University Institute of Engineering

Aerospace Engineering

LAB MANUAL
COURSE NAME: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
22ASP-211

B.E II Year – III Semester

(Branch: Aerospace)
Session- July- December
2023-24

Chandigarh University
Gharuan, Mohali
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 CONTENTS
University Vision and Mission .................................................................................................. 3
Department Vision and Mission ............................................................................................... 4
Program Education Objectives (PEOs) ...................................................................................... 5
Program Outcomes..................................................................................................................... 6
Program Specific Outcome (PSO) ............................................................................................. 7
Student Outcomes (SOs) ............................................................................................................ 7
Course Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 8
Course Outcome......................................................................................................................... 8
Course Syllabus ......................................................................................................................... 9
List of Experiments .................................................................................................................. 13
Experiment-1............................................................................................................................ 14
Experiment-2............................................................................................................................ 22
Experiment-3............................................................................................................................ 26
Experiment-4............................................................................................................................ 31
Experiment-5............................................................................................................................ 36
Experiment-6............................................................................................................................ 43
Experiment-7............................................................................................................................ 46
Experiment-8............................................................................................................................ 50
Experiment-9............................................................................................................................ 53
Experiment-10.......................................................................................................................... 57

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 University Vision and Mission

Vision
“To be globally recognized as a Centre of Excellence for Research & Development, Innovation,
Entrepreneurship and disseminating knowledge by providing inspirational learning to produce
professional leaders for serving the society”

Mission
M1: Providing world class infrastructure, renowned academicians and ideal environment for
Research, Innovation, Consultancy and Entrepreneurship relevant to the society.
M2: Offering programs & courses in consonance with National policies for nation building
and meeting global challenges.
M3: Designing Curriculum to match International standards, needs of Industry, civil society
and for inculcation of traits of Creative Thinking and Critical Analysis as well as Human and
Ethical values.
M4: Ensuring students delight by meeting their aspirations through blended learning, corporate
mentoring, professional grooming, flexible curriculum and healthy atmosphere based on co-
curricular and extra-curricular activities.
M5: Creating a scientific, transparent and objective examination/evaluation system to ensure
an ideal certification.
M6: Establishing strategic relationships with leading National and International corporates and
universities for academic as well as research collaborations.
M7: Contributing for creation of healthy, vibrant and sustainable society by involving in
Institutional Social Responsibility (ISR) activities like rural development, welfare of senior
citizens, women empowerment, community service, health and hygiene awareness and
environmental protection

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 Department Vision and Mission
Vision

To create conducive environment for academic, research & development focusing on

entrepreneurship and innovations in the field of Aerospace Engineering blended with values
and ethics producing graduates adaptive to changing technologies.

Mission

MD1: To provide state of art infrastructure and curriculum for excellent teaching and learning
as par with the requirements of industry.
MD2: To inculcate ethical standards and values with wisdom of professionalism, leadership
and social responsibility.
MD3: To impart the technical skills in tune with the contemporary requirements through
collaboration with industries and research organizations.
MD4: To inculcate social level research by joining hands with industry for improving
technical based solutions.

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 Program Education Objectives (PEOs)

PEO1: To make graduates of the Aerospace Engineering program capable of contributing

towards Nation’s ambitious space projects through a wide range of applications oriented
solutions for multidisciplinary complex areas.

PEO2: To transform graduates of the Aerospace Engineering program into successful

professionals, researchers, or entrepreneurs with excellent managerial and leadership qualities,
capable of implementing academic excellence at par with global standards in the area of
Aerospace Engineering required for higher studies.

PEO3: To enable graduates of the Aerospace Engineering program to execute innovative ideas
and potential to contribute to society by adopting logical and flexible approaches.

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 Program Outcomes

PO1: Apply the knowledge of Mathematics, Science, and Engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to solution of complex engineering problems (Engineering
Knowledge)
PO2: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences and
engineering sciences (Problem analysis)
PO3: Design solutions for complex engineering and design components or processes that meet
the specified needs with appropriate considerations of public health and safety, cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations
PO4: Use research based methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data and synthesis of information leading to logical conclusions (Conduct investigations of
complex problems)
PO5: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and
IT tools including prediction and modelling complex engineering activities with an
understanding of limitations (Modern tool usage)
PO6: Apply reasoning within the contextual knowledge to access societal, health, safety,
legal, and cultural issues and the con-sequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice (The engineer and society)
PO7: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in the societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and the need for sustainable
developments (Environment and sustainability)
PO8: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of engineering practice (Ethics)
PO9: Function effectively as an individual independently and as a member or leader in diverse
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings (Individual and team work)
PO10: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large such give and receive clear instructions (Communication)
PO11: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of engineering management principles and
apply those to one’s own work as a member and leader of a team to manage projects
multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change (Life-long Learning).

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 Program Specific Outcome (PSO)
PSO 1: Ability to apply the knowledge of aerodynamics, propulsion, structures and software
tools in the design and integration of flight and spacecraft systems.

PSO 2: Capability to conceive the design, execute and operate multi-disciplinary systems and
subsystems related to Aerospace Engineering.

Student Outcomes (SOs)

SO-1: An ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering problems by applying
principles of engineering, science, and mathematics.

SO-2: An ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet specified needs
with consideration of public health, safety, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social,
environmental, and economic factor.

SO-3: An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences.

SO-4: An ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations

and make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in
global, economic, environmental, and societal contexts.

SO-5: An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership,
create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet
objectives.

SO-6: An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret
data, and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions.

SO-7: An ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using appropriate learning
strategies.

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 Course Objectives

1. The objective of a Strength of Materials Lab is to provide students with practical

hands-on experience in understanding the mechanical behavior of materials and their
structural properties.
2. The lab aims to reinforce the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and
enhance the students' understanding of the strength, stiffness, and other mechanical
properties of materials under different loading conditions.

Course Outcome

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and accurately

measuring and recording relevant data.
CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental results,
including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different loading
conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength, ultimate
strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and data
analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and conclusions
effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

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 Course Syllabus
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB
SUBJECT CODE: 22ASP-211

SN Course TITLE L T P S C CH Program

Code: Core
1 22ASP-211 Strength of Materials Lab 0 0 1 0 1 2 PC
PRE-REQUISITE Engineering Mechanics, Mathematics
CO-REQUISITE Differential equations
ANTI- None
REQUISITE

OBJECTIVES:
The objective of a Strength of Materials Lab is to provide students with practical hands -on
experience in understanding the mechanical behavior of materials and their structural
properties. The lab aims to reinforce the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and
enhance the students' understanding of the strength, stiffness, and other mechanical
properties of materials under different loading conditions.

COURSE OUTCOME
CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and accurately
measuring and recording relevant data.
CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental results,
including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different loading
conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength, ultimate
strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and data
analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and conclusions
effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

STUDENT OUTCOMES
An ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering
SO1 problems by applying principles of engineering, science, and
mathematics
An ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet
SO2 specified needs with consideration of public health, safety, and welfare,
as well as global, cultural, social, environmental, and economic factor
SO3 An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences √
An ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in
SO4 √
engineering situations and make informed judgments, which must

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 consider the impact of engineering solutions in global, economic,
environmental, and societal contexts
An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together
SO5 provide leadership, create a collaborative and inclusive environment, √
establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives
An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze
SO6 √
and interpret data, and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions
An ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using
SO7 √
appropriate learning strategies.

UNIT-I
Exp-1: To perform tensile test on Mild Steel specimen using Universal Testing Machine and
to draw stress-strain curve.
Exp-2: To perform Shear test on UTM
Exp-3: To perform compression test on UTM

Unit-II
Exp-1: To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell hard ness number of the
given specimen.
Exp-2: To determine the impact strength of the given material using Charpy impact test and
Izod test Machine.
Exp-3: To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring and Closed Coil Helical Spring
Exp-4: To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen

Unit-III
Exp-1: Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with different end conditions.
Exp-2: To perform Fatigue test on circular test piece
Exp-3: Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem

MAPPING OF COs WITH POS AND PSOs

Course
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
Outcome
CO1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
CO2 2 3 2 2 2 2
CO3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2
CO4 2 2 2 3 2 2
CO5 2 2 2 3 2 2

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MAPPING OF COs WITH SOs
Course Name: Strength of Materials Lab SEMESTER: 3rd
Course Code: 22ASP-211
SO 1 SO 2 SO 3 SO 4 SO 5 SO 6 SO 7
CO 1 2 3
CO 2
CO3 2 3
CO4 2 3 2
CO5 3

Books
a. Text Books
1. Dr. Sadhu Singh, Strength of Materials, Khanna Publishers, 8th Edition
2. S. Ramamrutham, Strength of Materials, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 3rd Edition
b. Reference Books
1. Dr. R.K. Bansal, Strength of Material (Laxmi Publishers), 5th Edition
2. D.H Shames, Introduction to Solid Mechanics, Prentice Hall Inc.,1st Edition

Assessment Pattern- Internal and External

The performance of students is evaluated as follows:
Theory
Components Continuous Internal Semester End
Assessment (CAE) Examination (SEE)
Marks 60 40
Total Marks 100

Continuous Internal Assessment (CAE)

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12
 List of Experiments
S. No. Experiments Relevance to CO
To perform tensile test for ductile and brittle materials and CO1, CO2, CO3,
1
to draw stress-strain curve. CO4, CO5

CO1, CO2, CO3,

2 To perform compression test on UTM
CO4, CO5

To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell CO1, CO2, CO3,
3
hardness number of the given specimen. CO4, CO5
To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell CO1, CO2, CO3,
4
hardness number of the given specimen. CO4, CO5
To determine the impact strength of the given material using CO1, CO2, CO3,
5
Charpy impact test and IZOD test Machine. CO4, CO5
CO1, CO2, CO3,
6 To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring
CO4, CO5

CO1, CO2, CO3,

7 To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen
CO4, CO5

Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with CO1, CO2, CO3,

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different end conditions. CO4, CO5

CO1, CO2, CO3,

9 To perform Fatigue test on circular test piece
CO4, CO5

CO1, CO2, CO3,

10 Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem
CO4, CO5

Prepared by: Approved by:

Dr. Rajesh Govindan (E11762) HoD Aerospace
Assistant Professor

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 Experiment-1

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-1 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To perform tensile test on Mild Steel specimen using Universal Testing Machine and to
draw stress-strain curve.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following:
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Elastic limit
iii. Yield strength
iv. Ultimate strength
v. Young’s modulus of elasticity
vi. Percentage elongation
vii. Percentage reduction in area

APPARATUS USED universal testing machine, vernier caliper

THEORY In tension test ends of a test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device
and to a load measuring device. The test involves straining a test piece by tensile force generally
to fracture for the purpose of determining one or more of the mechanical properties.
The straining unit of universal testing machine consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust
base inside and piston which moves up and down. The lower table connected to main piston
through a ball & the ball seat is joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between
lower table and upper head assembly that moves up and down with main piston. The control
panel consists of a power pack complete with drive motor and an oil tank, control valves and

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an autographic recorder. Load Indicator system consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy
pointer is provided to record the maximum load reached during the test.
Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted to
the cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder
of the dynamometer is also of self-lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of
the dynamometer is transferred through a lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the
pendulum actuates the rack and pinion mechanism which operates the load indicator pointer
and the autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum represents the absolute load
applied on the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively damped to
absorb energy in the event of sudden breakage of a specimen.
Stress strain graph of mild steel:

Figure 1 Stress strain curve of mild steel

The stress strain graph of mild steel is divided into four areas in which the first section
represents elastic deformation and in remaining areas only plastic deformation will takes place.
However, the material behaves differently in each individual phase of plastic deformation. Area
B defines the flow region here the material is stressed beyond its elastic loadability and within
the flow region the stress changes very irregularly with increasing strain so that a wavy line
results in the graph. In section C the stress increase sharply and the plastic deformation also
increases. At the maximum loadability, the material's cross-section begins to reduce in size and
ultimately failure occurs, increase sharply and the plastic deformation also increases. At the
maximum loanability the material's cross-section begins to reduce in size and ultimately failure
occurs.
Elastic deformation (A)
The first phase of the stress-strain damage is elastic deformation. When the stress acting on the
material is removed the material regains its original length. This is called complete recovery or
resilience. Again the area of elastic deformation is divided into two phases. In the first phase
the material stretches proportionally to the stress acting on it. This extension is also called

15
linear-elastic or proportional deformation. The point at which the linear-elastic elongation is
maximum is called the proportional limit. Beyond this limit elastic deformation still takes
place, however greater elongation occurs in this section under increasing applied force.
Therefore, the elongation or strain is greater than the increasing stress.

The flow region (B)

Further small increase in stress can be enough to cause the proportional limit to be exceeded.
The highest flow point is the point accompanied by an initial sudden loss of quality. As a result,
the stress required to continue to elongate the material reduces immediately and reaches the
lowest flow point.
After these points are exceeded even if the forces are removed immediately the material does
not regain its original properties. When the stress is increased again the dislocations start to
wander and increases, which leads to further quality losses at the first flow point, stress and
strain behave irregularly in relation to each other.
Material hardening (C)
If the stress is increased further an increasing number of upright dislocations form in the crystal
lattice prevents the movement of the previous still sliding dislocations. At the same time the
stress in the crystal lattice continues to increase which causes hardening of the material. Here
the metal becomes stronger as the strain increases. Hence, it is called as "Strain Hardening".
However, this process cannot be continued infinitely. Each material has its specific maximum
force.
Necking (D)
If the maximum force is exceeded the material begins to neck. In the crystal lattice of the metal
bar so many dislocations have occurred that they can no longer lead to hardening but instead
contribute to the formation of voids or cavities. Apart from necking, the voids also cause the
material cross-section to reduce. The stress now acts on an increasingly smaller cross-section
which enhances this process still further. As the tensile test continues the necking increases
until the tapered cross-section can no longer withstand the stress. This is when the metal bar
tears at the weakest point. Finally the specimen will have increase in length and reduction in
cross sectional area.
Percentage elongation: Increase in the gauge length of the test piece at maximum force,
expressed as a percentage of the original gauge length (li). The value of percentage elongation
depends on the gauge length chosen according to the B.I.S specifications a gauge length
of (5d rods) is to be used.

Where, Li= initial length

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Lf= final length
Percentage reduction in area: Maximum change in cross-sectional area that has occurred at
the neck during the test expressed as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area.

Where, Ai= initial length

Af= final length
Tensile strength: Stress corresponding to the maximum force.

Yield strength: When the metallic material exhibits a yield phenomenon, a point is reached
during the test at which plastic deformation occurs without any increase in the force.

Modulus of elasticity: It is the slope of initial linear portion of stress strain curve.

Stages in ductile fracture:

The failure of ductile material under tensile loading can be attributed to cup and cone fracture.
This form of ductile fracture occurs in stages that initiates after necking. First small micro-
voids form in the interior of the material. Next deformation continues and the micro-voids
enlarge to form cracks. The crack continues to grow and it spreads laterally towards the edges
of the specimen. Finally the crack propagation is rapid along a surface that makes about 45
degree angle with the tensile stress axis. The new fracture surface has an irregular appearance.
The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type shape on one fracture surface, and cone
type shape on adjacent fracture surface. In this central interior region has an irregular and
fibrous appearance, which signifies plastic deformation in material.

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 Figure 2 Stages in ductile fracture
Detailed and important information on the mechanism of fracture can be obtained from
microscopic examination of fracture surfaces. This study is known as fractography.
Variation of local elongation with position along gauge length of tensile specimen:
The measured elongation from a tension specimen depends on the gauge length of the specimen
or dimension of its cross section. This is because the total extension consists of two
components, the uniform extension up to necking and the localised extension once necking
begins.

Figure 3 Plot between elongation and Gauge length (Courtesy: The Virtual Lab @ NIT
Suratkal)

The extent of uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of the material and the
effect of specimen size and shapes on the development of neck. The shorter the gauge
length,greater is the percentage elongation.
Relevant Indian standard for tension test:
1. IS 1608(2005): Metallic Materials - Tensile Testing At Ambient Temperature

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PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the specimen as explained above and draw the figure.
2. Measure the diameter of lest specimen by means of a micrometer at least at three places
and determine the mean value. Also mark the gauge length with the help of a center
punch.
3. Insert suitable jaws in the grips.
4. Insert the test specimen in the grip.
5. Take the initial reading on vernier scale provided in the machine.
6. Note the initial zero error in the dial of the machine.
7. Start the machine. Apply the load at the slowest speed.
8. Take the reading on vernier scale at the various load stages and record.
9. Continue applying the load till the specimen breaks and then stop the machine.
10. Take out the fractured specimen from the grips. Measure the final length in between
the punch marks.
11. Record the probable yield point during test by observing the point at which pointer of
load dial is stationary for some time and move backward slightly.

OBSERVATIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THE STUDENTS

Initial diameter of specimen do =

Diameter of test specimen after fracture du =

Gauge length, Lo =

Final length after fracture, Luc =

Initial area of cross section Ao = π / 4 d 2o =

Final area of cross section, Au =π / 4 d2u =

Probable yield point =

Type of fracture =

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CALCULATIONS:
Stress = P/Ao Strain = δ / Lo

Where (L - Lo) = δ

Draw the graph taking stress on Y- axis and strain on X- axis.

Ultimate Load
Ultimate Stress = Ao

Lu − Lo
% elongation = 100
Lo

% reduction in area =
Ao − Au
100
Ao

OBSERVATION: Initial Vernier reading =

Sr. Load P Vernier Elongation Stress Strain

No. reading
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

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For calculation of value of modulus of elasticity take any point 'x': on stress-strain curve
within elastic range. Find the corresponding stress and strain
E = x / x

RESULTS:
Ultimate Stress =
Yield stress =
Proportional Limit =
Modulus of elasticity =
Percentage elongation =
Percentage reduction of area =

DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the stress-strain diagram.
2. Discuss the type of fracture obtained.
3. Compare the results with standard values.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1. What is yield strength?
Q2. Define stress and strain.
Q3. Differentiate between Engineering Stress and True stress.
Q4. What is Hook’s Law
Q5. Define modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio

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 Experiment-2

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-2 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To perform the shear test on UTM.

OBJECTIVE To calculate the shear strength of the specimen
APPARATUS USED A UTM, Specimen, shearing attachment, vernier caliper etc

Figure 1 Universal Testing Machine with Shear Attachment (Courtesy: The Virtual Lab @
NIT Suratkal)
THEORY In direct shear test, the shearing stress is considered as uniformly distributed over
the entire cross section. The shear force is applied by a suitable test rig, two different cases of
shearing may arise; i.e., single shear and double shear. In single shear shearing occurs across a
single surface and in double shear shearing occurs across two surfaces. Knowledge of shear

22
failure is important while designing any structures or machine components. Shear force causes
the surface to go out of the alignment with each other and thus the material fails.

Figure 2 Single and Double Shear

The shearing force P in each section is P = F/2, it can be concluded that the average shearing
stress is the maximum load divided by the combined cross-sectional area of the two planes This
shall be calculated from the following formula:

Shear strength of the specimen is determined by inserting a cylindrical specimen through round
holes in three hardened steel blocks, the centre of which shall be pulled (or pushed) between
the other two so as to shear the specimen on two planes. In this test a suitable length of
cylindrical specimen is subjected to double shear loading using a suitable test rig in a testing
machine under a compressive load or tensile pull and recording the maximum load P to fracture.
The speed of testing or the rate of separation of the cross-heads, at any moment during the test,
shall not be greater than 10 mm/min.

Shear stress

It is produced in a body when it is subjected to two equal and opposite forces spaced at an
infinite decimal distance or tangentially across the resisting section.

Generally it is difficult to produce conditions of pure shear as some bending effect is likely to
occur due to shearing load resulting in equal and opposite forces at a small finite distance.

Test specimen

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Specimen shall normally be of full cross section for cylindrical metallic products up to and
including 25 mm in diameter, in the case of cylindrical products over 25 mm in diameter the
samples may be turned down to a specimen of 25 mm diameter for testing. According to the
indian standard minimum length of the specimen should be twice the diameter, the maximum
length of the specimen is not specified as it has no particular effect on the test result. Shear
strengths of typical metals are of the order of about 60-80% of their ultimate strengths in
tension. For example, the shearing strength of a 60 ksi steel (yield strength = 60 ksi, ultimate
strength about 70 ksi) 60 ksi.

Figure 3 Specimen for Shear testing of Rod

Relevant Indian standard for direct shear test:

1. IS 5242-1979: Method of test for determining shear strength of metals.

PROCEURE
1. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the upper portion and
one end in the lower position
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the Pendulum and
balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights.
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the specimen shears.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimens.

OBSERVATION
Diameter of specimen =_________ mm.
Failure Load (F) = __________ kg.

24
The shear strength shall be calculated from the following formulae:
τs = (F/2) / (πd2/4) = 2F / πd2
where ‘d’ is the actual diameter of the specimen
Area of Cross Shear strength
Failure Load F
Diameter (mm) section (πd2/4) τs = (2F / πd2) % Error
(kg)
mm2 N/mm2

RESULT: Shear Strength _____________________

DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the type of shear failure.
2. Discuss the percentage error
3. Discuss the possible sources of error.

VIVA-QUESTIONS:
Q1 Does the shear failure in wood occur along the 45° shear plane?
Q2 What is bulging? Why does it occur?
Q3 What is single & double shear?
Q4 What is unit of shear strength?

25
 Experiment-3

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-3 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To Perform Compression test on UTM.

OBJECTIVE To calculate the compressive strength along and across the grain of the test

specimen.

APPARATUS USED universal testing machine, Vernier caliper, Attachments plates

Figure 1 Universal Testing Machine for Compression Testing (Courtesy: The Virtual Lab @
NIT Suratkal)
THEORY In compression test the material experiences opposing forces that push inward upon
the specimen from opposite sides or is otherwise compressed, squashed, crushed, or flattened.
The test sample is generally placed in between two hard metal bearing blocks that distribute
the applied load across the entire surface area of two opposite faces of the test sample and then

26
the plates are pushed together by a universal testing machine causing the sample to flatten. A
sample will get shortened in the direction of the applied forces and expands in the direction
perpendicular to the force.

Figure 2 Stress-strain plot for compression testing

Certain materials subjected to a compressive force show initially a linear relationship between
stress and strain.
The Hooke's Law states that,
E = Stress(s)/Strain(e)
Where E is Young's modulus. This value represents how much the material will deform under
applied compressive loading before plastic deformation occurs. A material's ability to return to
its original shape after deformation has occurred is referred to as its elasticity. At certain force
the permanent or plastic deformation will occur, this is known as proportional limit. At this
point the linear behaviour of graph stops. The force at which the material begins exhibiting this
behaviour is called the yield point or yield strength. A specimen will then exhibit one of two
types of behaviour, either it will continue to deform until it eventually breaks or it will distort
until flat. In either case a maximum stress or force will be evident providing its ultimate
compressive strength value.
In compression test the properties such as elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield
strength, and (for some materials) compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, secant modulus,
tangent modulus are determined. Some materials do not exhibit a yield point; in such cases an
offset yield point (proof stress) is arbitrarily defined. The value for this is commonly set at
0.2% plastic strain. From that plot the elastic modulus, secant modulus, tangent modulus are
found out.
The elastic modulus is the ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the proportional limit
of the material. Secant modulus is the ratio of stress to strain at any point on curve in a stress-
strain diagram, obtained by the slope of a line from the origin to any point on a stress-strain
curve. Then tangent modulus is the slope of the stress strain curve at any specified stress or

27
strain. Below the proportional limit the tangent modulus is equivalent to Young's modulus.
Above the proportional limit the tangent modulus varies with strain.
Modes of deformation in compression testing
The figure below illustrates the different modes of failure in compression testing.

Figure 3 Modes of failure in compression testing

1. when L/D > 5,Buckling
2. when L/D > 2.5, Shearing
3. when L/D > 2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces,Double barrelling
4. when L/D < 2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces, Barrelling
5. when L/D < 2.0 and no friction is present at the contact surfaces, Homogenous
compression.
6. Compressive instability due to work-softening material.
Failure patterns:
Ductile material will have proportional limit in compression very close to those in tension. The
initial regions of their compression stress strain diagram are very similar to tension diagrams.
When a mild steel specimen is compressed, it begins to bulge outward on the sides and become
barrel shaped. With increasing load the specimen is flattened out, thus offering increased
resistance to further shortening.

28
 Figure 4 Failure patterns
Relevant Indian standard for compression test:
1. IS 13780 (1993): Hardmetals - Compression Test.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of the test pieces.
2. Clean the bottom and top plates of the machine.
3. Position the specimen centrally on the bottom plate and screw down the top plate into
contact. Positioning of the specimen centrally is important to ensure correct application of
the load.
4. Open the stop valve of the pressure gauge, to be used. close other pressure gauge valves.
5. Open the control valve fully and start the pump running.
6. Set the loose pointer on the gauge back to zero and apply load slowly closing the control
valve.
7. When the specimen fails, the loose pointer on the gauge will indicate the maximum load
reached. At this point the pump motor should be stopped.

OBSERVATIONS
Test Dimensions of Cross sectional area Load at failure Compressive
specimen (cm2) (kg) strength
Along the grain
Across the grain

RESULTS
1. The compressive strength, of wood specimen along the grain ……………………….
2. The compressive strength of wood specimen across the grain ………………………..

29
DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the type of failure.
2. Discuss the percentage error
3. Discuss the possible sources of error.

VIVA QUESTION
Q1 What is the compressive strength?
Q2 What is the factor of safety?
Q3 What are bi-modulus materials? Give examples.
Q4 Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials-why?

30
 Experiment-4

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-4 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To determine the Rockwell Hardness of given materials using Hardness Testing
Machine.

OBJECTIVE To determine the

a) Rockwell hardness number for the test specimen
b) Brinell harness number for the test specimen

APPARATUS USED Rockwell hardness tester, vernier caliper, Diamond Indenter

THEORY Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and
cutting, hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a define force is
mechanically applied on the piece, varies in size and shape for different tests. Common
indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell hardness tester presents direct
reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the machine. Principally this testing is
similar to brinell hardness testing. It differs only in diameter and material of the indenter and
the applied force. Although there are many scales having different combinations of load and
size of indenter but commonly 'C' scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the
indenter has a diamond cone at the tip and applied force is of 150 kgf. Soft materials are often
tested in 'B' scale with a 1.6mm dia. Steel indenter at 60kgf.

Types of Rockwell Test:

1. Rockwell Test: In this minor load of 10kgf and major loads of 60, 100, 150kgf is applied.
2. Superficial Rockwell Test: In this minor load of 3kgf and major loads of 15, 30, 45kgf is
applied.

31
Specification of Hardness Testing M/C and Indenters:
Rockwell hardness testing machine essentially consist of a supporting table for placing the
specimen, a hand wheel to raise or lower the supporting table, a Rockwell ball indenter which
is a hardened steel ball 1/6'' in diameter, a Rockwell cone indenter which is a diamond cone of
120°.

Apex angle: load stages adjustable by means of push button switches, a light signal to indicate
the application of minor load of 10kg, a clamping sleeve to hold the specimen firmly, a button
for applying the major load, hand lever to release the load and a dial gauge which directly gives
the Rockwell hardness number. The dial gauge has two set of graduation B and C,
corresponding to the ball type indenter and the cone type indenter.

The hardness test can also be conducted on Brinell testing m/c, Rockwell hardness m/c or
Vickers testing m/c the specimen may be a cylinder, cube, thick or thin metallic sheets.

32
The Rockwell hardness test is a indentation hardness test in which a diamond cone having an
included angle of 120o and radius of curvature at the tip of 0.2mm, or a hardened steel or hard
metal ball having a diameter of 1.5875mm for B, F, G and all 'T' scales or 3.175 mm for E, H
and K scales are used.The indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece in two steps, initially
a minor load of 10kg is applied to a penetrator causing an indentation d1 in the test specimen,
application of minor load eliminates backlash in load terrain and causes indenter to break
through surface roughness, contributing to accuracy in test. With minor load still operating
major load is added according to above table. The application of major load increases the depth
of penetration. Some material show considerable time-dependent plasticity, the duration of
application of major load shall be neither less than 10s nor greater than 15s. Then the major
load is removed with the minor load is still acting. This operation results in the partial recovery
in the depth of indentation.

If d2 is the depth of indentation under this condition then the permanent increase of depth of
indentation due to the application of major load is d2-d1.

Rockwell hardness for diamond indenter

Rockwell hardness for ball indenter

While testing the specimen following cares should be taken

1. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case the distance from the edge to the centre of
indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.

33
2. The spacing between the two adjacent impressions should be at least 3 times the diameter
of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load to the specimen should be avoided. Load applied on the ball
may rise a little because of its sudden action, also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic
flow of a material, which produces effect on size of indentation.
Relevant Indian standard for rockwell hardness test:

• IS 1586 (Part 1): 2012, Metallic materials - Rockwell hardness test: Part 1 Test method
(scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T), Fourth revision, 2012.

• IS 1586 (Part 1): 2012, Metallic materials - Rockwell hardness test: Part 1 Test method
(scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T), Fourth revision, 2012.

PROCEDURE
1. Select proper scale, load and penetrator. Insert the penetrator in the holder and attach the
required proportional weights to the suspension rod.
2. Clean the specimen and position it on the clean worktable of the machine.
3. Turn the hand wheel to elevate the specimen into contact with the penetrator. Continue
carefully rotating the hand wheel until the small indicating hand on the dial indicates "Set"
and the main indicating hand is approx. vertical, then, if necessary rotate the dial itself
until the "set" (i.e. CO and B 30) position coincides with it. In setting up the specimen in
this manner, the minor load of 3 kg is automatically applied.
4. The major load is applied by pushing hand lever away from the operator.
5. As the penetrator is impressed into the specimen, the indicating hands will revolve, and
when this movement ceases the impression is complete. The period of contact between
penetrator and specimen after the major load has been applied is important and may vary
from 10 to 20 seconds, i.e. until the pointer ceases fast movement and continues to creep
slightly.
6. As soon as the impression is complete the major load must be removed by pulling the hand
lever towards the operator.
7. Read the hardness number on the appropriate scale after the pointer comes to rest. It is
necessary to specify the scale along with the hardness number.

OBSERVATION:

S.No Material of Thickness Penetrator Net Scale Rockwell Mean

test of specimen load symbol Hardness Value
specimen (mm) number
1 Mild Steel 1
2
3
2 H.S.S 1

34
 2
3

RESULTS
Average Rockwell hardness number of mild steel test specimen is found to be-
1. Mild Steel………………………………..
2. C.I………………………………………..
3. Brass…………………………………….
4. Copper…………………………………..
5. Aluminum……………………………….

DISCUSSION
1. Which factors affect the selecting of the appropriate Rockwell hardness scale?
2. For what type of materials are the following Rockwell scales best suited?
3. Compare the hardness of different materials.
4. Discuss the sources of error.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Define hardness of a material.
Q2 What is the necessity of hardness testing?
Q3 What measurement is made in Rockwell test?
Q4 Write the Brinell hardness formula and give its unit?

35
 Experiment-5

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-5 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To determine impact strength for given specimens using (i) IZOD TEST (ii) CHARPY
TEST on Universal impact Testing Machine (Pendulum type)

OBJECTIVE To calculate the Impact strength energy in the specimen using IZOD and Charpy
Test.

APPARATUS USED Impact testing machine, vernier caliper

THEORY Impact test signifies toughness of material that is the ability of material to absorb
energy during plastic deformation. Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility

36
of the material. There are two distinct type of toughness mechanism and in this case it is
appropriate to consider notch as a very high local stress concentration.

The first type of mechanism occurs in ductile material. This is because very high stresses at the
end of the notch produce local yielding of the material and local plastic flow at the crack tip.
This has an action of blunting the sharp tip of the notch and hence reduces the stress
concentration effect.

The second mechanism occurs in fibers, wood materials etc which have a weak interface. Local
tensile stress developed at the front of a propagated crack opens up the interface and produces
a crack sink i.e., blunts the crack by effectively increasing the radius of the crack tip. The stress-
concentration at the notch increases with decreasing notch radius.

Impact testing machine consists of a pendulum suspended from a short shaft that rotates in ball
bearing and swings midway between two rigid upright stands supported on a rigid base near
the bottom of which are the specimen supports anvils. The knife-edge or striking edge is
slightly rounded. The pendulum can be raised to any desired height and rested at that position.
It is supported in the starting position by a catch and can be released by a trigger. The
mechanism is so designed that the pendulum is not disturbed when the catch is released. The
striking energy of the testing machine should be 164±10J (Izod) and 300±10J (Charpy) for
standard testing.

Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied
loads. Indian standard method of Izod impact test consists of breaking the specimen by one
blow from a swinging hammer under specified condition, a notched test piece is gripped
vertically with the bottom of the notch in the same plane as the upper face of the grips. The-

37
blow is struck at a fixed position on the face having the notch. When a striker impacts the
specimen, the specimen will absorb energy till it yields. At this point the specimen will begin
to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The specimen continues to absorb energy and work
harden at the plastic zone, when the specimen can absorb no more energy fracture takes place.

Positioning of specimen in Izod Test

Positioning of specimen in Charpy Test

Generally, notch type specimens are used for impact tests. The notch in the test specimen serves
to concentrate the stress, minimize plastic deformation, and direct the fracture to the part of the
specimen behind the notch. Thus, scatter in energy-to-break is reduced. The stress-
concentration at the notch decreases with increase in notch radius. Also, the use of notched
specimen increases the sensitivity and reproducibility of the measurement.

38
Test specimen:
Izod Testing
The standard test piece of overall length of 75mm and a square cross-section of 10mm side
with a standard 45° notch, 2mm deep is employed for the test. The notch is at 28mm from one
end. In case of round specimen 11.4mm diameter with a standard 45° notch, 3.3mm deep is
employed.

Single notch square test piece

Single notch round test piece

Charpy Testing
The standard test piece shall be machined all over and shall have a square cross-section 10 mm
x 10 mm sides, 55 mm long and in the centre of the length of one face there shall be a U-notch
of specified depth with 1 mm root radius. Where the standard test piece cannot be obtained
from the material then one of the subsidiary test pieces having a rectangular cross-section shall
be used with the notch cut in one of the narrower faces.

39
 Type of notches in Charpy test

Unbroken Test Piece:

During impact test, if the test piece is not broken completely then the impact value obtained is
indefinite. In test report it should be stated that the test piece was not broken by striking energy
of the testing machine.

Friction Loss:
The Charpy testing machine involves a pendulum swinging in vertical plane about a horizontal
shaft housed in bearings. These bearings exert a frictional resistance, if proper lubrication is
not done. By polishing the anvils and the striking bit the energy absorbed due to the friction
between the anvils and striking bit can be minimized. To estimate the losses the error test is to
be carried out before starting the experiments.

Relevant Indian standard for Izod/Charpy impact test:

1. IS 1598:1977-Method for Izod impact test of metals
2. IS:3766-1977- Method for calibration of pendulum impact testing machines for testing
metals

PROCEDURE
(a) IZOD-TEST
1. Place the Izod Vice-in the machine base the bolts placed in the bed T-slots passing through
the vice holes.
2. Fit the Izod hammer to the Pendulum. Also check that the Izod scale is on [the side of the
pointer.

40
3. Set the measuring device as described before, after roughly estimating the energy required
to smash the test piece and choosing the height of drop of Pendulum accordingly.
4. Adjust the position of vice such that the center line of the test piece lies in the center of
slot in the weight of the Pendulum.
5. Tighten the Vice to the base.
6. Now engage the hook of the Pendulum in the arrester.
7. Place the test piece in the dies of the Vice with the V-notch facing towards the falling
hammer.
8. Place the Izod setting gauge over the Vice and gently push the taper edge of the gauge into
the V-notch of the test piece, the flat face sliding over the vice. This way the center of the
notch is correctly brought in level with the top of holding dies.
9. Taking necessary precautions, release the Pendulum by pulling the release handle.
10. Read the scale which. indicates the energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece, calculate
the energy absorbed per square mm by dividing the scale reading by the minimum area of
cross section i.e., the area at notch in mm2.

(b) CHARPY TEST

1. Replace the Izod vice by Charpy Anvil Blocks and the Izod hammer by the Charpy
Hammer.
2. Also fix the scale so that the pointer is on the side of scale for Charpy Test.
3. Choose the height of drop of the Hammer after roughly estimating the energy required to
smash the test piece and set the scale as already described.
4. Place the test piece against the anvil blocks and adjust their position such that the V-notch
in the test piece lies in the plane of swing of the edge of the striker.
5. Clamp the anvil blocks taking care that the ends of test piece lie in the cavities of anvil
blocks covering the cavities fully.
6. Place the pendulum on the arrester and test piece in position such that the V-notch is on
the side of anvil blocks, opposite to the striking side of the hammer.
7. Pull the release handle and note the energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece.
8. Now calculate the energy absorbed per square mm. cross sectional area of the test piece at
V-notch.

41
OBSERVATIONS
IZOD TEST
Impact
Minimum strength or
Initial Final Mean
S.No cross-sectional Energy
reading reading energy
area at notch. absorbed per
square mm
1
2
3

CHARPY TEST
Impact
Minimum strength or
Initial Final Mean
S.No cross-sectional Energy
reading reading energy
area at notch. absorbed per
square mm
1
2
3

RESULT
1. Impact strength of given specimen performing Izod Test is =
2. Impact strength of given specimen performing Charpy Test is =

DISCUSSION
1. Compare the impact value obtained both testing.
2. Discuss about the frictional loss.
3. Discuss the sources of error.
4. Does a Charpy or an Izod Impact Test Replicate any Real-Life Scenarios?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 What property is determined by notched - bar impact test?
Q2 Define the property toughness of a material.
Q3 Explain: (a) Notch sensitivity. (b) Modulus of resilience.
Q4 What is the difference between Izod a Charpy test?
42
 Experiment-6

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-6 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring

OBJECTIVE To determine the stiffness of the spring and modulus of rigidity of the spring

APPARATUS USED spring testing machine, micrometer, Vernier caliper, scale, spring

THEORY Springs are elastic membranes that distort under load and regain their original shape
when the load is removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters,
motorcycles, rickshaws, etc. According to their uses, the springs perform the following
functions:

• Absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.

• Store energy as in clock springs.
• Apply forces and control motions as in brakes and clutches.
• Measure forces as in spring balances.
• Change the variations characteristic of a member as inflexible mounting of motors.

Springs are generally classified as leaf springs or helical springs. Leaf springs consist of a
number of thin curved plates, each of same thickness and width but of different lengths, all
bent to the same curvature. Helical springs are formed by coiling thick spring wire into a helix.
Helical springs are classified into two groups. When the helix angle is less than about 10°, it is
named as close-coiled helical spring. In such springs, the wire experiences too little bending
or direct shear stress and their effect is neglected. Torsional stresses are predominant in such
springs. If, however the helix angle is significant, then the wire experiences both torsional and
bending stresses. Such type of spring is termed as open-coiled helical spring.

43
 Close-coiled helical spring Open-coiled helical spring

PROCEDURE
1.Measure the dimensions of the springs such as the section of the wire, diameter of the spring,
number of turns etc.
2.Fix the spring in between the fixed head and movable head of the machine. Start the machine.
3.Load the spring in suitable steps by controlling Control Valve of machine and measure the
deflection. Take readings both while loading and unloading.

OBSERVATIONS
Open-coiled helical spring
Mean Radius of spring coil, R =…………….mm
Diameter of spring wire, d = …………….mm
No of turns n=
Angle of spring, =

Rigidity Modulus G Stiffness, K

S.No Load, W (N) Deflection, δ (mm)
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1
2
3
4
5

44
CALCULATIONS
For open coiled Helical Spring of circular section, subjected to axial load, deflection is given
by:

Stiffness of spring, K = W/δ

where, W = load applied in Newton
δ = deflection in mm
Maximum energy stored, Umax= 0.5 x Wmax × δmax
where, Wmax = Maximum load applied
δmax = Maximum deflection

RESULTS
Under compression test on open coil helical spring
1. Rigidity Modulus (G) = ____________ N/mm2
2. Stiffness of spring (K) = ____________ N/mm
3. Maximum energy stored (Umax)= ____________ J

DISCUSSION
1. After calculating the values of E and G compare them with generally accepted values.
2. Discuss why the experiments will not normally give the expected results.
3. Discuss the sources of error.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Differentiate between Open & Close Coiled Helical Spring.
Q2 What is helix angle?
Q3 Define Spring Stiffness.
Q4 Define Modulus of Rigidity.

45
 Experiment-7

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-7 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen.

OBJECTIVE To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen to find modulus of rigidity or
to find angle of twist of the materials
APPARATUS USED Torsion testing machine, vernier calliper, permanent marker
THEORY In torsion testing the circular bar is placed in the machine such a way that its
longitudinal axis coincides with the axis of the grips and so that it remains straight during the
test. Then rotate one grip at a reasonable constant speed until the test piece breaks, here the
shearing stresses will develop in any cross section of the bar whose value increases linearly
from zero at the centre to a maximum at the outer periphery. Troptometer is used to measure
the twist to an accuracy of one minute.

Schematics of torsion testing machine

46
Types of torsion tests:
Types of torsion testing vary from product to product but can usually be classified as:
1. Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces to the
test specimen.
2. Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen
3. Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure. Failure can
be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the specimen.
4. Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed amount
of time.
Failure patterns in torsion:
1. Solid ductile metal bars (mild steel): Ductile torsion failure reveals a flat, transverse
break having smooth shear surface and microvoid formation. The failure occurs along
a plane perpendicular to the axis, in this plane the principal stress will be maximum.
2. Solid brittle metal bars: The crack propagates on a helical plane. The fracture surface
roughness increases with distance of propagation, crack propagation rate, and decreased
strength level. 45-degree helicoidal fracture will take place.
3. Ductile metal tube-failure by buckling.
4. Brittle metal tube

47
Relevant Indian standard for torsion test:

IS 1717 (2012): Metallic Materials - Wire - Simple Torsion Test, Third Revision, 2012

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of the test piece.
2. Measure the gauge length of test piece. Adjust the initial torque and angle of twist reading
to zero position.
3. Insert the test piece in the grip of the machine.
4. Apply the torque initially by hand up to 100 angle of twist and note the corresponding
torque. And angle of twist (Initially the reading may be taken at 2-degree interval.)
5. After the machine is operated electrically, the reading of torque may be noted at an interval
of 5 to 10 degree.
6. Continue until the specimen breaks.
Note: - Initially mark a line parallel to the length of test piece to visualize the helix formation.

OBSERVATION
Diameter of Ganges length of specimen d = …………….
Gauge length of specimen L = ………….
Initial Angle of twist = 0(Zero)
Initial Torque applied = 0 (Zero)

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Angle of twist () in degrees Torque Kg-cm (T)

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽
𝜏
𝛾=
𝐺

S. No. Shear Stress (N/mm2) Shear Strain

48
GRAPH

Plot graph between

T-
-

RESULT

From graph (T-)

Tel =
Tultimate =
Tfracture =

Standard value of G = --------------------

Error = ---------------

DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the behavior of T- curve.
2. Compare the value of Modulus of Rigidity G obtained experimentally with standard value.
3. Discuss the sources of error.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Define the following –
a. Shear Stress b. Shear Strain c. Modulus of Rigidity
Q2 Write the relation between three Elastic constants.
Q3 What do you mean by torque?
Q4 What is the unit of polar moment of inertia?

49
 Experiment-8

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-8 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with different end conditions.
OBJECTIVE To determine the deflection of the column both experimentally and theoretically
for all the four end conditions.
APPARATUS USED Scale, Weights, Columns Apparatus
THEORY There are usually two primary concerns when analyzing and designing structures:
(1) the ability of the structure to support a specified load without experiencing excessive stress
and (2) the ability of the structure to support a given load without undergoing unacceptable
deformation. In some cases, however, stability considerations are important especially when
the potential exists for the structure to experience a sudden radical change in its configuration.
These considerations are typically made when dealing with vertical prismatic members
supporting axial loads. Such structures are called columns. A column will buckle when it is
subjected to a load greater than the critical load denoted by Pcr. That is, instead of remaining
straight, it will suddenly become sharply curved as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Column will buckle when a critical load is reached

50
The critical load is given in terms of an effective length by:

where E: the elastic modulus,

I: the moment of inertia
Le: the effective length.
The above expression is known as Euler's formula. The effective length depends upon the
constraints imposed on the ends of the column. Figure 2 shows how the effective length is
related to the actual length of the column for various end conditions.

Figure 2 Effective length of the column for various end conditions

The critical load is computed by making I = Imin. Thus, if buckling occurs, it will take place in
a plane perpendicular to the corresponding principal axis of inertia.
The radius of gyration, r, is often introduced into Euler’s formula. This quantity is given by

where A: the cross-sectional area of the column.

Finally, the critical/ buckling stress is given as:

51
In above equations, the quantity (Le / r) is called the slenderness ratio of the column. For long
columns, with a large slenderness ratio, Euler's formula is adequate for design purposes.
However, for intermediate and short columns, where failure occurs essentially as a result of
yield, empirical formulas are used to approximate test data. These empirical formulas are
specified on the basis of material tests conducted by engineers working in that field.

PROCEDURE
1. Make the lever horizontal with the help of loads at either end.
2. Fix the beam with proper support so that there is no load on beam and beam is perfectly
vertical.
3. Apply the load on beam by applying load on lever on one side.
4. Now by the screw mechanism is help again make the lever horizontal.
5. Check the beam for critical load.
6. Note down the deflection at various parts of the beam.
7. Repeat the above step for different loads.

OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No. Load P Length of Distance Deflection of Deflection of the %
(kg) column le from one respective points same point error
end x measured theoretically Yth
experimentally Ye

RESULT
The percentage error is given _______

DISCUSSION
1. Describe the four end conditions for column.
2. Write the value of equivalent length of a column in each of four cases.
3. Discuss the sources of error.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Distinguish between a beam and a column.
Q2 Define (a) slenderness ratio (b) Critical load.
Q3 What is equivalent length of a column?
Q4 What are the limitations of Euler’s formula

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 Experiment-9

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-9 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM To perform fatigue test on a given mild steel specimen.

OBJECTIVE To determine the fatigue strength of the given material.

APPARATUS USED Fatigue testing machine, Vernier caliper

THEORY A perusal of the broken parts in almost any scrap yard will reveal that the majority
of failures occur at stresses below the yield strength. This is a result of the phenomenon called
fatigue which has been estimated to be responsible for up to 90% of the in-service part failures
which occur in industry. If a bar of steel is repeatedly loaded and unloaded at say 85% of its’
yield strength, it will ultimately fail in fatigue if it is loaded through enough cycles. Also, even
though steel ordinarily elongates approximately 30% in a typical tensile test, almost no
elongation is evident in the appearance of fatigue fractures.

Basic fatigue testing involves the preparation of carefully polished test specimens (surface
flaws are stress concentrators) which are cycled to failure at various values of constant
amplitude alternating stress levels. The data are condensed into an alternating Stress, S, verses
Number of cycles to failure, N, curve which is generally referred to as a material’s S-N curve.
As one would expect, the curves clearly show that a low number of cycles are needed to cause
fatigue failures at high stress levels while low stress levels can result in sudden, unexpected
failures after a large number of cycles.

Definition: Fatigue is the condition whereby a material cracks or fails as a result of repeated
(cyclic) stresses applied below the ultimate strength of the material.

Fatigue failures generally involve three stages:

1. Crack Initiation,
2. Crack Propagation, and
3. Fast Fracture
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 Figure 1 Stress Amplitude versus Number of Cycles to Failure Curves [Flinn & Trojan,
1990].

Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic (disastrous) results and although
most insidious for metals, polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to
sudden fatigue failures. Fatigue causes brittlelike failures even in normally ductile materials
with little gross plastic deformation occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the
initiation and propagation of cracks and, ordinarily, the fracture surface is close to
perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress.

Applied stresses may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending) or torsional (twisting)

in nature. In general, there are three possible fluctuating stress-time modes possible. The
simplest is completely reversed constant amplitude where the alternating stress varies from a
maximum tensile stress to a minimum compressive stress of equal magnitude. The second type,
termed repeated constant amplitude, occurs when the maxima and minima are asymmetrical
relative to the zero-stress level. Lastly, the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and
frequency which is merely termed random cycling.

Fatigue Testing Machine

Materials Testing to obtain S-Nf Curves is common; several ASTM standards address stress-
based fatigue testing. The "Rotating Bending Testing Machine" is similar to the original
railroad axle-type Wohler used where the bending moment is constant along the beam length.
Each point on the Surface of the Rotating Bend Specimen is subjected to fully-reversed cycling
(σm = 0) and the tests are generally Constant Amplitude.

54
 Figure 2 Rotating Bending Testing Machine [Callister, 1994].

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of gauge length of specimen
2. Fix one end of the specimen between the gripping vice on the motor end and secure it
tightly with spanner
4. Fix the other end of the specimen in gripping vice on the other end and secure it tight with
spanner.
5. Set the Electronic counter to read 00000.
6. Switch ON the machine by pressing the push Button. With this the specimen starts
rotating.
7. Gradually add weights on the suspended lever,
8. When the sample breaks, the machine automatically stops.
9. Note the number of revolutions registered by the counter and the corresponding weights
placed on the lever.

OBSERVATIONS
Weights placed (W) =…………….. Kg.
Diameter of specimen d =…………….. cm.
No. of revolution n =……………. ,

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO. Stress Kg/cm2 No of revolution N rpm

RESULT
The endurance limit of the material of given specimen is:

DISCUSSION
1. Compare the fatigue strength of the given specimen with the standard value.
2. Discuss the sources of error.

55
3. Discuss the factors that affect Fatigue?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Define (a) fatigue (b) endurance limit
Q2 Differentiate between fluctuating and reverse loading?
Q3 How does the fatigue crack initiate?

56
 Experiment-10

CO-1 Demonstrate proficiency in conducting material testing experiments and

Experiment-10 accurately measuring and recording relevant data.
mapped with CO-2 Apply principles of Strength of Materials to analyze and interpret experimental
results, including stress-strain relationships and material behavior under different
loading conditions.
CO-3 Calculate and determine important material properties, such as yield strength,
ultimate strength, and modulus of elasticity etc. based on experimental data.
CO-4 Identify and analyze sources of error in experimental setups, measurements, and
data analysis, and assess the impact on the reliability of results.
CO-5 Communicate experimental procedures, observations, calculations, and
conclusions effectively through well-structured and concise laboratory reports.

AIM Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem

OBJECTIVE To calculate the deflection using experimental and theoretical technique and
find the percentage error.

APPARATUS USED Clerk Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem apparatus, Dial gauge, Weights
(100 gm – 500 gm)

THEORY Maxwell theorem in its simplest form states that deflection of any point A of any
elastic structure due to load P at any point B is same as the deflection of beam due to same load
applied at A. It is, therefore easily derived that the deflection curve for a point in a structure is
the same as the deflected curve of the structure when unit load is applied at the point for which
the influence curve was obtained.

Figure 1. Maxwell's theorem of reciprocal displacements.

57
PROCEDURE
1. Fix the beam in simply supported condition.
2. Set the dial gauge at the mid span showing zero deflection with hanger.
3. Apply the concentrated load mid-point.
4. Note down the dial gauge reading. This will give the required deflection.
5. Measure the deflection at several points for the same load.
6. Change the load and repeat steps 3,4,5.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Length of the beam (l) =----------------------- m.
2. Distance of load from one end (a) = ------------------- m
3. Distance of load from other end (b) = --------------------- m.
4. Moment of Inertia (I) = bh3/12 = -------------------------------------m4
Where
b = width of the beam
h = height of the beam
1. Modulus of Elasticity (E) =----------------------Kg/m2

RESULTS
δ1 =
δ2 =
δ3 =
δ4 =
δ5 =
δ6 =

58
 δ7 =
δ8 =
δ9 =
δ10 =

DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the verification of the theorem.
2. Discuss the sources of error.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 What is a beam?
Q2 What are different types of beam?
Q3 What is statically indeterminate beam? Give examples.
Q4 State the MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem.

59