″ is used as the generator impedance in most
calculations. Xd′, Xd, and other generator impedances may be used when
developing specific calculations to analyze generator parameters, circuit
breaker-interrupting capability, stuck circuit-breaker conditions, etc.
Transformer impedances are provided by the manufacturer in percent
at rated transformer voltage and MVA. Although transformer impedance
varies with tap position, the nominal transformer impedance, nominal

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 59

Generator 1
320 MVA, 23 KV Generator 2
Xd = 18.5% 410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Xd´ = 52.3% Xd = 20.2%
Xd = 104% Xd´ = 56.4%
Bus 1 Bus 2
Xd = 108%
Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0 Ω
Z0L = 15.1 + j 62.8 Ω
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
300 MVA, 23–230 KV 400 MVA, 13.8–230 KV
X = 12.35% X= 13.21%
23 KV: ∆ 13.8 KV: ∆
230 KV: Y-Grd 230 KV: Y-Grd

Xd = Generator Subtransient Reactance

Xd´ = Generator Transient Reactance
Xd = Generator Synchronous Reactance

Figure 4.1
One-line diagram showing transformer connections and component impedances.

primary voltage, and nominal secondary voltage are used in calculations.

Actual transformer impedance at actual tap values may be used when
analyzing specific events. Transformer connections need to be included as
essential system data.
Transmission line impedance is calculated by the company that designs
the line as impedance varies with conductor type, spacing, height, phase
relationship, length, etc.

4.2 Positive Sequence Networks

Positive sequence networks are in all respects identical to the usual single-
line diagram for three-phase networks. The resistances and reactances are
the values used in traditional equivalent circuits. Each machine (genera-
tor or motor) must be considered to be a voltage (power) source. Figure 4.2
is the positive sequence network for the system shown in Figure  4.1.
Impedances will be normalized and added later. The positive sequence

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z1 Gen 1 Z1 Gen 2

RB1 RB1
Z1 Trans 1 Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

Figure 4.2
Positive sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1.

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60 Protective Relay Principles

reference bus, RB1, the common point to which one terminal of all power
sources in the positive sequence are connected, is needed for network
analysis.

4.3 Negative Sequence Networks

Negative sequence networks are similar to positive sequence networks in
that the number of branches is the same, but negative sequence networks
do not contain voltage sources because machines (generators or motors)
generate only positive sequence voltages. The other difference between
negative sequence networks and positive sequence networks is that dif-
ferent machine impedances may be used in each sequence. Figure  4.3
shows the negative sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1.
Impedances will be normalized and added later. The negative sequence
reference bus, RB2, the common point that corresponds to RB1, is needed
for network analysis.
In most short-circuit calculations, the negative sequence impedance is
assumed to be the same as the positive sequence impedance. Generally
different impedances are used when generator response to short-circuit
conditions or circuit breaker-interrupting capabilities are being evaluated
at generating stations.

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z2 Gen 1 Z2 Gen 2

RB2 Z2 Trans 1 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

Figure 4.3
Negative sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1.

4.4 Zero Sequence Networks

Zero sequence networks, like negative sequence networks, do not contain
voltage sources because machines (generators or motors) generate only
positive sequence voltages. Impedances in zero sequence networks may
be radically different from those of the positive and negative sequence
networks. Zero sequence line impedances are obtained by imagining the
three conductors connected together at the point of fault with the ground
forming the return conductor. Generator impedances depend on the type
of connection, delta or wye, and if wye, whether the generator is solidly

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 61

Bus 2
Z0 Gen 1 Z0 Gen 2

RB0 Z0 Trans 1 Z0 Line RB0

Z0 Trans 2
RB0 RB0

Figure 4.4
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1.

grounded, resistance grounded, reactance grounded, or ungrounded.

Transformer impedances depend on the type of connection for each wind-
ing, delta or wye, and if wye, whether the transformer is solidly grounded,
resistance grounded, reactance grounded, or ungrounded. Adjacent over-
head transmission lines influence the zero sequence impedance of each
other. This influence is referred to as mutual impedance. Figure 4.4 shows
the zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1. Impedances
will be normalized and added later. The zero sequence reference bus,
RB0, the common point that corresponds to RB1, is needed for network
analysis.
One of the most important things to remember is that coils in two wind-
ings of a transformer must be able to conduct zero sequence current in
order for the transformer to be shown as a current path in zero sequence
networks. If transformer windings are connected delta-wye grounded,
then the transformer is shown as a three-terminal transformer in the zero
sequence (see transformer representations in Figure  4.3). The terminals
connected to the delta winding are located at the same location as in the
positive sequence, but the delta is shown as an open circuit. The terminals
connected to the wye-grounded winding are located at the same location
as in the positive sequence. The third terminal is connected to the zero
sequence reference bus. If the transformer is a three-winding transformer
connected wye-grounded, wye-grounded, delta, then the transformer is
shown as a four-terminal transformer in the zero sequence.
Checking transformer winding connections, and properly accounting
for them in zero sequence networks, is a necessary requirement when cal-
culating phase-to-ground fault current and voltage. The connection to the
zero sequence reference bus changes the impedance of the zero sequence
network and complicates circuit analysis.

4.5 Operators
Symmetrical components utilize a unit vector, designated “a”, to trans-
form phase quantities to sequence quantities and to transform sequence
quantities to phase quantities.

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62 Protective Relay Principles

Properties of the “a” vector are

a0 = 1 @ 0°
a1 = 1 @ 120° = –.5 + j.866
a2 = 1 @ 240° = –.5 – j.866
a3 = 1 @ 360° = a
a2 – a = 1 @ 240° – 1 @ 120° = –j√3 = √3 @ –90°
a – a2 = 1 @ 120° – 1 @ 240° = j√3 =√3 @ 90°
1 + a + a2 = 1 + 1 @ 120° + 1 @ 240° = 0

Power system voltages and currents are represented as the sum of

sequence values:

Ea = Ea1 + Ea2 + Eao Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Iao

Eb = Eb1 + Eb2 + Ebo Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ibo
Ec = Ec1 + Ec2 + Eco Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ico

Sequence values can be derived from phase voltages and current:

Ea1 = 1/3 (Ea + aEb + a2Ec) Ia1 = 1/3 (Ia + aIb + a2Ic)
Ea2 = 1/3 (Ea + a2Eb + aEc) Ia2 = 1/3 (Ia + a2Ib + aIc)
Ea0 = 1/3 (Ea + Eb + Ec) Ia0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic)

Positive sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors that

have equal amplitudes and are displaced 120 degrees relative to each other
as shown in Figure 4.5.

Ec1

 
Ea1 = Ea1
Eb1 = a2Ea1 = Ea1 @ 240° Ea1
Ec1 = aEa1 = Ea1 @ 120°

Eb1

Figure 4.5
Positive sequence voltage vectors.

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Short-Circuit Calculations 63

Negative sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors

that have equal amplitudes and are displaced 120 degrees relative to each
other as shown in Figure 4.6. The rotation of positive sequence voltages
and currents is A-B-C while the rotation of negative sequence voltages and
currents the rotation is A-C-B.

Eb2

Ea2 = Ea2
Eb2 = aEa2= Ea2 @ 120° Ea2

Ec2 = a2Ea2= Ea2 @ 240°

 
Ec2

Figure 4.6
Negative sequence voltage vectors.

Zero sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors that

have equal amplitudes that are in phase with each other as shown in
Figure 4.7.

Ea0 = Ea0
Eb0 = Ea0
Ec0 = Ea0

Ea0
Ea0
Ec0

Figure 4.7
Zero sequence voltage vectors.

4.6 Sequence Diagram Connections—Three-Phase Faults

For three-phase faults the system remains balanced and only positive
sequence quantities exist. Therefore the positive sequence network shown
in Figure 4.2 would be used to calculate three-phase short-circuit currents
and voltages. The connections needed to complete the current loop would
be a current path (shown dashed) from the fault location (X) to the positive
sequence reference bus. This is illustrated in Figure 4.8 for a fault at Bus 1.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

64 Protective Relay Principles

Bus 1 Bus 2
RB1 Z1 Gen 1 Z1 Gen 2 RB1

Z1 Trans 1 I1 Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

X

Figure 4.8
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.

Bus 1 Bus 2
RB1 Z1 Gen 1 Z1 Gen 2 RB1

Z1 Trans 1 Z1 Line I1
X Z1 Trans 2

Figure 4.9
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 2.

In order to calculate three-phase faults at other locations, a connection

between other fault locations and positive sequence reference bus, RB1, is
required. This is illustrated in Figure 4.9 for a fault at Bus 2.
Faults need to be calculated assuming all components are in service,
some components are out of service, one end of a network line has tripped
before the other end, and any other conditions that would be expected
to occur during normal system operation, during maintenance activities,
and during storms.

4.7 Sequence Diagram Connections—Phase-to-Phase Faults

For phase-to-phase faults, both the positive sequence and the negative
sequence networks need to be considered. The connections needed to
complete the current loop are a connection from the reference bus of the
positive sequence to the reference bus of the negative sequence and a con-
nection from the fault bus of the positive sequence to the fault bus of the
negative sequence. This is illustrated in Figure  4.10 for a fault at Bus 1.
A line (with short dashes) is used to represent the connection between
the common positive sequence reference bus, RB1, and the common nega-
tive sequence reference bus, RB2. Connections between common refer-
ence buses in each sequence network are not shown in order to reduce the
complexity of the diagram. A line (with long dashes) is used to represent
the connection between the positive sequence fault bus and the negative
sequence fault bus.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 65

Bus 1
RB1
RB1
I1
Z1 Trans 1 X Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z2 Gen 1 X Z2 Gen 2
I2

RB2 Z2 Trans 1 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

Figure 4.10
Positive and negative sequence networks for a phase-to-phase fault at Bus 1.

4.8 Sequence Diagram Connections—Single

Phase-to-Ground Faults
For single phase-to-ground faults, the positive sequence, the negative
sequence, and the zero sequence networks need to be considered. The con-
nections needed to complete the current loop are a connection from the fault
bus of the positive sequence to the reference bus of the negative sequence,
a connection from the fault bus of the negative sequence to the reference
bus of the zero sequence, and a connection from the fault bus of the zero
sequence to the reference bus of the positive sequence. This is illustrated
in Figure 4.11 for a fault at Bus 1. Lines (with short dashes) are used to rep-
resent connections between common positive sequence reference bus, RB1,
between common negative sequence reference bus, RB2, and between com-
mon zero sequence reference bus, RB2. Lines (with long dashes) are used to
represent the connections between the positive sequence fault bus and the
negative sequence reference bus; between the negative sequence fault bus
and the zero sequence reference bus; and between the zero sequence fault
bus and the positive sequence reference bus.

4.9 Per-Unit Quantities
When developing power system calculations, per-unit quantities are used
because per-unit quantities are simpler to use than amperes, ohms, and
volts. (Percent quantities are per-unit quantities multiplied by 100.) This is

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66 Protective Relay Principles

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z1 Gen 1 Z1 Gen 2

RB1 I1 RB1
Z1 Trans 1 X Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z2 Gen 1 Z2 Gen 2

RB2 I2 RB2
Z2 Trans 1 X Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 1 Z0 Gen 2

RB0 I0 RB0
Z0 Trans 1 X Z0 Line Z0 Trans 2
RB0 RB0

Figure 4.11
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1.

due to the fact that per-unit quantities can be manipulated for transformer
turns ratios or connections after circuit analysis has been completed.
Therefore, all impedances, currents, and voltages are converted to per-
unit quantities using the following rules.

1. An MVA base is chosen—usually 1 MVA, 10 MVA, or 100 MVA.

2 A reference voltage is chosen. Usually, this is a nominal system
voltage such as 230 KV.
3. All other voltages are related to the reference voltage by trans-
former nominal turns ratios.
4. With the selected MVA and reference voltage, base current and
base impedances are calculated at any point in the system.

Base MVA × 100

Base Current =
3 × Base Voltage (KV)

(Base Voltage (KV))

2

Base Impedance =
Base MVA

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Short-Circuit Calculations 67

5. Per unit impedances are corrected for differences in MVA as

follows:
MVA (new)
pu ( new) = pu (given ) ×
MVA (given)

6. Per unit impedances are corrected for differences in voltage as

follows:

KV 2 (given )
pu (new) = pu (given) ×
KV 2 ( new)

For a 100-MVA, 230-KV system, base quantities are

Base MVA = 100 MVA (given)

Base Voltage = 230 KV (given)
Base Current = 100 MVA × 1000 ÷ (√3 × 230 KV) = 251 amps
Base Impedance = (230 KV)2 ÷ 100 MVA = 529 ohms

For a 10-MVA, 12.47-KV system, base quantities are

Base MVA = 10 MVA (given)

Base Voltage = 12.47 KV (given)
Base Current = 10 MVA × 1000 ÷ (√3 × 12.47 KV) = 463 amps
Base Impedance = (12.47 KV)2 ÷ 10 MVA = 15.55 ohms

4.10 Sample Calculations
Using the information presented in Figure  4.1, short-circuit currents
will be calculated through the use of symmetrical components and per
unit impedances.
The base MVA will be 100 MVA (100 MVA is closer to the generator and
transformer MVA ratings in Figure 4.1 than is 10 MVA) and base voltages
will be 230 KV for the transmission system, 23 KV for Generator 1, and
13.8 KV for Generator 2.
One of the first steps is to place all impedances on a common, 100 MVA
base. For transformers and generators, this is accomplished by normal-
izing published values:

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68 Protective Relay Principles

Gen 1: j.185 pu × 100 MVA ÷ 320 MVA = j.058 pu

Trans 1: j.1235 pu × 100 MVA ÷ 300 MVA = j.041 pu
Gen 2: j.202 pu × 100 MVA ÷ 410 MVA = j.049 pu
Trans 2: j.1321 pu × 100 MVA ÷ 400 MVA = j.033 pu

To convert transmission line ohmic impedances to per unit impedances,

transmission line ohms are divided by the base impedance of the trans-
mission system (529 Ω).
Therefore, the transmission line impedances become

Z1 = (1.7 + j19) Ω ÷ 529 Ω = .003 + j.036 pu

Z0 = (15.1 + j62.8) Ω ÷ 529 Ω = .028 + j.119 pu

4.11 Sample Calculations—Three-Phase Faults

To calculate a three-phase fault at Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to
the positive sequence network shown in Figure 4.8. This yields the equiv-
alent circuit shown in Figure 4.12.
Fault currents are calculated at the assumed fault location, and then
from each source, as follows:

100 MVA × 1000

I 3 ϕ = I1 =
3 × 230 KV × Z1

{
I 3 ϕ = 251 ÷ j.058 + j.041 .003 + j.036 + j.033 + j.049}
I3ϕ = 251 ÷ {.099 ∠90° .118 ∠88.5°}

I 3 ϕ = 251 ÷ .054 ∠89.3°

I 3 ϕ = 4 , 661 amps ∠− 89.3°

I 3 ϕ Gen 1 source = 2, 535 amps ∠− 90° = 10.10 pu ∠− 90°

I 3 ϕ Gen 2 source = 2, 126 amps ∠− 88.5° = 8.47 pu ∠− 88.5°

System voltages, phase to neutral, can be calculated using per unit, per-
cent, or ohmic impedances. Phase-to-phase voltages are calculated after
phase-to-neutral voltages have been determined. In this calculation, the

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 69

Z1 Gen 1 Bus 1 Bus 2 Z1 Gen 2

RB1 j.058 j.049 RB1

Z1 Trans 1 I1 Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

j.041 X .003 + j.036 j.033

Figure 4.12
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.

per-unit method will be used to calculate Aφ-N voltage. (Voltage is calcu-

lated assuming generator internal voltage is 1.00 pu. Voltage drop, I × Z, is
calculated for each element.)

Generator 1 terminal voltage = 1.00 pu – 10.10 pu ∠–90° × j.058 =

0.414 pu = 5.5 KV (ϕ – N), 9.5 KV (e – c)
Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu – 10.10 pu ∠–90° × (j.058 + j.041) = 0 pu
Generator 2 terminal voltage = 1.00 pu – 8.47 pu ∠–88.5° × j.049 =
0.585 pu ∠–1.0° = 4.66 KV (ϕ – N), 8.07 (ϕ – ϕ)
Bus 2 voltage = 1.00 pu – 8.47 pu ∠–88.5° × (j.049 + j.033) = 0.306 pu
∠–3.3° = 40.6 KV (ϕ – N), 70.3 ϕ KV (ϕ – ϕ)

For three-phase faults, phase current and voltage are balanced; there-
fore, voltage and current magnitudes apply to all three phases.

4.12 Sample Calculations—Phase-to-Phase Faults

Phase-to-phase faults are unbalanced; therefore, current and voltage must
be calculated on a per phase basis. To calculate a phase-to-phase fault at
Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to the positive and negative sequence
networks shown in Figure 4.10. This yields the equivalent circuit shown
in Figure 4.13.
Fault currents are calculated as follows:

100 MVA × 1000

Ia1 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ {2 × 0.054 ∠89.3°}

Ia1 = 2330 amps ∠–89.3°, (9.28 pu)
Ia2_= –Ia1 = –2330 amps ∠–89.3°, (–9.28 pu)

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70 Protective Relay Principles

Z1 Gen 1 Bus 1 Bus 2 Z1 Gen 2

RB1 j.058 j.049 RB1

I1
Z1 Trans 1 X Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2
j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Z2 Gen 1 Bus 1 Bus 2 Z2 Gen 2

j.058 X j.049
I2

RB2 Z2 Trans 1 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Figure 4.13
Positive and negative sequence networks for a phase-to-phase fault at Bus 1.

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = Ia1 + Ia1 = 0

Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = a2Ia1 + aIa2 = (a2 – a) × Ia1 = –4037 amps ∠0.7°
Ic = 4037 amps ∠0.7°

Ia1 Gen 1 source = 1267 amps ∠–90°, (5.05 pu)

Ia1 Gen 2 source = 1063 amps ∠–88.5°, (4.24 pu)

Ia2 Gen 1 source = –1267 amps ∠–90°, (–5.05 pu)

Ia2 Gen 2 source = –1063 amps ∠–88.5°, (–4.24 pu)

Iφφ Gen 1 source = 2196 amps

Iφφ Gen 2 source = 1841 amps

Note that phase-to-phase fault current is 0.866 of the three-phase fault

current and that Ic = –Ib.
When calculating phase voltages for phase-to-phase faults, positive
sequence and negative sequence voltages must be calculated at each point
of interest.

Positive Sequence Voltage (Ea1 = Egen – I1Z1)

Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu – 5.05 pu ∠–90° × (j.058 + j.041) = 0.50 pu

Negative Sequence Voltage (Ea2 = – I2Z2)

Bus 1 voltage = –(–5.05 pu ∠–90°) × (j.058 + j.041) = 0.50 pu

Phase Voltages, Bus 1

Aφ-N voltage = Ea1 + Ea2 = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.00 pu = 132.8 KV

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Short-Circuit Calculations 71

Bφ-N voltage = a2Ea1 + aEa2 = –0.5 pu = 66.4 KV

Cφ-N voltage = aEa1 + a2Ea2 = –0.5 pu = 66.4 KV

The preceding calculation shows that A-phase voltage is normal, A-phase

current is zero, B-phase voltage equals C-phase voltage, and B-phase cur-
rent is equal and opposite to C-phase current.

4.13 Sample Calculations—Single Phase-to-Ground Faults

Phase-to-ground faults are unbalanced; therefore, current and voltage
must be calculated on a per phase basis. To calculate a single phase-to-
ground fault at Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to the positive, nega-
tive, and zero sequence networks shown in Figure  4.11. This yields the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4.14.

100 MVA
Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ { 0.054 ∠89.3° + 0.054 ∠89.3° + (j.041  0.028 + j.119 + j.033)}
Ia1 = 251 ÷ {0.054 ∠89.3° + 0.054 ∠89.3° + 0.032∠87.8°}
Ia1 = 251 ÷ 0.1140∠89°

Ia1 = 1790 amps ∠–89°  Ia2 = 1790 amps ∠–89°  Ia0 = 1790 amps ∠–89°
Ia1 = 7.13 pu ∠–89°
Iφg = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 × 1790 amps ∠–89° = 5372 amps ∠–89°

3I0 Gen 1 source = 5372 amps ∠–89° × 0.155 ∠79.6° ÷ 0.193 ∠81.7° =
4258 amps ∠–91.7°
3I0 Gen 2 source = 5372 amps ∠–89° × 0.041 ∠90° ÷ 0.193 ∠81.7° =
1129 amps ∠–80.7°

Note that for three-phase faults, the division of current is 55% from
Generator 1 source and 45% from Generator 2 source, but for single phase-
to-ground faults, the division of current is 79% from Generator 1 source
and 21% from Generator 2 source.
When calculating phase voltages for phase-to-ground faults, positive
sequence, negative sequence, and zero voltages must be calculated as is
shown for Bus 1.

Positive Sequence Voltage (Ea1 = Egen – I1Z1)

Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu – 7.13 pu ∠–89° × 0.054 ∠89.3° = 0.616 pu ∠–0.2°

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72 Protective Relay Principles

Z1 Gen 1 Bus 2 Z1 Gen 2

j.058 j.049

RB1 I1 RB1
Z1 Trans 1 X Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2
j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Z2 Gen 1 Bus 1 Bus 2 Z2 Gen 2

j.058 j.049

RB2 Z2 Trans 1 X I2 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 1 Z0 Gen 2

RB0 RB0
Z0 Trans 1 X I0 Z0 Line Z0 Trans 2
RB0 j.041 .028 + j.119 RB0
j.033

Figure 4.14
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1.

Negative Sequence Voltage (Ea2 = – I2Z2)

Bus 1 voltage = –(7.13 pu ∠–89°) × 0.054 ∠89.3° = –0.384 pu ∠0.35°

Zero Sequence Voltage (Ea0 = – I0Z0)

Bus 1 voltage = –(7.13 pu ∠–89°) × 0.032∠87.8° = –0.232 pu ∠–1.2°

Phase Voltages, Bus 1

Aφ-N voltage = Ea1 + Ea2 + E a2 = 0.616 pu ∠–0.2° – 0.384 pu ∠0.35° –
0.232 pu ∠–1.2° = 0.0

To illustrate the impact of system conditions on zero sequence cur-

rents, phase-to-ground faults are calculated at Bus 1 with Generator 1 and
Transformer 1 out of service, as shown in Figure 4.15, and at Bus 1 with
Generator 1 out of service, as shown in Figure 4.16. Figure 4.15 represents
the condition where the generator and transformer are switched as a sin-
gle unit.

100 MVA × 1000

Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ { .003 + j.118 + .003 + j.118 + .028 + j.152}
Ia1 = 644 amps ∠–85°   Ia2 = 644 amps ∠–85°   Ia0 = 644 amps ∠–85°
Iφg = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 × 644 amps ∠–85° = 1934 amps ∠–85°

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 73

Bus 2 Z1 Gen 2
j.049

I1 RB1
X Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2
.003 + j.036 j.033

Bus 1 Bus 2 Z2 Gen 2

j.049

I2 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

X
.003 + j.036 j.033

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 2

I0 Z0 Line Z0 Trans 2 RB0

X
.028 + j.119 j.033 RB0

Figure 4.15
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a single phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1
with generator 1 and transformer 1 off-line.

The result is that the phase-to-ground short-circuit current decreased

to 36% of the “All in” phase-to-ground short-circuit current. However, the
fault current flow from Bus 2 to Bus 1 increased by 71%. This type of fault
current variation is to be expected when phase-to-ground fault currents
are reviewed for varying system configurations.
Figure 4.16 represents the condition where the transformer remains in
service when the generator is taken off line.

100 MVA × 1000

Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ { .003 + j.118 + .003 + j.118 + [.028 + j.152  j.041 ]}
Ia1 = 935 amps ∠–88.5°   Ia2 = 935 amps ∠–88.5°   Ia0 = 935 amps ∠–88.5°
Iφg = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 × 935 amps ∠–88.5° = 2804 amps ∠–88.5°

3I0 Gen 1 source = 2804 amps ∠–88.5° × 0.155 ∠79.6° ÷ 0.193 ∠81.7° =
2222 amps ∠–90.6°
3I0 Gen 2 source = 2804 amps ∠–88.5° × 0.041 ∠90° ÷ 0.193 ∠81.7° =
589 amps ∠–80.2°

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

74 Protective Relay Principles

Bus 2 Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z1 Trans 1 I1 Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2 RB1

X
j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Bus 1 Bus 2 Z2 Gen 2

j.049

Z2 Trans 1 I2 Z2 Line Z2 Trans 2 RB2

X
j.041 .003 + j.036 j.033

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 2

Z0 Trans 1 X I0 Z0 Line Z0 Trans 2 RB0

RB0 j.041 .028 + j.119 j.033 RB0

Figure 4.16
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a single phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1
with generator 1 off-line.

The result is that the phase-to-ground short-circuit current decreased

to 52% of the “All in” phase-to-ground short-circuit current. This is a
demonstration of ground bank action created by delta-wye grounded
transformers.

4.14 Sample Calculations—Mutual Coupling

To demonstrate the effect of mutual coupling of transmission lines,
a second line, built on the same structures as the first line, is shown in
Figure 4.17. The 230-KV line impedances are as shown in the figure. Z1L-S
represents the positive sequence impedance of each transmission line.
Z0L-S represents the zero sequence self impedance of each transmission
line. Z0L-M represents the zero sequence mutual impedance of the com-
bined transmission lines.
Two single phase-to-ground faults will be calculated: first, a fault at
Bus 1 with all lines in service, and then a line-end fault near Bus 2 with
the circuit breaker open at Bus 2.
The positive sequence network for a fault at Bus 1 is shown in Figure 4.18.
The positive sequence impedance of this network for a fault at Bus 1 is

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 75

Bus 1 Bus 2

Generator 1 Generator 2
Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0 Ω
320 MVA, 23 KV 410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Z0L–S = 15.1 + j 62.8 Ω
Xd˝ = 18.5% Xd˝ = 20.2%
Z0L–M = 12.7 + j 38.2 Ω

Transformer 1 Transformer 2
300 MVA, 23–230 KV 400 MVA, 13.8–230 KV
X = 12.35% X= 13.21%
23 KV: ∆ 13.8 KV: ∆
230 KV: Y-Grd 230 KV: Y-Grd

Figure 4.17
One-line diagram showing transformer connections and component impedances, second
transmission line on same structures as first transmission line.

Z1 Line
Bus 1 .003 + j.036 Bus 2
Z1 Gen 1 Z1 Gen 2
j.058 j.049 RB1
RB1

Z1 Trans 1 I1 Z1 Line Z1 Trans 2

j.041 X .003 + j.036 j.033

Figure 4.18
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.

Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0L-S – Z0L-M
Z0L-M
Z0L-S – Z0L-M

Figure 4.19
Zero sequence equivalent for two parallel transmission lines, all circuit breakers closed.

Z1eq = 0.050 ∠89.6°, which is slightly less than the positive sequence imped-
ance for the network with one line (Z1eq = 0.054 ∠89.5°).
The zero sequence representation of two parallel, mutually coupled
transmission lines, for through faults, such as a fault at Bus 1 with all
circuit breakers closed, is shown in Figure 4.19 and the zero sequence net-
work for this fault is shown in Figure 4.20.
The zero sequence impedance of this network for a fault at Bus 1 is
Z0eq = 0.031 ∠87.3°, which is almost the same as the zero sequence imped-
ance for the network with one line (Z0eq = 0.032 ∠87.8°). Taken together, the
change in positive and zero sequence impedance will have little effect on

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

76 Protective Relay Principles

Z0L-S – Z0L-M
Bus 1 .026 + j.047 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 1 Z0 Gen 2

RB0 Z0 Trans 1 RB0

Z0 Trans 2
RB0 j.041 Z0L-S – Z0L-M Z0L-M RB0
j.033
.026 + j.047 .024 + j.072

Figure 4.20
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.17 with per-unit impedances.

the total fault current. However, the current through each line will change
significantly.

100 MVA × 1000

Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ { 0.050 ∠89.6° + 0.050 ∠89.6° + 0.031∠87.3°}
Ia1 = 251 ÷ 0.131∠89°
Ia1 = 1919 amps ∠–89°  Ia2 = 1919 amps ∠–89°  Ia0 = 1010 amps ∠–89°
Iφg = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 × 1919 amps ∠–89° = 5755 amps ∠–89°

3I0 Gen 1 source = 5755 amps ∠–89° × 0.131 ∠78.6° ÷ 0.172 ∠81.3° =
4401 amps ∠–91.7°
3I0 Gen 2 source = 5755 amps ∠–89° × 0.041 ∠90° ÷ 0.172 ∠81.7° =
1375 amps ∠–80.3°
3I0 Each Line = 688 amps ∠–80.3°

With one line in service, the zero sequence current through the line to
the fault at Bus 1 was 1129 amps. When the second line was installed, the
zero sequence current through each line was only 60% of that value.
The zero sequence representation of two parallel, mutually coupled
transmission lines for a line-end fault near Bus 2 with the circuit breakers
open at Bus 2 (Figure 4.21) is shown in Figure 4.22 and the zero sequence
network for this fault is shown in Figure 4.23.
The positive sequence impedance to this line-end fault is Z1eq = 0.068
∠88.4°, the zero sequence impedance is Z0eq = 0.094 ∠84.2°.

100 MVA × 1000

Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =
3 × 230 KV × (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 ÷ { 0.068 ∠88.4° + 0.068 ∠88.4° + 0.094∠84.2°}
Ia1 = 251 ÷ 0.230∠–86.7°
Ia1 = 1092 amps ∠–86.7°   Ia2 = 1092 amps ∠–86.7°   Ia0 = 1092 amps
∠–86.7°
Iφg = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 × 1092 amps ∠–86.7° = 3277 amps ∠–86.7°

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Short-Circuit Calculations 77

Bus 1 Bus 2

Generator 1 Generator 2
320 MVA, 23 KV Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0 Ω 410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Xd˝ = 18.5% Z0L-S = 15.1 + j 62.8 Ω Xd˝ = 20.2%
Z0L-M = 12.7 + j 38.2 Ω
X
Open
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
300 MVA, 23–230 KV 400 MVA, 13.8–230 KV
X= 12.35% Line End X = 13.21%
Fault

Figure 4.21
One-line diagram showing line-end fault with circuit breaker open at Bus 2.

Bus 1 Z0L-S – Z0L-M Bus 2

Z0L-M
Z0L-S – Z0L-S M
X

Figure 4.22
Zero sequence equivalent for two parallel transmission lines, line-end fault, one circuit
breaker open.

Z0L-S – Z0L-M
Bus 1 .026 + j.047 Bus 2
Z0 Gen 1 Z0 Gen 2

RB0 Z0 Trans 1 X RB0

Z0L-M Z0 Trans 2
RB0 j.041 Z0L-S – Z0L-M RB0
.024 + j.072 j.033
.026 + j.047

Figure 4.23
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure  4.21 with per-unit impedances,
circuit breaker at Bus 2 open.

3I0 Gen 1 source = 3277 amps ∠–86.7° × 0.080 ∠87.1° ÷ 0.195 ∠81.7° =
1243 amps ∠–81.3
3I0 Gen 2 source = 3277 amps ∠–86.7° × 0.116 ∠78.0° ÷ 0.195 ∠81.7° =
1.945 amps ∠–90.4°

The preceding calculations illustrate that the magnitude and division

of zero sequence current needs to be carefully considered as mutual cou-
pling and ground banks combined with other system parameters compli-
cate analysis of fault conditions.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC