Multi-Level Converter For PV Solar Power System

Doctoral school
Republic of Tunisia Science and Technology

Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific
Research Doctoral thesis
University of Sfax Electrical Engineering
National Engineering School of Sfax
Order number: 30/ 2023
THESIS
Presented at
National Engineering School of Sfax

In order to obtain the
DOCTORATE
In
Electrical Engineering
By
ALI ABEDALJABAR HUSSEN AL-SAMAWI

(In Electrical power system )
Multi-level converter for PV solar power

system
Defended on July ,10 ,2023 , in front of the following committee:
Mr. RIDHA DJEMEL (Professor) President

Mr. MONDHER CHAOUI (Professor) Reporter
Mrs. GHADA BOUKETTAYA (Professor) Reporter
Mrs. SOUHIR SALLEM (Professor ) Examiner
Mr. HAFEDH TRABELSI (Professor) Supervisor
Dedications
To the one who taught me that the world is a struggle and that its weapon is science and
knowledge... To the one who spared me nothing... To the one who tirelessly worked for my
comfort and success... To the greatest and dearest man in the universe, ….my beloved father.
To the one who supported me through her prayers and supplications... To the one who shared
my joys and sorrows... To the embodiment of kindness and tenderness... To the most wonderful
woman in existence, my gift from God... the most valuable thing I possess, bringing me the
sweetest feelings and the most beautiful joy...... My dear mother.
II
Acknowledgment
 I would like to begin by expressing my gratitude to Allah Almighty for granting me
strength and patience. Whenever I felt weak, I found solace in God, my ultimate refuge and
source of strength. Thank you, God, from the depths of my heart for listening to all my
prayers.
 I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my supportive supervisor, the person who has been
more than wonderful and possesses high moral standards, Mr Professor Dr. Hafedh
Trabelsi. His enthusiasm for the work, support, encouragement, and patience have been
invaluable throughout my Ph.D. studies. He consistently motivated me and was always
ready to assist me in any way. Thank you genuinely from the depths of my heart.
 I would like to thank Mr Professor Dr RIDHA DJEMEL for the honour of chairing the
jury for this thesis. I sincerely thank Mr Professor Dr MONDHER CHAOUI and Mrs
Professor Dr GHADA BOUKETTAYA for having accepted to evaluate this work and
to act as a Reporter. I would also like to thank Mrs Professor Dr SOUHIR SALLEM for
his interest in our work by agreeing to examine our research contributions .Thank you from
the heart to all members of the committee for this great generosity.
 I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to my main supporter and companion
during challenging times, my wife and God-given gift, Nada Hadi. I am immensely
grateful for your unwavering patience during the difficult days that we faced together,
enduring the hardships and anxieties of my years of study.
III
LIST OF SYMBOLS
RES : renewable energy source
PV : Photovoltaic
PSC :Partial shading Condition
MPPT: Maximum power point tracker
MLI : Multilevel inverter
CHB-MLI :Cascaded H-bridge Multilevel inverter
FC-MLI :flying capacitor Multilevel inverter .
NPC MLI :neutral-point clamped Multilevel inverter .
DC-MLI : Diode Clamped Multilevel inverter
CMLI :Cascaded multilevel inverters
PWM :Pulse Width Modulation
PS :Phase Shifted
PD : Phase Disposition
POD : Phase Opposition Disposition
APOD :Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition
THD :Total harmonic Distortion
IV
General Introduction
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents
1. Background and Motivation .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Why do we need to PV system? .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Why do we need to multilevel inverter? ..................................................................... 3
2. Thesis Objectives...................................................................................................................... 6
3. Thesis Contributions................................................................................................................. 6
4. Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................................ 7
5. List of publications ................................................................................................................... 8
Reference ……………………………………………………………………………………..8
V
List of Figures
Figure 1:Global electricity access and population growth, 2000–2020
Figure 2:Multilevel inverter and control systems integrated into the photovoltaic (PV) system.
Figure 3. advantages of MLI
VI
Multi-level converter forPV solar power system Ali Abedaljabar AL-Samawi
General Introduction
1. Background and Motivation:
1. Why do we need to photovoltaic (PV) system?
Electrical power system generation must keep up with the high demand for energy because of an
increased population while maintaining a high supply continuity and power quality system (see
Figure 1) [1].
Figure 1: Global electricity access and population growth, 2000–2020[1]
In the past, fossil fuels were heavily relied on to satisfy power generation and supply needs.
However, the problem of conventional energy sources, the rising trend in fuel costs, and the
hazardous release of gases from burning fossil fuels have all cast doubt on the long-term
1
sustainability of human civilization. Therefore, Renewable energy technologies have gained

widespread interest during the last several years because of their ability to both solve
environmental problems (carbon dioxide production, or CO2, which contributes to global
warming) and satisfy rising energy demands. Recently, the cheap cost of operation and
maintenance and the convenience of installation have increased the use of renewable energy
sources (RES). Significant technological advancements occurred in renewable energy due to
increased research from academia and industry because it is a clean, fuel-free energy source.
One of the most popular types of RES is solar energy. It has attracted the interest of researchers
and local markets in many world countries. This great interest in solar energy technologies is due
to the following:[2-3]
 The availability of the sun as an energy source is free in most countries of the world.
 PV cell systems are connected in groups to become any size, depending on energy
demands
 The PV system can stand alone or be connected to the grid.
 The life expectancy of PV cells is rather high, reaching up to 25 years. [2]
2. What are the PV conversion components and problems?
A system for converting solar energy consists of the following: PV cells, power converters and
the control to regulate the power collected from the PV cells (see Figure 2) [3].
In solar-based technology, solar energy can be converted into electricity using PV cells. Control
strategies, power converter topologies, and power tracking systems are important to get maximum
power effective from PV energy power. In this respect, increasing emphasis is devoted to power
converters and their MPPT controller due to the crucial role that power converters and their
controls play in the process of converting power and regulating output power from these PV
energy systems .
A DC–DC converter is often considered the first step in connecting PV energy sources to the DC
grid. Here, the most important need is a high-efficiency level because of the current of renewable
energy (PV and wind) and the related variations in the output voltage. This is because irradiation
2
might change over time, as in the case of PV cells. Therefore, for the DC–DC front-end stages to
function to their full potential, they must be guaranteed to adjust to the input voltage fluctuation.
Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) techniques combined with a DC/DC converter achieve
high power output and increase the PV system's overall efficiency. When the quantity of
irradiance or temperature changes, these techniques are used to monitor the maximal power point.
To tackle the problem of partial shading conditions (PSC) of panels in PV arrays, independent
MPPT controllers are used with PV panel strings on individual DC links. For example, trees,
buildings, birds, clouds or dust buildup on the panel.
In the literature, several solutions were proposed to the PSC that led to reduced output power,
increased issues caused by hot spots and will lead eventually cause shaded modules to fail.
Figure 2: Multilevel inverter and control systems integrated into the PV system.[4]
3. Why do we need to multilevel converter?
Multilevel inverter (MLI) (converter DC–AC) is the second stage. The inverter type is divided
into a multilevel inverter and a conventional two-level inverter. Due to their high temperature,
low-efficiency operating, and high voltage stress output, two-level inverters are often only used in
low-power utility and industrial applications. Large-scale, high-power, grid-connected RES often
use multilevel inverters. Multilevel inverters are gaining attention in the academic community
because of their high efficiency, low EMI output, high voltage operating capabilities, low
3
switching losses, and low THD output (excellent power quality performance) owing to their
multiple-level output waveform.
MLI is based on employing several low-power rated semiconductor switches and various DC
sources to synthesize a stepped voltage waveform; these are targeted at producing larger power
production levels. This is how MLI can achieve its goal of increased power generation levels.
Afterward, to get a high output voltage, algorithms are used to manage the power switches while
merging these several DC sources. MLI topologies have a wide variety of uses in industry,
including serving as an improved power converter architecture in grid-connected RES, which is
only one example of these applications.
To improve power quality, the current advances in MLIs primarily focus on decreasing gate driver
circuits and the switch count and, eventually, reducing the loss of power. This will make the
system more cost- and size-efficient for grid-connected RES.
The advantages of MLI are divided into two parts (see Figure 3).
1. Based on Topology.
2. Based on the waveform.
4
Figure 3. Advantages of MLI [5].
Based on the number of sources, the multilevel converter is classified into three main types:
cascaded H-bridge Multilevel inverter (CHBMLI), flying capacitor Multilevel inverter (FCMLI)
and neutral-point clamped Multilevel inverter (NPC MLI). Cascaded multilevel inverters (CMLI)
are preferable for PV applications since each PV array operates as its independent DC source.
In great general deal of questions remains a significant challenge for any current research in the
relevant domains:
 How to choose a suitable converter for a PV system in PSC problems? And why?
 Why do we choose the multilevel inverter, and What are the main differences between the
conventional two-level and multilevel?
 How to address the multilevel converter's most crucial problem, which is obtaining the
highest level with the least number of switches?
5
2. Thesis Objectives
This thesis focuses on two critical parts:
Photovoltaic PV system: To support the grid system with increased power and improved quality
from the photovoltaic PV system and to decrease the effect of mismatch in the PV system and
PSC. With a DC/DC converter, techniques known as maximum power point trackers, or MPPT ,
are utilized to achieve high power output and increase the overall efficiency of the PV system. In
response to changes in temperature or irradiation, use an MPPT tracks the maximum power point.
The problem of a PSC of panels in PV arrays is caused by shading caused by moving objects and
static, such as clouds, cumulative dust on panels, birds, buildings and trees. This is the problem in
which a high percentage of losses may cause, in the end, overall system damage.
MLI with reduced number switches: While working at a low switching frequency, the MLI
structure permits a smoother output waveform by creating multiple voltage levels. Obtaining
many voltage levels requires many semiconductor switch devices, which increases losses, cost
and size. So it is an essential problem for a multilevel converter must obtain high-level voltage at a
minimum number of switches.
3. Thesis Contributions
The main contributions of this thesis are concisely summarized as follows:
 Show mitigation methods of partial shading conditions in PV systems.

 Show classification of main types of multilevel inverters and modulation
 The subject of this thesis introduced a modified seven-level with five switches and a new
single-phase, nine-level cascaded inverter topology with a reduced number of switches in
the chapter three.
 To provide the grid system with high power from PV and decrease the impact of PSC and
the mismatch power problem between the PV system. To mitigate this problem of PSC
for panels in PV arrays, use a multilevel inverter with many independent MPPT
6
controllers. Therefore, CMLI is better for PV applications because each PV array is a

separate DC source. For this reason, CMLI can improve the power quality of grid-
connected PV systems under partial shading. CMLI utilizes a small string or individual
panels with a DC/DC converter and an independent MPPT controller on a separate DC
link.
 With a minimum number of passive elements and power components, we presented a new
cascade nine-level inverter topology. The reduces in the number of switches decreases
switching losses and the number of drive circuits, reducing the complexity of the control
circuit and thereby reducing the size and cost of the control circuit.
4. Thesis Structure
This thesis outline consists of three main sections:
Chapter 1 Introduces the importance of PV systems‘ environmental and economic aspects.
Furthermore, the chapter presents a detailed electrical conversion power system consisting of a PV
cell and Dc/Dc converter using MPPT, control, and grid. Moreover, it explains the problem of
PSC in PV systems and ways to mitigate it. The most important of these methods is to use a
multilevel inverter with MPPT.
Chapter 2: This chapter is divided into three folds.
Firstly: It addresses the basic principles of multilevel converters, the main types of it and the work
method. It also shows the features of the multilevel converter and its difference from the classic
converter‘s two levels.
Secondly: It describes CMLI development (the important type of MLI) by reducing the number of
switches. Some examples of the most popular multilevel converters are reviewed in a reduced
number of switches in addition to hybrid switching capacitors and other topologies.
Thirdly: This part discusses modulation techniques, especially studies of Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), the most widely implemented technique in MLI.
Chapter 3: The chapter is divided into two parts:
In the beginning, using fewer switches, it shows a cascaded seven-level multilevel inverter (only
five switches). Next, it presents the new proposed cascaded nine-level MLI with seven power
switch switches for the PV system and compares it with other nine-level topologies. Shows
7
cascaded nine-level inverter integrated separate DC–DC converter with independent MPPT and
Simulation Results.
5. List of publications
 Article Published in journals
1. A. A. Al-Samawi and H. Trabelsi, ―New Nine-Level Cascade Multilevel Inverter with a

Minimum Number of Switches for PV Systems,‖ Energies, vol. 15, no. 16, p. 5857, 2022.
 Article Published in conferences:
1. A.A. alsamawi, Trabelsi H.Seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter based Minimum

Switches for Photovoltaic applications 20th International Multi-Conference on Systems,
Signals & Devices (SSD) 2023
2. Ali. A. Al-Samawi, and H. Trabelsi, ―Power Quality Enhancement of PV System Based
on Modified Three-Phase Cascaded Multilevel Inverter,‖ in 2022 19th International Multi-
Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD), 2022
3. A. S. Alkafaji, A. A. Al-Samawi, and H. Trabelsi, ―Hybrid Energy Storage Review for
Renewable Energy System Technologies and Applications,‖ in 2021 18th International
Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD), 2021, pp. 1059–1067.
Reference general Introduction:

1. Tracking Sdg7 The Energy Progress Report 2022 Https://Www.Irena.Org/-
/Media/Files/Irena/Agency/Publication/2022/Jun/Sdg7_Tracking_Progress_2022.Pdf.
2. Gowtham Vedulla ,Anbazhagan Geetha, Ramalingam Senthil . Review of Strategies to Mitigate
Dust Deposition on Solar Photovoltaic Systems. Energies 2023
3. Jihen LOUKIL. Modeling and optimization of a photovoltaic production system associated with an
accumulator
4. Bughneda, A.; Salem, M.; Richelli, A.; Ishak, D.; Alatai, S. Review of Multilevel Inverters for
PV Energy System Applications. Energies 2021, 14, 1585.
5. Gupta, N.; Bhaskar, M.S.; Padmanaban, S.; Almakhles, D. DC Microgrids: Advances, Challenges,
and Applications. 2022.
8
Chapter 1
Photovoltaic (PV) system and multilevel converter for Partial
shading Condition (PSC)
Abstract
Renewable energy occupies great scientific, environmental and economic importance due to the
actual need for electric energy [1]. Scientists and global markets tended to develop this energy,
especially solar energy, due to the availability of this energy in most countries. This great interest
in solar energy led to a decrease in the cost of its establishment. Thus it became available for the
residential and industrial grid at a very competitive price compared with the rest of the energies,
especially fossil energy. This chapter explains the following main points:
 The main components of conversion PV energy.
 The most important problem of PV systems is Partial Shading Mitigation.
 Clarification of most Techniques to mitigate this problem. One of these techniques is a

multilevel inverter-based MPPT converter.
9
Chapter 1: Photovoltaic (PV) system and multilevel converter for Partial shading
condition(PSC)
List of figures ..................................................................................................................12

List of tables ……………………………………………………………………………13
Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................14
1.2 PV system .............................................................................................................................17
1.3 Electrical model of photovoltaic PV Solar cell ................................................................... 18
1.4 The power conversion system ........................................................................................... 20
1.4.1 DC–DC Boost converter ............................................................................................ 23
1.4.2 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)……………………………………….....24
1.4.3 Design DC–DC Boost converter………………………………………………….…27
1.4.3.1 Output resistance ………………………………………………….……..28
1.4.3.2 Output voltage….…………………………………………………….….29
1.4.3.3 Inductance and output capacitor…………………………………… .30
1.5 Multilevel converters based MPPT in PV systems…………………………………...… .30
1.6 Multilevel inverter and dc/dc converter for Grid-Connected PV system ……………..…34
1.6.1 General configurations……………………………………………………….….34
1.6.2 Multilevel Inverters of Grid-Connected PV System…………………………….35
1.7 Partial Shading Condition (PSC)……………………………………………………..…….37
1.8 Partial Shading Mitigation Techniques……………………………………………………39.
1.8.1 Bypass and Blocking Diodes…………………………………………………….39
1.8.2 PV Array Configuration………………………………………………………….40
1.8.3 PV Array Reconfiguration………………………………………………………..42
1.8.4 PV Array Architectures…………………………………………………… ……42
10
1.8.4.1 Multi-level inverter-based MPPT with PSC………………………….. ..43
1.8.4.2 Interleaved boost converter with PSC……………………………..……..44
1.9 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..45
Reference ………………………………………………………………………47
11
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Global average cost newly established for Renewable Generation Power
Technologies, 2010-2021.
Figure 1.2: Solar PV global capacity from 2011 to 2021.
Figure 1.3: Block diagram of Solar energy conversion system.
Figure 1.4: Solar cell: (a) current and power-voltage characteristics; and (b) Electrical model
equivalent.
Figure 1.5: PV system design: (a) Module, (b) String, and (c) Array.
Figure 1.6: Classification of power converter topologies.
Figure 1.7: The P&O flowchart.
Figure 1.8: The hill-climbing flowchart.
Figure 1.9: Incremental conductance MPPT technique flowchart.
Figure 1.10: The graphical of the boost converter with MPPT.
Figure 1.11: The configurations of connecting PV energy installations to the utility grid.
Figure 1.12: The publication regarding MLI for grid‐tied system applications from 2012 to
2022.
Figure 1.13: various sources of occurring PSC.
Figure 1.14: Classification of PSC PV mitigation techniques.
Figure 1.15: PV array with bypass/blocking diodes.
Figure 1.16: PV array configurations: a )SP, b) TCT, c) BL and d ) HC.
Figure 1. 17: PV system architectures: a) centralized, b) series-connected, c) parallel-connected,
d) micro-inverter, and e )interleaved DC/DC converter.
Figure 1.18: Cascaded multilevel inverter.
Figure 1.19: String configurations used an interleaved boost converter.
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List of Tables
Table 1.1: Comparison of recent MLIs with MPPT types in grid-connected PV systems.
Table 1.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of SP, BL TCT, and HC.
13
1.1Introdution :
The renewable energy source (RES) are becoming more widely known while technological
advances bring down their prices and make the promise of a sustainable power future a reality.
Solar and wind power production are shattering previous benchmarks while simultaneously being
incorporated into the nation's electrical infrastructure without jeopardizing their dependability.
This indicates that RES are gradually replacing fossil fuels in the electricity sector, which has the
advantage of producing fewer carbon emissions and other forms of pollution. In recent years the
world has been using renewable energy as a successful alternative to fossil fuels. The burning of
fossil fuels brings on concerns about the environment. In addition high cost of fossil fuel
extraction, fossil fuels are also accountable for almost three-fourths of the emissions caused by
human activities. Unfortunately, the combustion of fossil fuels results in the production of gases
(SO2, CO, NOX, HC, and CO2) that contribute to the pollution of the environment. For a long
time, Carbon (CO2) content fluctuations in the atmosphere have been investigated by scientists
studying ice samples from considerable depths in Antarctic areas. It can be said with absolute
certainty that during the last one thousand years (such as the postindustrial revolution), CO2
concentration significantly increased. The literature demonstrated that this peaking results from
human activity in burning fossil fuels; as a result, the repercussions are significant. It has been
estimated that burning fossil fuels produces roughly 80% of the CO2 in the atmosphere, of which
electrical power production causes approximately 50% [1].
Humans need more energy but in the environment better. Burning traditional fossil fuels causes
environmental problems (such as Global warming and climate change). In addition, the fossil fuel
resources‘ depletion and worries about the reliability of the world's electricity supply led to a
growing interest in producing energy from renewable sources. Power PV system generation is
one renewable energy that is essential due to population growth, technological advancement, and
economic growth.
Solar thermal power, wind power, solar PV power, geothermal power, tidal power, etc., are only a
few examples of RES that have seen considerable advancements in recent years. The increased
cost of fossil fuels makes renewable energy alternatives more appealing in the near term, with
wind and solar power production currently being highly competitive with gas-fired power
generation.
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The last ten-year showed a decrease in the cost of renewables, which has replaced conventional
sources of new electricity production as the lowest-priced option worldwide (based on the report
of the renewables 2022 Global Status) (see Figure 1.1) [2]. Last year, show reduced the energy
prices generated by solar photovoltaic panels, onshore wind farms, and offshore wind farms. Still,
the cost of concentrating solar thermal power increased significantly. Onshore wind power's
average cost of electricity decreased to below that of the cheapest fossil fuel-fired production
alternative in 2018, while solar Photovoltaic PV accomplished the same feat in 2020. Since 2010,
cost reductions in solar PV have been the fastest. Between (2010 - 2021), the cost average of new
projects decreased by 89%, from $0.40 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) to $0.046 per kWh (see Figure
1.1). The reduction is considered a significant drop in value. Decreases in the pricing of PV
modules and great interest in them have chiefly brought about this reduction. This reduction was
driven primally by the growth in new markets with more plentiful solar resources. Recently, the
widespread development and use of tracker devices with PV have played a significant part in this
reduction. Also, between 2010 and 2021, the global average energy cost for onshore wind
generating projects was a middle decrease in value, reduced by 64% and decreased from 0.102$
per kWh to 0.033$ per kWh. The global average energy cost of newly built offshore wind projects
was reduced by 58%, from 0.188$ per kWh in 2010 to 0.079$ per kWh in 2021 [2]. Additionally,
the decrease in the cost of electricity generated by solar thermal power between 2010 and 2021
showed it in the middle of the range of the cost of new capacity generated by fossil fuels, which
records a decrease of 67% over this time period. Figure 1.1 shows the big and important decrease
in the cost of new structure solar cells during the last ten years in global markets considered the
most important RES. This is because of the continuous and serious interest of scientists,
researchers, and companies in the world to develop it and the need to benefit from energy PV solar
to a great extent.
15
Figure 1.1: Global average cost newly established for Renewable Generation Power Technologies,
2010-202 [2].
Among the various forms of RES, Solar PV power is currently the most viable option in many
countries and locations. Solar radiation has contributed significantly to the overall energy flow
worldwide. After being absorbed and reflected, more than 100,000 TW of solar radiation reaches
the surface of the Earth [3]. Due to this the large amount of free energy that it provides, solar
power has the potential to be a substantial contributor to the development of RES. Solar cells have
been increasingly incorporated into terrestrial applications (for example, grid-connected PV
systems). Over the last decade, more research and development in solar cell technologies have
been directed thanks to long-term supporting schemes that have given large economies for grid-
connected applications. Consequently, the cost has been reduced, and the efficiency of solar cells
has significantly improved to the point that new generations of solar cells have been developed.
Furthermore, grid parity has been achieved.
PV systems are excellent with grid parity (the period when the cost of power produced by a PV
system linked to the grid is competitive in the price of electricity sold at retail). The term "PV
systems" refers to grid-connected PV systems. According to the renewables Global Status report
16
2022 and tracking SDG7, the energy progress report 2022, which shows documents of
development made in the renewable energy sector[2], Shows great interest and increase in field
PV power generation during 2011-2021. The world's total production for 2021 is 942 Gigawatts,
an increase of 175, With a difference from previous years, as shown in figure 1.2[2]. The top ten
countries in the world in PV power generation are France (+3.2), Korea (+4.2), Australia (+4.6),
Spain (+4.9), Germany (+5.3), Japan (+6.5), India (+13), USA (26.9) and China (+54.9) [2].
Figure 1.2: Solar PV global capacity from 2011 to 2021 [2].
1.2 PV Systems
Solar irradiation used in a PV system, also known as insolation, is the total energy received from
the sun at a particular place during a given time and measured in kWh per m²[4]. Solar irradiation
over a year is the standard metric used to evaluate the potential for solar power to generate
electrical energy and calculate the economic effects of doing so in a given location. To convert
solar energy to electricity, PV cells are required and therefore are used in solar-based technology.
As illustrated in Figure 1.3, a system for converting solar energy consists of cells, converters, and
a control unit to manage the amount of the created power.
17
Figure 1.3: Block diagram of Solar energy conversion system [4].
1.3 Electrical Model of PV Solar Cell
Solar cells are the primary component of PV systems. PV cell components and devices convert
solar energy to electrical power. The elements that make up these cells are various types of
semiconductors. Solar cells are typically connected electronic devices based on semiconductors,
and their primary function is to convert sunlight into the voltage and current that make up
electrical power. In a typical case, it Indicates the solar cell output by a current-voltage curve and
a power-voltage curve. The short circuit current (ISC) and the open circuit voltage (VOC) are the
two primary parameters that define each I-V characteristic (see Figure 1.4 (a)) [4]. The amount of
irradiance and the cell's temperature are two factors that significantly impact these two parameters.
The VOC of solar cells is mainly influenced by changes in temperature, whereas changes primarily
affect the ISC in irradiance. As depicted in Figure 1.4(b), the equivalent electrical of a solar cell is
represented by a schematic for a single diode.
Figure 1.4: Solar cell: (a) current and power-voltage characteristics; (b) Electrical model
equivalent [4].
18
A model for an idealized version of a solar cell's electrical counterpart is a current source
connected in parallel with a diode. Despite this, losses are an inherent feature of every physical
component in the physical world. Therefore, including a series and shunt resistances can create a
more realistic approximation (see Figure 1.4). The following equation gives a mathematical
representation of the characteristic I-V of the single-diode model [4, 5, 6, and 7]:
[ ( ) ]
where refers to photo-generated source current, denotes saturation-current, is thermal-

voltage represents thermal-voltage, is constant-diode, refers to shunt-resistance and
defines series- resistance of the cell. is formulated as follows.
where denotes the temperature under STC (Standard Test Conditions), K refers to
Boltzmann -constant, and is electron charge when the amount of solar irradiation reaching the
cell's surface reaches 1000 (kW/m2 ) and the temperature of the cell is 25oC [6].
Solar PV systems may be constructed to achieve almost any need for electric power, regardless of
how large or small. A solar cell provides electrical power according to its I-V characteristic.
Modules are a chain form of connection for PV cells that aim to increase their output power. The
modules may operate independently, or multiples can be linked together to form larger structures
called arrays or strings (see Figure 1.5). The last step completes the PV system connecting one or
more arrays to the power grid.
19
Figure 1.5: PV system design: (a) Module, (b) String, and (c) Array [8].
1.4 Power Conversion System
The power conversion system has already proved itself as an essential component of contemporary
technology and has significantly contributed to power regulation. In this respect, power converters
and their controls are responsible for increasing the emphasis due to the crucial role that power
converters and their controls play in the process of converting and regulating output power from
these resources.
Electrical Power systems, energy storage, automation of factories and transportation are examples
of the expanding range of applications for power semiconductor devices that continue to improve
as their voltage, current ratings and switching characteristics. The power converter installed in the
middle manages the energy flow between a specific load and a particular electrical source. Power
diodes, power semiconductor switches, transformers, and other passive parts are used to construct
the power converters. The demanded output voltage or current can be created by applying the
necessary gating signals to the technical semiconductor switches. A gating signal may define the
semiconductor devices‘ turn on and off periods. This signal can be created by either a digital
signal processor or a microprocessor. Electrical components known as power semiconductors are
essential for the operation of power converters. Power semiconductors are crucial in developing
power electronics because they are vital for achieving ever-increasing efficiency, price, and
reliability demands. Power converters have seen efficiency, size, weight, and cost improvements
due to advancements in power semiconductor technology. The power converters change the
20
voltage from their input to the required output voltage and control it while maintaining an efficient
operation. Using semiconductor devices that operate in either the cut-off (non-conducting) or
saturation ( working) areas is key to achieving high efficiency in power converters. They are never
running in the active zone (where they display the largest power losses), where they would
otherwise function. Therefore, power converters are sometimes referred to as switching
converters. The power converters are divided into four main groups according to the kind of
electric power conversion performed (see Figure 1.6) [9].
Figure 1.6: Classification of power converter topologies [9].
 DC–DC converter: It converts a direct current voltage at one level with a certain polarity to
a direct current voltage at a different level. In some applications, it has a different polarity.
 DC–AC converters (inverters): It converts an input of DC voltage or current to any other

three-phase or single-phase alternating current (AC) current or voltage.
21
 AC–DC converters (rectifiers): It converts a three-phase or single-phase AC voltage to DC.
 AC-AC converter (cyclo converter): It converts AC voltage, either three-phase or single-

phase, to AC current with different root mean square values and frequency
The voltage level from the DC source input can be changed by DC–DC converters to the required
level at the DC output. There are a few distinct varieties of DC–DC converters, the most common
of which are the step-up converter, the step-down converter, and the bidirectional DC–DC
converter.
To a low-voltage output, a DC source converts a high-voltage using a step-down converter. A

step-up converter, on the other hand, increases the DC source voltage to a higher output voltage.
The conversions ―step-up and step-down‖ are possible with the bidirectional DC–DC power
converter, and power can flow either way between the output and the input.
Buck Converter (Step-Down Converter): Buck converters are a kind of voltage step-down device
that is easy to operate and widely known. They also have high efficiency. The inductor plays a
significant part in the buck converter, which is responsible for reducing the input voltage.
Operating a buck converter goes through two stages: the switch‘s on-state and off-state.
Bidirectional Buck-Boost Converter: The DC–DC converter in a system with a microgrid has to
be bidirectional for the battery energy storage system (charging and discharging). It allows the
flow of power to switch directions between the energy storage system and the microgrid. In most
cases, the voltage on the side of the energy storage system connected to the microgrid is higher
than on the other side. It indicates that the voltage of the energy storage system has to be increased
for the energy storage system to discharge and provide energy to the microgrid. In the other
direction, when the energy storage system is being charged, the greater voltage at the microgrid‘s
DC bus must be stepped down to a value compatible with the energy storage system's rated
voltage. In addition, the third type of converter is a Boost Converter (a step-up converter) which
is the most important and widely used with a PV system.
1.4.1 DC–DC Boost Converter
Figure (1.10) shows that the boost converter has a simple construction. Its design takes a lower
input voltage and produces a greater output voltage. Here, in the circuit, the inductor plays a
22
significant part in increasing the input voltage, which is their primary purpose. In addition, the
boost converter has on and off states. In the S (switch) closed position, the voltage across the
inductor equals the source voltage, Idiode equals zero, and the current IL across the inductor L
rises. During this process stage, The role of the inductor is to store energy received from the
source. On the other hand, In the S (switch) open position (i.e., in the off-state), the circuit can
continue to discharge after the source and inductor have been reconnected.
Consequently, the current through the inductor will decrease, resulting in an induced voltage
across the inductor in the same direction as the source voltage.
Therefore, the inductor becomes an additional power source for the load by releasing the energy it
has been storing. The load voltage equals the summation of the inductor and the source voltages
because they are connected in series. It means the load‘s voltages are higher source‘s voltage.
As the front-end step of integrating RES into the power grid, the converter DC–DC is the focus of
attention in all cases (see Figure 1.10). Here, high efficiency is needed because there are related
variations in the RES output voltage (for example, PV and wind). Accordingly, for the DC–
DC front-end stages to function to their maximum potential, we need to ensure they can adjust to
the change in the input voltage. Normally, a boost converter is known as a "step-up" of the source
voltage, and it is a DC–DC converter with an output voltage higher than the source voltage.
23
1.4.2 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controller.:
The PV panel is combined with a DC–DC converter. MPPT technology is utilized to achieve high
power and improve the performance of the PV system. In PV applications, the converters with
MPPT are crucial by increasing the PV modules‘ output voltage, which is one of the primary goals
of these applications. The power generation that can be extracted from a PV system is directly
proportional to the PV system‘s voltage terminal. The P–V curve is the name given to the graph
that illustrates the relationship between the amount of power produced by the PV array and its
terminal voltage. The point in this relationship that refers to the largest amount of power created is
MPPT (see Figure 1.4). The point in this curve P-V for the maximum power is called MPPT. The
P-V curve comprises two main components: Current at Maximum Power Point (IMPP) and the
Voltage at Maximum Power Point (VMPP).
Based on several factors used to track the MPPT for the PV system, the MPPT techniques were
categorized depending on the various strategies used in their development [16]. Most groups are
divided into model-based and non-model-based categories depending on the module parameters
used during the MPPT process, such as Incremental Conductance (InCond), Hill-Climbing (HC)
and Perturb and Observe (P&O). To identify the best operating model, the model-based MPPT
techniques use the PV array‘s model parameters. Techniques Model-based have many problems,
like not being very accurate and requiring a lot of math which can slow the time it takes to
converge and make it harder to use the techniques. Also, the model-based MPPT methods required
more weather sensors to measure the temperature and radiation. Because it is impractical to have a
large number of weather sensors near each PV module, it is not possible to use these sensors with
PV systems that experience disparities in radiation. Therefore, MPPT is the best solution; getting
the best energy in the case of Radiation change between PV will require too much math. Widely,
the following traditional MPPT techniques are: perturb and observe, Hill-climbing, and
Incremental Conductance (InCond).
 The perturb and observe (P&O) approach was utilized extensively in the PV system‘s
MPPT because it is easy to implement and offers greater performance. This method shifts the
PV array‘s terminal voltage reference, and the associated power will be collected. If the
power increases, the shift should be in the same direction. Otherwise, there will be a change in
24
the perturbation sign. It outperforms HC‘s performance operation regarding the amount of
oscillation around the MPP and the time required for convergence.
Figure 1.7. The P&O flowchart [10].
 The Hill-climbing (HC): The primary difference between the HC and P&O is that hill-
climbing uses a disturbance in the duty ratio of the DC–DC converter and bases the
determination of the change in duty ratio based on the variation in power. In the hill-climbing
strategy, when a positive rise in the duty ratio increases power, the control system should
maintain the rise in the duty ratio (and vice versa). Meantime, a disturbance in the terminal
voltage of the PV array is caused by the P&Q. It is the only distinction between the workings of
these two methods. Because of this, a comprehensive comparison of the two approaches'
workings and their results can be found. Simply this method requires current and voltage
sensors.
25
Figure 1.8: The hill-climbing flowchart [10].
 Incremental Conductance (InCond): It is one of the most utilized traditional MPPT

techniques. In addition, comparing the different types of MPPT techniques, this MPPT
technique considers is the most famous of these three types. The InCond is better than the
P&O and HC, where a lot cuts down the time it takes for the IncCond to converge. The
InCond's dynamic performance is greatly improved when the weather changes quickly. Also,
around the MPP, the oscillation of the PV array is reduced by a significant amount.
Furthermore, the InCond tracks low oscillations at a steady state and high accuracy and speed.
To track MPP, it uses the characteristics of a PV array's P–V curve, considering that the MPP
is located at the zero slopes of the curve. In addition, the slope of the curve has a negative
(positive) value when the operating voltage is higher (lower) than the optimal voltage. Figure
1.9 shows a flowchart representation of the InCond MPPT technique. This technique has been
used for our work with changing irradiation between PV panels. We utilized a variable step
size similar to that which HC and P&O use, which further enhanced the InCond performance
regarding its time to converge and oscillations around for the MPP.
26
Figure 1.9: Incremental Conductance MPPT technique flowchart [10].
1.4 .3 Design DC–DC boost converter
As an input source, the PV module is connected to The power converter with the MPPT
technology. Its operation is dependent on the switching pulses that the PWM generates. It must
calculate inductance and capacitance values utilized in the MPPT for the converter during the
power converter‘s design phase. The inductance is determined so the MPPT converter may keep
operating in continuous current mode. The controller must maintain the continuous current mode
to provide a consistent output. If the inductance is too low, the MPPT converter will function in
the discontinuous current mode. On the other hand, if the inductance is too high, the converter
with MPPT will become heavy and have a slow response.
Calculations are performed on the capacitance to guarantee that it reduces voltage ripple within
the parameters of the required specification. When the capacitance is low, there is a significant
increase in the voltage ripple. The transient response of the MPPT converter is slow if the
capacitance is too great.
27
Figure 1.10: The graphical of the boost converter with MPPT [11].
Note that the symbols in Figure 1.10 refer to the following. Rmp denotes maximum power point
resistance and the entire resistance encountered by the source, Vmp is maximum power point
voltage, and Imp represents the maximum power point current. Both Vmp and Imp have the
potential to fluctuate based on the MPPT technique that is present in the PV module. On the other
hand, for this derivation, Vmp and Imp are treated as if they are constant whenever there is no
change in the irradiance and temperature [11].
MPPT techniques for the PV module are able to locate the MPP at any given irradiance and
temperature. Nevertheless, the operation becomes constrained when the MPPT approach is used in
conjunction with the boost converter. The MPPT boost converter is only able to provide the
necessary levels of system needs under certain conditions.
1.4.3.1 Output resistance
Let us suppose that we have a perfect system and the amount of power going in and coming out is
the same as in the below equation [11].
[ ]
28
where Rmp and Vmp are the maximum power point resistance and voltage, respectively. D is the
duty cycle, and R0 and V0 are the output resistance and voltage, respectively. The equation is
streamlined using (4), and the connection among Rmp, R0, and D is derived from this
simplification. The equations to describe this connection are (5) and (6) [11].
A certain R0 is required to facilitate the MPPT's efficient functioning. Using equation (5) and
varying values for D and Rmp, the range of R0 will be determined.
1.4.3.2 Output voltage
Equation (7) uses to determine the relationship between the output voltage and the output
resistance, and the output of the derivation. When the output resistance is at its highest, the output
voltage is at its maximum. This happens when the duty cycle is in the Dmax state. In formula 8,
we can determine the maximum output voltage by replacing expression (5) with expression (7). It
is worth mentioning that the PV resistance has no effect on the maximum output voltage. The
maximum power point voltage is the sole variable that may influence the maximum output
voltage. So, the irradiance is at its highest, and the greatest output voltage happens. When the
irradiance is at its highest, the maximum power point voltage is high [11-12].
Where the output voltage maximum is defined by , the maximum power point voltage
(when the irradiance is at its highest) is denoted by .
29
1.4.3.3 Inductance and output capacitor
The following equations represent the design inductor (L) and output capacitor (Cout) in DC–
DC boost converter [12].
In the equations (9)(10), the output of the boost converter, denoted by ( ), and its input is
denoted by ( ). denotes the switching period, and the ripple current in the inductor (3–5%) is
denoted by ( ), refers to the ripple value in the capacitor, and denotes the output load
resistance of the boost converter.
1.5 Multilevel Converters based MPPT in PV Systems
Multilevel converters work as DC–AC converters when transferring electricity to the grid.
Recently, in PV systems, MLI has been utilized to enhance power efficiency and quality.
Multilevel converters include three primary types (which will be explained later):
1. Diode Clamped (DC-MLI).

2. Flying Capacitor Multilevel inverter ( FC –MLI).
3. Cascaded H-Bridges( CHB- MLI.)
Using multilevel integrated DC–DC with MPPT is crucial for high efficiency. Many different
MPPT controllers have been proposed in the research literature (see Table 1.1), and their
performances range widely regarding tracking efficiency, speed, and level of complexity. As
mentioned earlier, the P&O, InCond, HC, and open-circuit voltage (OCV) [13] controllers are the
most prevalent types of MPPT controllers. These controllers that used with any PV module, and it
is essential to monitor the irradiance of the sun or the PV module‘s temperature. These control
systems employ similar principles of adjusting the operating points by slowly changing the
voltage and current of the PV module. They then record the change in output power and determine
whether MPP is attained or not. The developed multilevel converter can guarantee stable
performance regardless of the prevailing weather conditions. Selection cascaded H-bridge (CHB)
30
inverter of mong three types. Because of its capability to connect to medium voltage, high-quality
output waveforms and modular design, the multilevel converter has been considered the best for
grid interconnections. With DC-DC stage isolation, the authors in [14] proposed cascaded H-
bridge to address large-scale PV systems. With a low distortion level, the suggested CHB –MLI
provided quality currents. Because of its modular architecture, it was able to function normally
even when subjected to high voltage and was able to increase the power quality. The research
performed by [15] Jain, S, showed a better cascaded multilevel with a dependable design to
reduce leakages current in PV systems with high efficiency. Conduction and loss switching was
also lowered, making operating at high switching frequencies feasible. The research conducted by
[16] Lashab, A. provided a multilevel cascaded converter that could be used in PV systems.
Instead of the H-bridge kind of power cell, the multilevel cascaded converter used H6-bridge
power cells. In situations of partial shadowing, the system greatly enhanced the voltage and
current output quality compared to the multilevel cascaded type. As a result, the amount of energy
injected into the grid and system efficiency are increased. [17] Shen, K., showed the use of a
modular multilevel in their grid-connected PV systems.
The suggested system can operate in both reactive and active power circumstances, which will
broaden the application of PV systems. Increasing the total number of submodules in each phase is
required to make this system suitable for high-power applications. For grid-connected PV systems,
a hybrid modular multilevel converter was utilized in [18] Behera, R. R.
Tabel 1.1 Explains the importance multilevel inverter in pv system with gird by using different
types multilevel inverter with dc/dc converter and MPPT controller shown Mallappa [26]
improve THD (1.6) by using novel multivel inverter 31 level .
31
Table 1.1: Comparison of recent MLIs with MPPT types in grid-connected PV systems.
Rated
TH
Reference Author Year MLI levels MPPT types power
D
(Kw)
Cascaded H-bridge
14 Zhao 2012 7 MPPT - 30
Multilevel
15 Jain Cascaded MLI 5 MPPT 2.5
10.7
16 Lashab, A 2020 CascadedMLI 7 P&O 1
5
17 Shen 2017 Modular Multilevel 5 IncCond - 0.1
18 Behera 2017 Modular Multilevel 7 MPPT 2.7 2.5
Veeramanikand Modified P&O-based
19 2020 CHB-MLI 7 5.61 -
an, P fuzzy
20 Rao, P.N 2021 MLI 5 P&O 2.19 3
10.1
21 Gopal, Y 2019 Cascded MLI 7 InCond
22 Prabaharan, N 2016 CHB-MLI 13 P&O 9.64 3.2

Neutral-point
23 Keddar, M 2019 5 ANN 2.35 0.8
clamped-MLI
23 Keddar, M 2019 Cascaded MLI 5 ANN 2.75 0.8
24 Tayari, M.; 2020 Cascaded MLI 17 P&O 3.23 320
Modular Cascaded H-
Distributed MPPT
25 Xiao, B 2013 Bridge Multilevel 7 4.2 0.185
Control Scheme
inverter (MMC)
a hybrid of binary
particle swarm
26 Mallappa, 2021 Novel MLI 31 1.6 80
optimization and grey
wolf optimization
27
Karthikeyan, D 2019 Modified CMLI 7 P&O 11.8 0.02
Distributed
Voltage Level Boost Maximum Power
28 Bana, P.R 2020 15 3.88 1.3
(VLB) MLI Point Tracking
(DMPPT) Control
29 Sharma, B 2018 CHB-MLI 5 P&O 2.37 1.75
Cascaded H-Bridge
30 Kumar, A. 2018 7 DMPPT 3.3 2
MLI
Neutral-Point
31 Taghvaie, A 2020 Clamped (NPC) 4 InCond 4.61 1.14
Multilevel Inverter
3.43
32 Ali, A.I.M 2021 Novel CasdedMLI 7 P&O 3-6
%
Modified Cascded
33 Vahedi, H 2018 7 P&O 3.1 0.99
MLI
34 Chen 2016 hybrid modular MLI 9 P&O 8.3 -
32
1.6 Multilevel Inverters and DC–DC Converter for Grid-Connected PV System
1.6.1 General Configurations of PV system
Grid-connected PV System configurations are one of the world's fastest-growing and most
favorable RES. As illustrated in Figure 1.11, several different configurations connect the DC–DC
converter. Based on the arrangement of PV cells, there are four configurations of Grid-connected
PV System configurations:
 Central Configuration: It is obtained by connecting the array PV with numerous parallel

branches, where each branch has its own set of modules connected in series. In this
configuration, only one terminal exists in each PV. Throughout the system, the same DC–AC
and DC–DC inverters are used in the terminal. Only one MPPT tracker is used in this
configuration. Thus, all configurations have the least mismatched power (see Figure 1.11).
 Multi-string Configuration: Some systems provided many DC–DC converters and were used
to connect PV array branches. The multi-string configuration is more efficient than the central
configuration since a separate DC–DC converter and independent MPPT technique are linked
to each string. Each string is linked to a separate DC–DC converter and independent MPPT
technique, allowing each MPPT to monitor the maximum available power independently.
 String Connection: It connects each panel to a separate DC–DC converter and the MPPT
technology. It provides more of the control system greater flexibility to compel each branch to
operate independently at its maximum power tracking, hence increasing the generated power.
This configuration is considered one of the best economic and most efficient configurations
with other configurations.
 Module Configuration‖: It differs from other configurations because each module has its
individual MPPT module and DC–DC converter in this configuration. A DC–DC converter is
required for each module, making this configuration difficult to implement and costly.
However, it offers the control system the greatest degree of flexibility in tracking each
module, which can greatly improve generation efficiency. Connect the DC output to a
common DC connection, and the inverter converts the DC–AC (see Figure 1.11). So we must
33
choose an inverter that corresponds with multiple DC–DC and independent MPPT, as are
multilevel inverters.
Figure 1.11: The configurations connecting PV energy installations to the utility grid [10].
1.6.2 Multilevel Inverters for Grid-Connected PV Systems
Last decade, 449 papers were published on multilevel inverters for grid-connected systems, where
the search was conducted according to a bibliometric analysis based on Scopus (see Figure 1.12)
[35]. From the year 2012 to the year 2019, a significant rise occurred in the total number of
published articles (listed in Table 1.1). The number of published articles exhibited a marginal
decline from 2020 to 2022. Additionally, most articles on MLIs focus primarily on gate driver
circuits, cost-effectiveness for grid-connected systems, improvements in fault tolerance on DC
supplies and power quality, and the reduction of switch counts.
Different MLC topologies have been researched and compared to highlight the most appropriate
topology for PV applications [36]. This topology must show good efficiency, achieve improved
electromagnetic compatibility, and generate a high-quality waveform with reduced THD. The
research performed by Abdoli [37] provided a novel MLI design with fewer switches than the
conventional MLI layout. Additionally, this arrangement did not need any extra components like
34
capacitors or inductors. Because it uses asymmetrical PV sources, this arrangement offers a high
degree of convenience. In addition to that, it is capable of fault tolerance and modular
construction. This structure gives larger voltage levels and produces an appropriate sinusoidal
voltage waveform since there are more sources than in the previous structure. Because this
construction does not need a filter, this inverter's weight and size are significantly reduced. A
novel basic asymmetrical MLI has been presented by Hamidi [38] for usage in PV systems. This
MLI was constructed with a maximum number of components, even if the number of components
needed is still fewer than in the conventional MLI topologies. Salem, M [35] The system
successfully produced 31 levels of output, and it functioned very well under various load
conditions. This architecture also generates AC output that is very efficient and has a low THD.
Some of the newly suggested MLIs for grid integration has been given a full assessment by Abdoli
[37] based on the selection of components, comparative factors, and their appropriateness. This
study was conducted because there has been a reduction in the total number of components.
Figure 1.12: The publication regarding MLIS for grid‐tied system applications from 2012 to 2022
[35].
35
1.7 Partial Shading Condition (PSC)
RES are the future's power source. Solar PV energy systems are considered a promising choice
among RES. They are favorable to the environment, noise-free, clean, and plentiful compared to
traditional energy resources (natural gas, coal, fuel, and fossil). Due to these reasons, renewable
energy sources, particularly solar and wind, are gaining attention on a global scale. Additionally,
tracking the maximum power from these RES and selecting an appropriate power electronics
converter compatible with the utility grid's requirements are developed areas. They can improve
the system‘s flexibility, power quality, reliability and efficiency.
Partial shading happens when some PV modules or cells are shaded for various causes. The PV
array attained partial shade due to the shadows cast by stationary and moving objects, such as
trees and buildings, as well as clouds moving across the sky and dust accumulating on the panels
(see Figure 1.13). As a result, will the PV array seriously damaged, and the energy produced will
be much less, so must be an arrangement of solar photovoltaic modules in series and parallel to
build the PV array, as mentioned in the previous section. There is a possibility that shade may be
applied to some of these modules. Stationary or moving objects can perform it. When this occurs,
those modules will experience differing irradiances from the others (known as PSC).
The same current should follow through all of the series modules due to the changing irradiances
of the series modules. This causes those modules to operate as a burden on the modules that are
not shaded. The terminal voltage will become negative because the amount of current flowing
through the shaded PV cell is greater than the amount of current produced. Because of this
negative voltage, the shaded module's temperature will rise, exacerbated by many shaded modules
linked in series. According to a phenomenon known as a hot spot, this high temperature can
destroy the shaded modules[ 13]. This state may be hazardous since it can generate the hotspot
phenomena on the shaded modules, which can destroy the shaded modules, particularly when
many modules are connected in series. To hot spot issues, the partially shaded PV condition
decreases produced power and leads. Leading to the thermal collapse of shaded PV modules. Due
to PSC, the PV system power losses are exaggerated high (more than 70% of the generated
power)[40].
36
For this purpose, one of the ways to reduce partial shading conditions is to add a parallel diode to
each module. If their voltage tends to be reversed, it may bypass the shaded modules. This
addition would protect the modules from the hot spots phenomenon. In addition, each branch must
have a blocking diode in series (discussed in detail in Section 1.8.1). There are several peaks in the
P–V characteristics of the PV array due to the partial shadowing. Therefore, there is a change in
generated power with its terminal voltage, which compels the designers of the PV system to use a
DC–DC converter at the system‘s terminal to provide the appropriate output power and control
this voltage. The DC–DC converter's control system has to ensure that the photovoltaic array PV
operates at its maximum power point (MPP) to maximize the amount of power produced and
efficiency.
Figure 1.13: Various sources of occurring PSC [41].
37
1.8.1. Partial Shading Mitigation Techniques
As shown in Figure 1.14, Partial Shading (PS) mitigation strategies are divided into two primary
groups: topologies for PV system design strategies and MPPT strategies. PV systems design
topologies have included PV array reconfiguration, PV system architectures and blocking and
bypass diodes.
Fig. 1.14 Classification of PSC PV mitigation techniques [42, 43 and 44].
1.8.1 Bypass and Blocking Diodes
Across one or more PV modules, bypass diodes are connected to stop the passage of reverse
current through shading modules, and blocking diodes are connected in series with the PV array
[8]. Use this bypass diode to protect the PV module against the issue of hot spots and any thermal
38
breakdown that may have happened (see Figure 1.15). A high reverse voltage will be created
across any modules or shaded cells not protected by bypass diodes. Consequently, the power
produced and the efficiency of the PV system both decrease due to the increased power losses
Figure 1.15: PV array with bypass/blocking diodes [43].
Decrease the voltage drop reverse across the shaded cells in the modules, hence controlling the
shade voltage drop such that it does not exceed the diode‘s reverse voltage (0.4–0.7 V). The
module‘s overall output voltage is improved due to the diode's reverse voltage. In addition to this,
the power that is consumed by the cells that are shaded will be decreased. This decrease in power
consumption reduces local heating in the shaded area and increases the modules' lifespan.
Therefore, it significantly reduces the negative effects of PSC.
1.8.2 PV Array Configuration
Using various PV system module configurations, it is possible to mitigate PSC effects. Recently,
advancements have led to the presentation of a variety of various configurations of PV arrays in
several publications, such as honeycomb (HC) configurations, bridge-linked (BL), total-cross-tied
(TCT), series, parallel and series-parallel (SP) (see Figure 1.16).
In the study [49], Ajmal compared configurations under PSC. Series, parallel, SP, and TCT
configurations are simpler to implement on several modules. The result showed that TCT always
performs better than the configurations SP for the m×n scheme of the PV array in all shaded
39
conditions. In the study [50], Sias proposed a new type of array configuration design that forms
the PV array mix between Series-Parallel and TCT to implement good work of the PV system
under partial conditions
Figure 1.16: PV array configurations: a) SP, b) TCT, c)BL and d) HC [43].
Table 1.2: Advantages and disadvantages of SP, BL, TCT and HC [43].
Configuration Advantages Disadvantages

+ During PS, continue to provide the grid.
HC + Moderate efficiency.
+ Medium MPP amelioration.
+ Medium complexity.
+ Appropriate with PS.
+ Better performance.
+ Appropriate with PS.
TCT + During PS, continue to provide the grid. + More complex than SP, BL and HC.
+ less sensitivity to PS.
+ More efficiency.
+ During PS, continue to provide the grid.
BL + BL has a higher peak power of 2.5% than + Moderate efficiency.
SP. + Medium complexity.
+ Suitable with PS.
+ Better cost efficiency. + During PS, SP is more sensitive to
SP + Low complexity. different radiation levels than others and
+ Under constant conditions, the system is provides very low power.
Efficient. + Not Suitable with PS.
40
1.8.3 PV Array Reconfiguration
After identifying PSC, the PV array will be reconfigured between fixed and adaptive arrays using
a controlled switching matrix. The reconfiguration procedure aims to guarantee the optimal
connection to decrease PSC influences and increase the generated power (by the photovoltaic
array). For the switching matrix, determining the optimal positions is essential for cost and energy
efficiency. Finding the optimal positions for the switching matrix is essential for cost and energy
efficiency. The TCT configuration in the adaptive array optimizes the power extracted from the
PV system and enables connectivity with a fixed array. Nevertheless, a greater number of
switching parts and a more intricate connection structure are required to be used. The disadvantage
of this PV system topology is that more switching components are needed. Therefore, it is more
complex, expensive, and unsuitable for some PSCs [48].
1.8.4 PV System Architectures
PV system architecture is the art of constructing and designing PV modules. It is considered one
of the most important and widely used methods. PV system features are simple and not complex
and can provide high efficiency. Several different PV architectural configurations can track
individual PV modules‘ maximum power, resulting from using this PV system connected with a
separate DC–DC converter with independent MPPT. The PV architectures that enable MPPT for
each module or array can provide maximum power and are more suitable for partial shading.
Architectures of a PV system are divided into several different groups, including interleaved DC–
DC converters, micro-inverters, centralized architecture, parallel-connected and series-connected
(see Figure 1.17) [43]. The centralized architecture cannot accurately track the maximum power of
individual PV modules, so it is the most classical one. Due to this, it results in electrical mismatch
loss, and the design is more vulnerable to PSC. So it is appropriate for PV systems with low
energy and low cost. This architecture cannot accomplish max power tracking for each module
using this style of architecture. Consequently, while tracking the MPP of individual PV modules,
it will reduce mismatch loss. To tackle this problem, used DC–DC converters with parallel-
connected and series-connected to track the max power of each PV system (series and parallel)
and then transmit the generated power to a central inverter. To extract the maximum power
41
possible from the whole PV system, this architecture is appropriate for PSC. The reason is that
each PV array extracts its MPP using its own MPPT controller. Therefore, those connected in
series and linked in parallel can both track the max power. This design that is connected in series
is utilized in high-voltage applications. In contrast, the parallel connected technique is used in
low-voltage applications and improves the DC-link voltage control in both designs.
Figure 1.17: Architectures PV systems: a) Centralized . b) Series-connected. c) Parallel-connected,

d) Micro-inverter . e) Interleaved DC–DC converter [43].
1.8.4.1 MLI-based MPPT with PSC
Multi-level inverters (MLIs) are an alternate approach that can help reduce the effects of PSC
[42]. Kumar, A. [30] argued that a CMLI could improve the power quality of grid-connected PV
systems under PSC. To accomplish this, individual panels or a small string connected to a
different DC link and controlled by an independent MPPT controller are utilized. Accordingly,
CMLI is one of the most common kinds of multilevel inverters. Veeramanikandan, P [19 ] showed
cases of CMLI with fuzzy logic-based novel MPPT techniques that integrated the PV system to
improve the power quality and get high power under the PS.
42
Mateus [48] and Farh [50] discussed the implementation of a seven-level CHB-MLI as a good
solution for the partial shading condition issue that can occur in a solar system PV connected to
the grid to ensure a low THD output voltage and increase output power and efficiency. The CHB-
MLI structure makes employing an MPPT algorithm for each power module possible. Figure 1.18
shows a cascaded multilevel inverter (CMLI)[49]
Figure 1.18: Cascaded multilevel inverter [49].
1.8.4.2 Interleaved boost converter with PSC
Also, the same case in interleaved boost converter is utilized to tackle the problem of PSC by
integrating multi-PV arrays with an interleaved boost converter (IBC). Consequently, it aims to
regulate the DC-link voltage, enhance the power quality, achieve lower ripple current, and enable
an independent MPPT control for each PV array to produce improved efficiency and high output
power. The interleaved boost converter includes many PV arrays; each PV group is connected to a
separate branch using independent MPPT (see Figure 1.19) [40, 50].
43
Figure 1.19: String configurations used an interleaved boost converter [40].
1.9 Conclusion
Because of the high population density, there has been a rise in the need for electrical energy.
Consequently, fossil fuels have been phased out in favour of other energy sources for producing
electrical power. Renewable energy is the most popular energy for power generation and does not
contaminate the environment or create global warming or climate change. Additionally, fossil
fuels are expensive to extract compared to renewable energy, such as the sun, wind, etc. Due to
researchers‘ and labor markets‘ interest in solar PV, power production has become the world's
most widely used RES to create electricity in the recent decade. Thus, throughout the last decade,
PV energy output increased to 945 GW in 2021. This enormous interest and desire of researchers
and markets in developed nations to developing solar energy technology led to a perfect decline in
the price of generating this energy compared to fossil fuels, which reached 0.46$ in 2021. Grid-
connected PV system configurations are divided based on the arrangement of PV cells (as in
Figure 1.11) to become four main general configurations: central, multi-string, string and Module
44
configuration. The most critical problem for PV systems is PSC. Partial shading condition
decreases the amount of electric power generated by the PV system. It causes the problem of hot
spots. It is a result of the thermal breakdown of shaded PV modules. The PV system power losses
are exaggerated high more than 70% of the generated power (due to PSC) [48].
To alleviate PS effects and maximize PV system power. PSC mitigation strategies are divided into
two primary groups: topologies for PV system design strategies and MPPT strategies (see Figure
1.14). PV systems design topologies have included bypass and blocking diodes, PV array
reconfiguration, PV system architectures, and PV array configuration. PV array configurations are
divided into six configurations: HC, BL, TCT, SP, series and parallel (see Figure 1.16). These
configurations are used to mitigate PSC.
One of the finest techniques is PV system architecture topologies divided according to methods
connecting DC/DC converters MPPT with DC–AC converter, including centralized, series-
connected, parallel-connected, micro-inverter and interleaved DC–DC converters. Generally, it is
divided into two types: multilevel inverter-based MPPT and interleaved DC–DC converters. In
two types, use MPPT independent with DC–DC converters separate integration PV system in each
DC-link.
45
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48
Chapter 2
Multilevel inverters: classification, problems, and its Control
Strategy
Abstract
For several years, the multilevel converter (MLI) came highly recommended for medium -and
high-level power applications. Due to its capacity to reduce the amount of harmonic distortion in
the output waveform while maintaining the same converter power output level, it is one of the
most often used converters. This chapter presents the principle working of multilevel converters.
MLI have many advantages over the traditional two-level. Shows in this chapter the advantages,
disadvantages and primary concepts of three different types of MLI: Diode Clamped (DC-MLI),
Flying capacitor (FC-MLI), and Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB-MLI). Furthermore, it provides
examples of reducing the number of switches in multilevel cascaded design and describes control
modulation Pulse Wide Modulation (PWM) for MLI.
49
Chapter 2:Multilevel inverters: classification, problems, and its Control

Strategy
List of figures …………………………………………………………………………53

List of tables …………………………………………………………………………..54
Table of Contents
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...54
2.2 Comparison between traditional two-level inverter and Multilevel inverter………....60
2.3 Classification of multilevel Inverter Topologies………….…………………………..62
2.3.1 Neutral-point clamped( Diode Clamped)……………… ………………...63
2.3.2 Capacitor-clamped (flying capacitor) FC-MLI DC-MLI……………….…65
2.3.3 Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter CHB-MLI………………………...68
2.4 Reduce Number of Switches for multilevel inverter………………………... ……72
2.4.1 The most popular topologies reduced switch with H -Bridge inverter….73
2.4.1.1 Cascaded Half-bridge based Multiple Level DC Links Inverter…..73
2.4.1.2 T-Type Inverter topology…………………………………………..74
2.4.1.3 Nilkar Topology…………………………………………………..74
2.4.1.4 Crisscross Cascaded Multilevel Inverter topology…………………74
2.4.1.5 Reversing Voltage topology(RVMLI)………………………………75
2.4.2 The most popular topologies reduced switch without H -Bridge inverter75
2.4.2.1 Packed U-Cell (PUC) ………………………………………………75
2.4.2.2 Mokhberdoran Topology……………………………………………76
2.4.2.3 Babaei Topology……………………………………………………76
2.4.3 Hybrid cascaded switching capacitor…………………………………… .77
2.4.3.1 The capacitor across source……………………………………… 77

50
2.4.3.2 capacitor not across source…………………………………….....78
2.5 Modulation Techniques (pulse wide modulation)……………………………… ….79
2.6 Multicarrier pulse width modulation (PWM) technique…………………………… 82
2.6.1 Phase Shifted Techniques (Carriers Shifted Horizontally)…………......84
2.6.2 Level Shifted Technique (Carriers Shifted Vertically) …………………..85
2.6.2.1 The Phase Disposition (PD)………………… ………………….. 86
2.6.2.2 Phase Opposition Disposition(POD)…………………………… ..87
2.6.2.3 Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition(APOD)… ……… .. ...88
2.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………90
Reference ……………………………………………………………………………………91
51
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: The history of the development of several MLI topologies

Figure 2.2: Topology inverter: (a) 2-level, (b) 3-level, and (c) n-levels.
Figure 2.3: The stepped waveform for three, five, and seven with their harmonic.
Figure 2.4: Classic half and full bridge inverter topologies.
Figure 2.5: Half-bridge split DC bus topology and process principle.
Figure 2.6: a) H-bridge inverter, b) switching state for H-bridge inverter, and c )output waveform
voltage.
Figure 2.7: The two-level inverter three phases.
Figure 2.8: a) Three-level single phase Diode-Clamped DCMLI topology, b) Three state working
for DVMLI.
Figure 2.9: Three-phase diode clamped (MDCI).
Figure 2.10: Multilevel flying capacitor inverter (MFCI) three-phase n-cell.
Figure 2.11: Three-level MLI topology flying capacitor.
Figure 2. 12: Three-phase n-cell cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter (CHBMLI) [55].
Figure 2.13: (a) CHBMLI Five-level topology, (b) CHBMLI three-level topology.
Figure 2.14: MLDCL topology.
Figure 2.15: T-Type topology.
Figure 2.16: Nilkar-MLI topology.
Figure 2.17: CCMLI topology.
Figure 2.18: RVMLI topology.
Figure 2.19: PUC topology.
Figure 2.20: Mokhberdoran topology.
Figure 2.21: Babaei topology.
Figure 2.22: The inverter topology provides five levels with six switches.
Figure 2.23: The inverter topology provides seven levels with seven switches.
Figure 2.24: The inverter topology provides five levels with six switches
Figure 2.25: Overall classification of MLI.
Figure 2.26: a) Principle of pulse width modulation; and b)PWM Signals with different duty
cycles.
Figure 2.27: Principle pulse waveforms switch Pulse width Modulation.
Figure 2.28: Multilevel inverter PWM modulation multicarrier classification.
Figure 2.29: Phase Shifted Pulse Width Modulation (PSPWM).
Figure 2.30: The PS-PWM method for the CHB 5-level inverter: (a) Configuration of carrier
signals; and (b) Voltage waveforms.
Figure 2.31: Level shift PWM of three-level inverter: a) Pulse waveforms Pulse Width
Modulation; and b) Modulation strategy.
Figure 2.32: Phase Disposition (PD) Five-level inverter.
Figure 2.33: Modulation signal of Inverter on PD modulation technique.
Figure 2.34: Phase Opposition Disposition (POD) for Five-level DCMLI.
Figure 2.35: Modulation signal of Inverter on the POD modulation technique.
Figure 2.26: Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition (APOD) modulation technique for Five-
level DCMLI.
Figure 2.27: 35 Modulation signal of Inverter on APOD modulation technique.
52
List of Tables
Table 2.1: The most important comparisons between traditional two-level inverters and MLI.
Table 2.2: Advantages, disadvantages and Applications of MLI.
53
2.1Introduction
Inverters (DC-AC converters) convert DC at their input to AC waveform at their output .The
source DC type selects whether the inverter is classified as a Current Source Inverter (CSI) or a
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) [1] )according to whether a current source or a voltage source
supplies it(. A common CSI topology consists of series inductors coupled to a source DC supply,
while a VSI topology consists of parallel capacitors linked to the DC bus. The inverter type
determines the regulated waveform at the output, whether it is a CSI to control the current source
or a VSI to control the voltage source. Compared to other power-switching devices, inverters have
been evaluated quickly in industrial settings because they can be used for many different things.
Inverters are mostly used as Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs) for AC motors, Uninterruptible
Power Supplies (UPSs), induction heating systems, AC power supplies from multiple DC sources,
traction control drives, and, more recently, vector-controlled drives in industry sectors. In addition
to industrial uses, inverters are frequently employed in areas where power conditioning is critical.
For example, renewable energy, distribution, transmission, generation, and grid-interactive
inverters. Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), VAR compensators, static VAR
compensators, active harmonic filters (AHF), and Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFCs) could
be included as examples of uses of inverters in power systems. Solar power, Wind turbines, and
fuel cells are examples of renewable energy that can be integrated using grid-connected inverters.
Although practically every application requires specific solutions, the device architecture and
control mechanisms utilized to run inverters are often the same across applications. The device
topologies can be divided into two primary categories: two-level topologies, constructed using
traditional six-pulse converter structures in three-phase, and multilevel topologies, which have
been enhanced over a long period to give numerous benefits compared to the two-level topology.
Multilayer inverters (MLIs) have received a lot of interest regarding the greater output voltage
level that they provide, Less voltage stress on power switches, lower dv/dt ratios, lower common
mode voltage, and reduced Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) noise and Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) ratios.
Compared to two-level topologies, Conventional two-level inverters dominated the market until
the late 1980s and were the industry standard for years [1]. For high-power applications, new
converter topologies that use low-cost semiconductor technology (also referred to as multilevel
converters) are being developed [2]. Research on MLI topologies has been made possible due to
54
the advancements in power semiconductors and the price reduction. Figure 2.1. shows the history
of the development of several MLI topologies.
Figure 2.1: The history of the development of several MLI topologies [41].
The MLI structure allows a smoother output waveform by creating several voltage levels while
simultaneously working at a reduced switching frequency. This results in fewer power output
losses and a smaller output filter size. When it comes to high-power applications, traditional
converters cannot be used because of their fundamental flaw, which is a restricted rating power
rating, as well as significant levels of harmonic pollution and high switching frequencies.
Additionally, the switching frequency should be decreased as much as possible in high-power
applications to reduce the switching losses. A lower harmonic content in the waveforms of both
voltage and current. Also, it required decreasing the size of the output filters. The MLI consists of
many semiconductor switches and a DC supply. Various voltage levels are produced at the output
due to switching events. Figure (2.2) shows that the fundamental idea behind an MLI operation is
the DC link and single-phase inverter in two-level, three-level, and n-level configurations.
Ideal switches are used to illustrate the performance of semiconductor switches. Figure (2.2.a)
depicts a conventional inverter that, concerning the grounded neutral point, can produce either
+Vdc or -Vdc at the output point of 'a'. Figure (2.2b) shows a three-level inverter, which generates
+Vdc, 0 and Vdc at the output. Figure (2.2c) illustrates an n-level inverter, which generates
multilevel voltages of 0, ±Vdc, ±nVdc at the output. One definition of a multilevel inverter is a
device capable of producing a stepped waveform. This definition fits the gadget well. The increase
in voltage is good for creating waveforms near sinusoidal with high-power quality. Figure (2.3)
shows the generalized stepped waveform for several levels: three, five and seven levels with their
55
harmonic. This ability of MLI makes it possible for industries and companies to use renewable
energy sources to satisfy high power requirements and fulfill a variety of application needs by
using medium-voltage devices. Recent years have seen an increase in the amount of attention paid
to MLI by both researchers and industry owing to the enticing properties that they possess. MLI
topologies of this low-power single-phase are used to implement high-power applications utilized
in the industry to provide AC electrical power.
Figure 2.2: Topology inverter: (a) 2-level, (b) 3-level, and (c) n-levels [42-43].
Figure 2.3: Depicts the stepped waveform for three, five and seven with their harmonic [46].
The principles of classic topologies of the multilevel inverters have been developed simply from
the configurations of the basic single-phase devices known as half-bridges and full H-bridges. We
56
illustrate so-called H-bridge and half-bridge topologies to elucidate a few principles often used
while discussing DC-AC conversion. Figure (2.4a) depicts the topology of a half-bridge, and
Figure 2.4B depicts the full-bridge topology in a single-phase arrangement.
Figure 2.4: Classic half and full bridge inverter topologies [1].
 Half-Bridge:
The DC bus has two capacitors in this particular configuration, and the two IGBT devices are
coupled in series. The reference potential for the converter's output voltage, denoted by Vout, is
determined using the capacitors' midpoint as the value (see Figure 2.5). As a direct result, the DC
bus must be twice as high to produce an output voltage with the same value as VDC Link.
Therefore, the voltage across each capacitor (which contributes to the DC bus) is equivalent to that
of the VDCLink to get output voltage must be operated switch properly. It is stated that a switch in a
conducting condition is turned ON and is in a blocking state once it is set OFF. Figure 2.5 depicts
the several states of operation that are possible again for topology: the load voltage (+VDC) when
switch S1 is turned on simultaneously while keeping switch S2 off, and voltage (-VDC) when
switch S2 is turned on simultaneously while keeping switches S1 off. Both of these switching
arrangements have name switching- states.
57
Figure 2.5: Half-bridge split DC bus topology and process principle [45].
 Full H-bridges
Figure (2.6) shows that the input voltage is often called the DC link voltage. a DC source is
represented as a battery with a voltage of Vdc. Both the higher potential terminal of this source,
denoted by the letter P (also known as the positive DC), and the lower potential terminal, defined
by the letter N (commonly known as the negative DC), are clearly labeled. Because the nature of
the load might be either resistive, inductive, or capacitive, it is denoted by a black box in the
diagram.
For the load to work, it must be provided with alternating voltage, which normally takes the shape
of a sinusoidal waveform. The load terminals are denoted as A and B in the diagram. The load
current is denoted by the symbol io(t), whereas the load voltage is represented by Vo(t). Vo(t) is
considered positive when the potential at A is greater than at B. Otherwise, it is considered
negative. Similarly, io(t) is deemed positive when the current direction is from A to B; otherwise,
it is considered negative .
The configuration includes four switches that go by the names S1, S2, S3, and S4. The potential at
point N in the topology is assumed to be the reference point. It has a value of 0 V .As a result, the
potential at point P is measured in relation to point N. Figure (2.6a) shows that the load voltage
(+VDC) is provided when switches S1 and S4 are turned on simultaneously while keeping switches
S2 and S3 off and provide voltage (-VDC)when switches S2 and S3 are turned on simultaneously
while keeping switches S1 and S4 off. Figure (2.6b) shows the H-bridge can exist in two different
states, and these two states result in the load voltage being either positive or negative, respectively.
58
Therefore, to create an alternating waveform across the load, the H-bridge inverter must regularly
operate in these two states to produce the square wave (see Figure (2.6c)).
(a )
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.6: (a) H-bridge inverter and (b) are switching states for the H-bridge inverter, and c) The
output waveform voltage [46].
59
1.2 Comparison between Two-level inverter and Multilevel inverter:
MLIs offer many advantages over two-level inverters regarding lower harmonic contents of
voltage line-to-line supplied to load concerning the level of switching frequencies at which they
operate [47]. The following summarizes the key reasons why the MLI served as a crucial revolt
during industrialization to achieve strong execution. Figure (2.7) and Table (2.1) show the
topology of two-level inverters. The most important Comparisons between traditional two-level
inverters and MLI [48-53]:
 Easily extensible owing to converter modular converter topology. Expandability and
modularity allow the establishment of redundant operational states to improve the system's
reaction time in case of faults (more fault tolerant).
 Reduced presence of harmonics, with a greater emphasis placed on the fundamental
element and on higher frequencies.
 The possibility for a reduction in voltage stress (dv/dt) experienced by power device
semiconductors. This feature makes it possible to integrate a greater number of
conventional semiconductors using a greater number of commercially accessible
components at a cheaper cost. It also makes it possible to mitigate electromagnetic
interference issues brought on by high values of dv/dt while switching device.
 The possibility for lower frequencies switching, reduced switching losses and less voltage
stress semiconductor.
 Maintenance service that is simpler and more faster: Just replace the broken submodule
with a working one.
 Make integrating energy storage systems and renewable power sources as simple as
possible [53].
60
Figure 2.7: The two-level inverter three-phase [54].
Table 2.1: The most important Comparisons between traditional two-level inverters and MLI [41].
Properties Two-Level Inverter MLI

Configuration Constant terminal Modular terminal
power switch stress maximum minimum
Use low /high Applications Low-level voltage High-level voltage
Production of common-mode voltage Higher Lower
Efficiency minimum maximum
Switching power losses maximum minimum
Total harmonic distortions maximum minimum
Fault-tolerant operations not possible Possible
Ability to work at low/high fundamental frequencies More Less
Generation of multiple voltage level Not possible Possible
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) maximum minimum
61
2.3. Classification of multilevel Inverter Topologies :
Divide all possible main types of MLI according to the number of DC sources (single or
multiple) used (see Figure (2.25)). A single DC source may generate several voltage levels using
capacitors.
2.3.1 Diode Clamped Multilevel inverter (DC-MLI): Single Dc source
Diode-clamped (DC) MLI, also called neutral-point clamped (NPC) MLI. As shown in Figure
(2.8), the three-level neutral point clamped inverter, also known as the 3L-NPC, was first created
as a converter multilevel in 1981 by Nabae and his colleagues [4]. The authors in [64] investigated
the development of the 3L-NPCI. Then, the first ten kVA four-level inverter prototypes were
presented in [65]. Based on the conventional 3Level-NPC, a three-level voltage output waveform
stepped is generated by both diodes clamped to the center of both dc-link between capacitors (see
Fig. 2.8a).
The DCMLI architecture is shown in Figure (2.8b). This topology is used to provide a voltage
output level with three distinct levels. This inverter consists of four unidirectional switches, two
capacitors and two diodes. Clamping diodes are often connected in series to distribute the
blocking voltage. In this configuration, the output voltage can take on three values: (Vdc/2, 0, and
Vdc/2).
(a)
62
(b)
Figure 2.8: a)Three-level single phase Diode-Clamped DCMLI topology [59], and b)Three states
working for DVMLI [46].
The neutral point is the connection in the center of the dc-link capacitors, which also functions as
the output phase voltage reference point. This connection is referred to as the neutral point.
Because the output voltage waveform is generated from the voltage of the dc link capacitor, the
number of diode components that need to be clamped will rise when a greater number of voltage
output levels are desired. This increase also required an increase in the capacitor because the
voltage output waveform is generated from the dc link voltage capacitor.
As a result, increasing the number of clamping diodes in a multilevel diode clamped inverter (
DCMLI) will make the topology more complex.
Generally, as shown in Figure (2.9), The number of switches (S), number of capacitors (C), and
diode clamping (D) required for N-level (NL) voltage output single phase of the DCMLI. It can be
calculated using the following three equations [55].
[ ] (2.1)
[ ] (2.2)
(2.3)
63
Figure 2.9: Three-phase diode clamped ( DCMLI)[55].
Only the losses conduction and switching losses are considered when talking about the clamping
diodes and switches that make up the converter. This is because DCMLI do not need any passive
components (except dc-link capacitors). If you want a greater number of output voltage stepped
levels, you will need more capacitors in the dc-link. So, in theory, the dc voltage source should be
split up among the many dc-link capacitors equally. Consequently, an imbalanced condition
occurs in the voltages of the dc-link capacitors. Also, since the way the switching is done, the
charging and discharging currents going by the diodes clamped between each pair of capacitors
dc-link are not the same.[69]
A greater number of output phase voltage levels is difficult to accomplish with the DCMLI design
due to the unbalanced state of the dc-link capacitor voltages. These issues may be why DCMLI
with an output phase voltage of more than three levels are not presently available in any industrial
markets.
Compared to the other topologies, multilevel converters, the DCMLI has a higher industrial
applicability owing to its capacity to supply high levels of power, ease of implementation, and
high efficiency. It has been used in variable-speed motor drives, Static VAR Compensators
(SVC), and high-voltage system interconnections. Since the components in the DCMLI inverter
share a single DC bus, the need for a capacitor is eliminated.
64
2.3.2 Flying Capacitor- Multilevel Inverters (FC-MLI):
Meynard presented FC-MLI in 1992 as an alternate topology to DC-ML [77]. The general design
of this topology is very similar to that of DC-MLI; however, the inverter uses DC-side capacitors
arranged in a ladder pattern instead of clamping diodes. The size of the voltage steps in the output
waveform is determined by the voltage difference that exists between two contiguous legs of a
capacitor.
The multilevel conversion can also be done using FCMLI alternate method. In keeping with the
name given to it initially, the FCMLI has an architecture built on the idea of multiple cells. It is
possible to acquire a greater variety of output phase voltage values by increasing the number of
cells included inside the FCMLI. The design not only makes it possible for the topology to be
varied, but it also accomplishes the goal of a multilevel approach and has the feature of voltage
sharing among the switches.
The construction of the FCMLI is similar to the DCMLI. However, the FCMLI uses capacitors
instead of clamping diode components between the switches. Therefore, each cell in the MFCI
consists of two switch devices and a capacitor clamped.
As indicated in equations (2.4), (2.5), (2.6) and (2.7), respectively, the number of switches (S) and
capacitors (C) necessary for NL- FCMLI may be calculated depending on the number of cells (n
cells) that are actually implemented [55]:
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
65
Figure 2.10: Three-phase n-cell Multilevel flying capacitor inverter ( FCMLI) [55].
The structure of the FCMLI is shown in Fig.2 .10. Based on the design, the voltage levels
synthesized for the output phase do not rely on the dc-link voltage capacitors. Therefore, unlike
the DCMLI, the FCMLI will not encounter the same difficulty as the imbalanced voltage dc-link
capacitor when more voltage output levels are needed. However, more capacitors are required to
accommodate the NL-greater FCMLI voltage level. When capacitors are used, the start-up phase
is often accompanied by a significant surge in current. Therefore, pre-charge circuits are required
so that a large current doesn't flow during the transient phase, which might potentially cause
damage to the power rating of the switches devices. A resistor is added between the DC source
and the dc-link capacitors is necessary for every converter. This is performed to reduce the amount
of current that causes the switches to become overstressed during the first operation. Due to the
possibility of significant losses occurring during this procedure, a switch has been attached in
parallel to the pre-charge resistor. This switch will be activated when the pre-charging stage has
been completed. Therefore, it is now possible to prevent experiencing extra losses during
66
processes by shorting pre-charge the resistor through the switch. Additionally, capacitors are
examples of passive components that may also perform the function of energy storage devices.
The voltage quality produced across a capacitor will be impacted by the quantity of energy stored
in the capacitor.
As illustrated by the analytical and experimental results reported in [38], a higher frequency of the
carrier can reduce or minimize the capacity of flying capacitors, making it possible to reach
smaller voltage ripples, according to [38], which presented both of these types of findings.
These findings have shown that a higher carrier frequency can have this effect. However, this will
result in problems such as electromagnetic interference (EMI), preventing the FCMLI from
converting a significant amount of electricity. Additionally, the quantity of energy stored might
potentially affect the losses incurred by the FCMLI converter. These losses are in addition to the
switching and conduction losses incurred by the switches. Another key worry with the FCMLI
converter is the dependability of the capacitors (particularly the electrolytic capacitors that are
necessary for a higher power rating). Furthermore, the amount of space that a number of flying
capacitors will occupy will grow compared to the size of the diodes clamped in the DCMLI. As a
direct consequence, the issues mentioned above constitute a significant drawback in developing
greater NL-FCMLI for commercial applications. Therefore, the FCMLI is appealing for drives
high-speed and applications that demand minimal current ripples at present.
Compared to a DCMLI, the voltage synthesis of an FCMLI has a greater degree of flexibility than
its counterpart. The issue of voltage balance can be remedied when more than five levels by
making an appropriate choice for the switching collection. The ability to manage both the reactive
and active power is one of the primary benefits of this topology. On the other hand, the topology's
primary disadvantage is the use of many capacitors, which raises the cost of the system and makes
it more complicated to put together. Figure 2.11 shownThree-level MLI topology flying
capacitor.
67
Figure 2.11: Three-level MLI topology flying capacitor.[59]
2.3.3. Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter (CHB-MLI):
Zheng et al. [71] 1996 offered an alternative multilevel method that employed a similar notion of
modularity as the MFCI; as a result, flexibility for this multilevel converter can be permitted to be
used. Based on the topology arrangement shown in Fig. 2.12, the multilevel converter has been
given the designation " cascaded multilevel H-bridge inverter" (CHB-MLI) (separate cells). Each
cell has four switches that combine to create a traditional full-bridge (H-bridge) and a dc capacitor
separated from the other cell components. Connecting additional cells in series generates a greater
voltage level for the output phase. The MCHBI is favorable when more output voltage levels are
obtained from different sources, and the voltage output waveform looks closer to the waveform
pure sinusoidal. As a result, it is possible to produce smaller harmonic distortions, and the output
filter size can also be lowered. Cascaded inverters to are preferable for solving the problem of
shading in photovoltaic PV systems because each PV array has its own source DC.
However, S (number of switches), C (number of capacitors) and k ( number of DC source ) will

also rise depending on the number of cells according to the following equations [55]:
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.10) where k number of source
68
Figure 2.12: Three-phase n-cell cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter (CHBMLI) [55].
The necessity for a separate DC source in the H-bridge is another difference that sets it apart from
other topologies. The H-bridge architecture necessitates using individual supply sources for each
inverter cell when used for a multiphase application.
In the cascaded H-bridge (CHB) MLI topology, the connecting of cells in a cascade produces
greater output levels while requiring only a little increase in the number of switching devices.
Additionally, this topology requires the fewest number of active devices possible.
The CHB MLI architecture is described as symmetrical when constructed with congruent separate
DC voltage sources at each cell. In contrast, the topology asymmetrical is created by employing
various DC source values.
The voltages produced by the several H-bridge cells are added together, and the sum of those
voltages is the AC output voltage produced. Figure (2-14a) illustrates the CHB-MLI that uses
distinct DC sources for each cell and creates an output voltage that can be set to one of five
69
different values. Each single-phase H-bridge produces three different voltage levels, including
+Vdc, - Vdc, and 0 Vdc (see Figure 2-14b).
To achieve a level of +Vdc, the S1 and S4 switches must be activated. The level of -Vdc can be
produced by activating the S2 and S3 switches. By activating either the S1 and S2 switches or the
S3 and S4 switches, the output voltage will be set to 0. If n is the number of modules connected in
series, then m is the number of levels of output that can be found in each phase according to the
equation (2.10).
Figure 2.13: (a) CHBMLI Five-level topology, (b) CHBMLI three-level topology[59 ]
70
Table 2.2: Advantages, disadvantages and Applications of MLI.
type Advantages Disadvantage Applications

CHB  The structure is simplistic and  Increases output voltage  CHBMLI is utilized for
MLI modular. with several DC sources. renewable energy and battery
 Easily scalable to higher levels.  Requirement of more power application.
 Only unidirectional switches are switches.  Utilized for electric vehicle
required.  Restricted to applications drives.
 The reliability is much greater. with separate DC sources.  Utilized for motor drives and
 No floating capacitors.  Switches have to be able to Active filters.
 Lesser harmonics in the input handle a blocking voltage  Utilized for utilizing DC
current. equal to the input voltage. sources.
 Ability to work at both high and  Cost is high (asymmetric  Utilized for Power factor
fundamental switching source). compensator.
frequencies.
 Without any filter, the output
signal is less distortion.
 Best for fault tolerance
applications.
 Use asymmetric source
configuration.
 As a single DC source
arrangement.
 The DC sources separate lower
the chance of an electric shock.
FCMLI  Reduces the number of DC  Installation is High cost.  Control of the Torque in
sources needed.  Reliable is less. Induction AC Motor Drives
 Suitable for fault-tolerant  The structure is complex. Using Direct Torque.
applications.  Voltage balance is complex.  Applications in the field of
 No clamping diode.  More capacitors are needed, power conversion are possible
 Cost-effective when used to high which is more expensive with this component: switched
configurations. than using diodes. converters, converters with
 Minimum switching reduced THD
efficiency.  Rectifiers with Sinusoidal
 System control complexity. current.
 Voltage balancing  Static Var Compensators
complexity
DCMLI  Non-floating capacitors.  Use in Static Var
 Simple Control method.  Clamping diodes increased Compensation.
 Precharge capacitors together. with level.  Used as an adjustable speed
 The dynamic response is Better drive with high-power motors.
 Modular in design.  Used in the interconnection of
 Effective cost (only for three-level high systems voltage.
configuration).  Used for the interfaces of the
 Less number of DC sources is high-power( DC and AC)
required for the performance. Transmission lines.
 A good choice for industrial
applications.
71
2.4 MLI Topologies with a reduced number of switches
MLI topologies have been the focus of the efforts of a great number of researchers in recent years
that include fewer components than classical topologies. It is not only difficult but also pointless
and unreasonable to evaluate a topology without considering the particular application. Topology
is often shown to be ineffective for one application while being almost ideal for another. In this
respect, several model RS MLI topologies have been presented lately, and ongoing research is
currently underway to find more ways to decrease the necessary number of components [7-41]
shown figure 2.1. The following are some of the general factors that go into making an overall
evaluation of a topology:
1. The total amount of power switches that are used.
2. The total amount of blocking voltage that the converter has (which depends on the number
of power switches and their respective voltage ratings).
3. The topology's best level of controllability for the situation (in terms of the capability of
charge-balance management and switching between the switches with varying ratings).
4. The potential use of asymmetric sources and capacitor voltage ratios.
While Parameters (1) and (2) have a direct impact on the inverter's reliability, efficiency is
affected by Parameters (1), (2), and (3). Parameter (3) is responsible for regulating the relationship
between application, performance, and control complexity. On the other hand, parameters (1) and
(4) directly impact the total amount of duplicate states and, as a result, the programmability of
fault-tolerant operation. Based on these parameters, we discuss topologies with lower component
counts (total number of switches, diodes, capacitor, and voltage source).
This lowering in the number of components generates:
1. Reduction in switching losses and improved reliability.

2. Reduction numeral of driving circuits, which in turn decreases the complication of the
control circuit.
3. The cost of the device is reduced.
4. The device‘s size is decreased.
72
2.4.1 The most popular topologies with reduced switch H -Bridge inverter :
Some examples of cascaded multilevel topologies in most recent research reviews are divided into
two types with H-bridge and without H-bridge (see Figure 2.8).
2.4.1.1 Cascaded Half-bridge based Multiple Level DC Links Inverter:
Gui - Jia [14,15] and [46] presented a novel type of MLI that combined a multilevel DC link
(MLDCL) with a half-bridge inverter to reduce the number of switch devices needed with one DC
source in each unit. (see Figure 2.14) [46].
Figure 2.14: MLDCL topology [46].
2.4.1.2 T-Type Inverter topology:
Gerardo Ceglia and his colleagues ([16-17] and [11]) proposed a novel type that used a five-level
single-phase inverter to reduce the number of semiconductor devices. Figure (2.15) shows the
circuit configuration for the five-level of T-type inverter.
73
Figure 2.15: Five-level of T-type inverter [11].
2.4.1.3 Nilkar Topology:
Nilkar et al. [19] suggested Nilkar-MLI topology. The basic unit of Nilkar-MLI consists of two
identical dc voltage sources with four switches to create a stepped dc voltage with positive
polarity. It is coupled to an H-Bridge with four switches to produce a five-level design (see Figure
2.16) [11].
Figure 2.16: The configuration of the Nilkar-MLI circuit [11].
2.4.1.4 Crisscross Cascaded Multilevel Inverter topology: CCMLI
A novel topology consisting of cascaded fundamental units suggested by Khosroshahi was

proposed in [20]. Figure2.18 shows the crisscross cascaded MLI configuration circuit for five-
level with two DC voltage sources. As illustrated in Figure (2.17), the architecture is designed
from the following components:Two DC voltage sources,Combination of bidirectional switches
(S1 and S4) and unidirectional (S2 and S3) and H-bridge.
74
Figure 2.17: The configuration of the CCMLI circuit [11].
2.4.1.5 Reversing Voltage topology (RVMLI)
In [21, 22], Najafi et al. proposed a novel topology known as "reversing voltage MLI (RV-MLI)
topology. The configuration circuit for seven-level of the RV-MLI is shown in Figure (3.18).
Fig: 3.18: The configuration of the RVMLI circuit [11].
2.4.2 The most popular topologies with a reduced switch inverter with H Bridge.
2.4.2.1 Packed U-Cell (PUC) Topology: PUC CBSC Mokhberdoran Babaei
Youssef Ounejjar and his colleagues proposed a novel type of MLI that they referred to as
"packed U-cell (PUC)" in [23-24] and [27]. The diagram shows the circuit design of this
architecture, which includes two dc sources and six power switches (see Figure 2.19).
75
Figure 2.19: The configuration of the PUC topology [46].
2.4.2.2 Mokhberdoran Topology:
Mokhberdoran in [28] proposed the Mokhberdoran topology. Figure 2.20 depicts a graphic
representation of the primary M-MLI circuit, which includes two symmetric voltage sources DC,
six switches and eight diodes.
Figure 2.20: The design of Mokhberdoran [11].
2.4.2.3 Babaei Topology:
Figure (2.21) shows that the B-MLI topology was proposed in [29]. The essential components
include six unidirectional switches and two symmetrical voltage sources DC.
76
Figure 2.21: Babaei Topology [11].
2.4.3 Hybrid cascaded switching capacitor :
Use a switching capacitor with a multilevel inverter to reduce the number of switches compared
with multilevel topology at the same level [31]. The arrangement of the inverter in the form of
cells becomes a cascaded multilevel inverter [32-33]. Additionally, to mitigate Partial Shading in a
PV system, the proposed topology consists of two cells that present a mixed-between system
neutral point clamped multilevel inverter with a cascaded multilevel[ 35].
2.4.3.1 Switching capacitor (SC) across source
This study replaced the H-bridge in each power cell with a six-switch instead of a four-switch. A
two-split capacitor replaces the one dc-link capacitor that controls by active semiconductor
devices, with added two diodes. Figure (2.22) [31 -33] illustrates that the inverter topology
provides five levels with six switches. This topology has few switches compared with classical
cascaded multilevel at the same level [31-33].
Figure 2.22: The inverter topology of five levels with six switches [33].
77
2.4.3.2 Switching capacitor not across source
The suggested MLI is coupled with switched capacitor (SC) cells to raise output levels while
simultaneously increasing the input voltage. This inverter generates seven-level with seven
switches (see Figure 2.23) [34].
Figure 2.23: The inverter topology of seven levels with seven switches[34]
Liu, J. [36] proposed an inverter that produces seven levels inverter that works the switched
capacitor technology. It makes the capacitor voltage can be self-balanced with eight switches (six
unidirectional and two bidirectional switches). Furthermore, the inverter can be used as the
primary cell to create more output levels using a cascaded configuration when PD-PWM
modulation is used.
Figure 2.24: The inverter topology of seven levels with eight switches [36].
78
Figure 2.25: Overall classification of MLI.
79
2.5 Modulation Techniques (Pulse Wide Modulation (PWM)) [70-89]
The term "modulation" refers to switching the electrical components (power converters) from one
state to another. Any family of power converters has a preferred modulation strategy that is
connected with it. These methods aim to optimize the circuit functioning for the objective criteria
that are most suited for that family. Typical difficulties that must be addressed when constructing
modulation techniques for a specific family of converters include switching frequency, losses,
harmonic distortion production, and speed of response. The output voltage from the power
inverter should have a pure sinusoidal waveform with the lowest distortion possible. The most
important challenge for controlling inverters‘ power is finding appropriate modulation techniques
to regulate output waveforms to synthesize the required waveforms. Because of this, a modulation
control approach is necessary to get the desired fundamental frequency voltage and eliminate
higher-order harmonics to the greatest extent possible.
Each family of MLI has a specific modulation scheme chosen because it is suitable for improving
the circuit's operation and achieving the goal requirements. The following is a list of the most
significant critical criteria that play a role in the selection of a certain modulation method for a
specific MLI family:
1. Total harmonics that were created.

2. The degree of the distortion.
3. The level frequency switching.
4. The proportion of total losses
5. The quickness of reaction.
The following conditions are prerequisites for the MLI modulation techniques to function:
1. High voltage quality is required.

2. Need to be constructed in modules
3. There can't be any simultaneous switching between different voltage ranges.
4. Electrical devices should function at the lowest possible frequency.
5. The algorithm used to control should be easy and simple
6. Low implementation costs are necessary.
80
For high switching frequency, use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique is one of the
most used techniques for managing the ac output of power electronic converters. PWM is utilized
in the construction of inverters, which transform dc input voltages into ac output voltages of
frequencies and peak values that can be controlled and are desired by the user. In this method, the
duty cycle of converter switches is adjusted at a high frequency to generate the desired low-
frequency output current or voltage. Inverters use methods such as pulse width modulation to
approximate sinusoidal waveforms by using sequences (trains) of rectangular pulses that all have
the same peak value. Over the last three decades, modulation theory has been a significant focus
of study in power electronics, and it continues to get significant interest. Generally, all modulation
methods aim to generate trains of switching pulses with the same fundamental volt-second
average as the desired reference waveform at any given time. These trains of switched pulses
provide a major challenge because they also include undesirable harmonic components, which
must be reduced to the greatest extent possible. Consequently, the major goal for every PWM
scheme is to calculate the switching converter ON times, which provides the required (low-
frequency) target output voltage or current. After this basic goal has been accomplished, the next
step for a PWM strategy is to identify the most efficient method to organize the switching process
to reduce undesirable harmonic distortion, switching losses, or any other performance
requirement.
The input DC to the inverter is chopped by switching components that are included inside the
inverter. By adjusting the duty cycles of the switches, it is possible to regulate the amplitude and
the harmonic content of the ac waveform.
As shown in Figure (2.26a), the principle of PWM includes the power switches in one leg of an
inverter will always be in either the ON or OFF position. Additionally, Figure (2.26b) illustrates
PWM signals with different duty cycles. PWM is a powerful way to control analog circuits with
the digital outputs of a microcontroller. PWM is used for many topics, from power control and
conversion to communication. Basically, a PWM signal is a digital unipolar square wave where
the length of the ON time can be changed or modulated. Therefore, a microcontroller can change
the amount of power going to the load. Figure (2.26a) shows the typical PWM signal (ON T ON)
time and the OFF time (TOFF). The duty cycle (represented by the letter D) is the ratio of the time
when the signal is ON to the length of period.
81
In this case, the interesting things are the signal's amplitude, frequency (or period), and duty cycle.
D may take on values between zero and one and is frequently written as a percentage (0% to
100%) (see Figure (2.26b)). Modifying the duty cycle regulates the amount of electricity delivered
to the load.
The main parts of a PWM that describe how it works are the duty cycle and the frequency. Period,
frequency, and duty cycle can be written as follows [62, and 79-80]:
(2.11)
⁄ (2.12)
. .
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.26: a) Principle of PWM signal [62][80], and b) PWM signals with different duty
cycles[88].
82
function by taking an "average" of the ON/OFF signal being applied to them. The following
expression may be used to characterize the typical voltage consumption of these circuits:[88]
Briefly, PWM is a technique for producing switching voltage pulses for various output frequencies
and voltages. The fundamental of the switched pulse pattern reflects voltage. In a typical
modulator, each PWM cycle results in the production of an average voltage value that is similar to
the reference voltage.
There are several different PWM strategies, each distinct in the method it implements.
Nevertheless, all these methods aim to create an output voltage that, after then, through some
filtering, will result in a good-quality sinusoidal output voltage waveform with the basic frequency
and magnitude required.
2.6 Multicarrier Modulation Techniques:
Multicarrier is one of the branches of PWM (Carrier PWM) basis the most common approach to
developing a modulation technique for a power converter, where switching signals are created by
comparing the voltage reference with a carrier high-frequency (often a triangle waveform). To
acquire the required voltage and concentrate the harmonic distortion caused by switching at the
carrier frequency, PWM is the simplest method. Since several power devices exist in the new
topologies, the simplest way to build modulation methods for multilevel converters was to expand
traditional PWM techniques. Carrier-based PWM generates pulses by comparing reference sine
wave with carriers frequency.
Suppose the instantaneous magnitude of the reference signal is greater than the carried signal at a
given time. In that case, the output voltage of the inverter leg should be connected to the positive
side of the DC link. If the carrier signal is greater than the reference signal, the output should be
connected to the negative of the DC link (see Figure 2.27).
83
Figure 2.27: Principle of pulse waveforms switch PWM [46].
As shown in Figure (2.28), PWM consists of Phase-Shifted (PS-PWM) and level-Shifted (LS-
PWM). Both methods are classified as main modulation approaches. Since alternative modulation
strategies grow more complicated as the number of levels increases, this becomes more important
at higher levels.
Figure 2.28: Multilevel inverter PWM modulation multicarrier classification [76].
84
2.6.1 Phase Shifted Pulse Width Modulation (PSPWM):
In general, an inverter with more than one voltage level needs (N-1) triangle-shaped carriers. In
phase-shifted multicarrier modulation, all triangular carriers have the same frequency and peak-to-
peak amplitude. However, there is a phase shift between any two neighboring carrier waves, as
given by [81].
(2.15)
For example, a five-level inverter has a 90o phase difference between carriers. Comparing the sine
modulating signal to carrier signals produces switching instances at that level. Figure (2.29) shows
the waveform of the PS-PWM. The PS-PWM method for the CHB five-level inverter includes two
cell, each cell consisting of two legs. Each leg is the carrier frequency, consisting of two switch
works one for positive and another switch for negative.
Figure 2.29: The waveform of PSPWM [81].
85
Figure 2.30: The PSPWM method for the CHB 5-level inverter: (a) Configuration of carrier
signals, and (b) Voltage waveforms [89].
2.6.2Level-Shifted PWM Method (LS-PWM) (Carriers Shifted Vertically)
The level-shifted PWM technique is the first approach to building a modulation technique for
multilevel converters. This method distributes the carriers similarly to cover all voltage levels. If
an N-level converter has a dc-link voltage equal to Vdc, then the N − 1 carriers are divided
vertically from a voltage of -Vdc /2 to a voltage of Vdc /2. The gating signals of the power devices
can be readily determined by making a straightforward comparison of the reference voltage with
the carriers. Therefore, LS-PWM is a straightforward modulation method in which the frequency
carrier and N determine the power devices' switching frequency.
This strategy is known as also "Carrier Disposition (CD)". To construct an N-level converter, N-1
carriers with the same frequency and an identical peak-to-peak amplitude are arranged so that the
groups they occupy are adjacent to generate PWM in this technology to control the inverter by
comparing multicarrier with reference (see Figure 2.31). It is necessary to have a distinct reference
waveform, and this waveform is placed in the middle of the carrier set. Each carrier signal is equal
86
to the reference signal. If the reference is greater than the carrier signal, the active device
corresponding to that carrier is switched on.
a)
b)
Figure 2.31: Level shift PWM of the three-level inverter [78]: a) Pulse waveforms Pulse Width
Modulation, and b) The modulation strategy [46].
2.6.2.1(Phase Disposition )Pulse Width Modulation(PD-PWM) :
This approach uses triangular carry waves with the same amplitude, frequency, and phase. A sine
reference signal compares triangular carrier waves. Based on the studies done in this area, Figure
2.32 shows the simulated waveform for carrier waves and reference signals in the
MATLAB/Simulink software, use the signals of the (N-1) triangle carriers for an N-level inverter.
87
Figure 2.32: Phase Disposition (PD) for five-level inverter [78].
Fig2.33 Modulation signal of Inverter on PD[78]
2.6.2.2Phase Opposition Disposition Pulse Width Modulation (PODPWM)
According to this technique, neighboring carrier waves have the same frequency and amplitude
but vary in phase from one another. The carrier signals present both above and below the zero
voltage level are 180o out of phase with each other [78]. The switching points for each level are
made by comparing these carrier waves to a single sine reference signal. Figure (2.33) shows the
waveform of the voltage of carrier signals for this method.
88
Figure 2.34: Phase Opposition Disposition (POD) for five-level DCMLI [78].
Figure 2.35: Modulation signal of Inverter on POD [78].
2.6.2.3Alternate Phase Opposition Disposition Pulse Width Modulation(APODPWM):
In this method, all carrier waves have the same frequency and amplitude. All neighboring carrier
signals are 180 o out of phase with one another. By comparing the sine modulating signal to carrier
signals, the switching instances for that level may be generated. The (N-1) triangle carriers
constitute the inverter signals for N-level circuits. Figure 2.34 illustrates this approach's carrier
signal voltage waveform for five levels with reference.
89
Figure 2.36: Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition (APOD) modulation technique for five-
level DCMLI [78].
Figure 2.37: Modulation signal of Inverter on APOD modulation technique [78].
90
2.7 Conclusion
Multilevel inverters are becoming more popular in advanced energy-conversion systems because
they make high-quality waveforms, scale the voltage and current, and have a fault-tolerant
operation. The cascaded H-Bridge inverter is the most important type of this classic multilevel
inverter. Due to its many advantages in use with renewable energies, it is good because it works
with multiple sources separately, especially solar power, to mitigation of Partial Shading
conditions. However, many components are often required to get these benefits. In recent years,
one of the most active subjects in power electronics has been the introduction of new cascaded
multilevel inverters with fewer switches. The process of controlling the multilevel inverter is done
using a Pulse Width modulation. Use modulation control to converter from one case to another to
control the switch in a multilevel inverter and reduce losses. The PWM is one of the most
important methods and is more prevalent to control. Depended Generate pulse by comparing
reference with multicarrier. Use this pulse to work the switch by using the time on and time off of
the switch. When the increase period on the switch time reaches 100, the gain and the voltage
increase. Use multi-carrier PWM is divided into two types: Level-Shifted PWM and phase-shift
PWM. Level-Shifted PWM is divided into three types PD, POD, and APOD.
91
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Chapter 3
Development of Cascade Multilevel Inverter For PV systems
Abstract:
This chapter presents a simple single-phase, modified seven-level and new nine-level cascade
inverter design for PV systems with minimal power components and passive parts. The main
objectives are to reduce the number of switch multilevel inverters and reduce the impact of the
PSC mismatching power issue on the PV system to support the grid system with high power
quality from PV.
Reducing the number of switches leads to a decrease in the number of drive circuits and switching
losses. Consequently, it reduces the control circuit‘s complexity which may reduce its size and
cost. By comparing the proposed inverter to other contemporary cascade topologies using the
same nine voltage levels, we assessed the suggested inverter's performance. Total harmonic
distortion (THD), number of active switches, and number of components (capacitors and diode)
influence the comparison.
98
Chapter 3 :Development of Cascade Multilevel Inverter For PV systems
List of figures …………………………………………………………………………………100

List of tables……………………………………………………………………………………102
Table of Contents
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………103
3.2 Seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter…………………………………………………..104
3.2.1 literature review of Seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter………………………….104
3.2.2 Modified seven -level Cascade Multilevel Inverter…………………………………….108
3.2.2.1 PV System and DC–DC Converter with MPPT Technology……………………….111
3.2.2.2 Control Strategy…………………………………………………………………...112
3.2.3 Simulink result………………………………………………………………………..117
3.3 New Nine-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter……………………………………………….123
3.3.1 literature review of Nine-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter ………………………...….123
3.3.2 proposed Nine-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter.............................................................133
3.3.2.1 PV System and DC–DC Converter with MPPT Technology…………………… ..136
3.3.2 .2Control Strategy………………………………………………………… ……….... 139
3.3.3 Simulink result………………………………………………………………………….. 145
99
List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Classic seven-level cascade topology.

Figure 3.2: Seven switches-based seven-level topology.
Figure 3.3: Eight switches-based seven-level topology.
Figure 3.4: Six switches-based seven-level topology.
Figure 3.7: Eight switches-based seven-level topology.
Figure 3.8 modified single phase five switches-based seven-level topology design
Figure 3.9: Positive, negative and zero sequences for the output voltage seven-level. (a) Vo = Vdc;
(b) Vo= 2 Vdc; (c) Vo = 3 Vdc; (d) Vo = - Vdc. (e) Vo = -2 Vdc. And (f) Vo = -3 Vdc.
Figure 3.10: Diagram simulation of the modified design proposed a) seven-level, five switches-
based modified topology. b) PV system with a converter (PV group).
Figure 3.11: Approach a multilevel inverter control.
Figure 3.12: A) a diagram simulation of the output voltage corresponding to the carrier signals
produced by the PD-PWM approach. b) shows the six carrier signals required by the phase-
disposition PWM approach to modulate the reference signal. C) displays the pulse of signals for
each switch. d)reference signal with switch
Figure 3.13: Test THD of the proposed seven-level voltage a) POD b)PD b)APOD
Figure 3.14: PV current, voltage and power for each group PV.
Figure 3.15: The output voltage for the proposed multilevel before PSC without a filter.
Figure 3.16: The output current for the proposed multilevel before PSC without a filter.
Figure 3.17: THD for proposed seven-level voltage of inverter without filter
Figure 3.18: The output current and voltage of the proposed topology with filter. Scale voltage:
gain by 1/12
Figure 3.19: THD for proposed seven-level voltage of MLI with filter. Inductance =40mH ,
load inductance =120mH and Filter capacitance .
Figure 3.20: The output voltage of the topology proposed after PSC without filter
Figure 3.21: The output current of the proposed inverter after PSC without filter
Figure 3.22: The output current and voltage of the proposal with filter LCL
scale voltage: gain by 1/12.
Figure 3.23: conventional cascade nine-level inverter.
Figure 3.25: Ten- switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.26: Eight–ten switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.27: nine-ten switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.28: Eight switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.29: Nine switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.30: Twelve switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.32: Nine switches-based nine-level topology.
Figure 3.33: Ten switches-based nine-level topology.
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Figure 3.37: Nine switches-based nine-level inverter.
Figure 3.38: Seven switches-based nine-level topology (a) based on four series of DC sources and
(b) on a single DC source and four capacitors.
Figure 39: Positive sequences for synthesizing the nine-level output voltage. (a) output voltage =
Vdc; (b) output voltage= 2 Vdc; (c) output voltage = 3 Vdc; (d) output voltage = 4 Vdc.
Figure 40: Negative sequences for synthesizing the nine-level output voltage. (a) output voltage =
−Vdc; (b) output voltage = −2Vdc; (c) output voltage = −3Vdc; (d) output voltage = −4 Vdc.
Figure 3.41: Simulation diagram of the proposed seven switches-based nine-level topology).
Simulation diagram (PV group) of a PV system with a boost converter.
Figure 3.42: V-I and P-V characteristics of the PV system under PSC
Figure 3.43: Simulation diagram of a cascaded multilevel control approach
Figure 3.44: Phase-disposition PWM for seven switches-based nine levels. (a) Simulation diagram
of DPPWM, (b) carrier signals with the reference signal, and (c) pulse signals for seven-switch
(S1 to S7) of the proposed nine-level MLI.
Figure 3.45: FFT spectrum of the output voltage inverter nine level a)POD b)PD c)APOD.
Figure3. 46: Nine-level output voltage of the proposed topology.
Figure3. 47: An output current of the proposed topology.
Figure 3.48: FFT spectrum of the output voltage before filtering.
Figure 3. 49: Output voltage and current of the proposed topology after minimal filtering.
Figure 3.50: FFT spectrum of the output voltage after filtering.
Figure 3.51: The output voltage and current of the proposed topology.
Figure 3.52: The output voltage of the proposed topology under PCS.
Figure 3.53. The output current of the proposed topology under PCS.
.
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List of Tables
Table 3.1: The multilevel inverter's seven-level output voltages and switching states.
Table 3.2: Switching states and output voltages of the proposed MLI.
Table 3.3: PV panel specifications and parameters of the simulated system with boost converters.
Table 3.4: Verification of the proposed MLI topology with counterparts.
Table 3.4: Verification of the proposed MLI topology with counterparts.
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3.1 Introduction :
The rapid increase in the global demand for electrical energy has led to the burning of a significant
amount of fossil fuels, which has a big effect that is detrimental to the environment. Solar PV
Photovoltaic is one of the renewable resources for generating electrical energy [1-3]. Conversion
systems for solar energy are comprised of converters and a control unit responsible for regulating
the amount of power PV cells can generate. To make the most of the potential PV cells offer, the
front-end stage DC–DC must be changed to boost efficiency and accommodate fluctuations in
power. Cascaded MLI is better for PV applications since each array is a separate Voltage source
[5]. To get high power and increase the PV system efficiency,use MPPT methods with a DC–DC
converter [4,5]. After changes to the irradiance and temperature, an MPPT is employed to
maintain the maximum power output. To get over the issue of PSC, separate MPPT controllers
are employed in conjunction with cascaded multilevel on separate DC links.[6-8]
The pulse width modulation (PWM) method has advantages such as simple implementation,
increasing performance, and decreasing power loss in switching devices. We ran multicarrier
PWM simulations for this analysis to measure the circuit's efficiency.
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3.2Seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter:
3.2.1 Literature review of seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter
Figure 3.1 shows the conventional CMand uses three H-bridge units, each with four switches. M =
(n + 2)/2 is used to calculate the level for the cascaded multilevel formula, where the number of
switches used in the configuration is represented by n. Zero, +Vdc, and -Vdc are the three
different outputs each bridge provides., use the multilevel conventional cascaded H-bridge (CHB)
seven-level multilevel inverter with 12 switches. The multilevel inverter is perfect for operating
under an unbalanced operation of change irradiation PV system [9] Sreedhar.
Figure 3.1: Classic seven-level cascade topology [9].
 Gopal [10] proposed a new multilevel topology with a decreased number of switches and
connected by boost converters for PV systems (see Figure 3.2). This MLI has a seven-level
output voltage using only seven switches in its circuit. The PV panels used in that work were
controlled using the conventional IC MPPT method to maximize their output power.
Although this topology presented a low THD value of 10% and good efficiency in terms of
power losses and the number of switches, it requires three diodes with the used switches to
generate the required level voltage (see Figure 3.2) [10].
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Figure 3.2: Seven-switch, seven-level topology [10].
 In Figure 3.3, Alyami [11] designed a single-phase, seven-level multilevel PV system with
eight switches, three capacitors floating and four diodes.
Figure 3.3: Eight switches-based seven-level topology [11].
 Pack U-Cell (PUC) multilevel inverter produces seven levels of AC voltage at the output. It
utilizes two distinct PV groups connected to the DC links using DC–DC converters to
generate the maximum possible power (see Figure 3.4) compared to multilevel inverters that
use cascaded H-bridges or neutral point clamps. The proposed multilevel inverter utilizes six
switches to provide seven different voltage levels (H. Vahedi) [12-13].
105
Figure 3.4: Six switches-based seven-level topology[12-13].
 As shown in Figure 3.5 Ali [14], the integration of the existing topology comprises seven
levels and seven switches. In the design, nine different stepped levels could be generated
for both positive and negative half cycles using one H bridge with four switches, three DC
sources and three additional switches.
Figure 3.5: Seven switches-based seven-level topology [14].
 This inverter creates seven levels using seven switches coupled with a switched capacitor.
Variations in their connection induce the charging and discharging of the SC cells (see Figure
3.6). An H-bridge inverter under the direction of a controller PWM is combined with the
output of the SC cell. Alateeq [15].
106
Figure 3.6: Seven switches-based seven-level topology [15].
 As shown in Figure 3.7, J. Liu [16] proposed an inverter that can produce a seven-level
inverter that works with the switched capacitor technology. The capacitor voltage can be
self-balanced with eight switches (six unidirectional and two bidirectional switches).
Additionally, the inverter may function as the principal cell in a cascaded structure,
allowing for the construction of additional output levels using the PD-PWM modulated.
Figure 3.7: Eight switches-based seven-level topology [16].
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3.2.2 MODIFIED PROPOSED MULTILEVEL INVERTER TOPOLOGY
The proposal is a seven-level cascaded multilevel converter with few switches for PV systems.
This inverter depends on connecting four separate DC–DC boost converters with independent
MPPT for mitigation problems PV system. This problem of a PV system is this inverter has
mitigated PSC with a few switches. The proposed seven-level single-phase MLI has five switches
and four independent PV groups (DC link sources) [17]. The new design topology MLI was
modified by adding a boost converter and MPPT connected in each DC group (see Figure 3.9).
Utilizing the formula (M =2 k - 1), where k is the number of different DC sources that can
determine the number of various output voltage levels (M) that the suggested architecture. The
following calculation equation can be used to calculate the number of switches in the cascaded
multilevel inverter that is being suggested compared to the classic cascade multilevel the equation
is: [17-18]
( ) ( 3.1)
where S represents the number of switches.
The proposal for generating pulses differs from conventional designs. Thus, it may produce a
distinct pattern pulse pattern that turns on the switches at the proper time. Table 1 shows the
proposed topology's states of switching and output voltages.
Figures 10 (a–c) represent the positive operational modes required to generate each of the seven
states listed in Table 1. Figures 10 (d–f) indicate the negative operational modes required to
produce the same seven states. These working sequences demonstrate that the suggested
architecture of voltage DC sources is based on easy-to-minimize voltage stress across the switch
and provides an adequate quantity of voltage without needing a complex regulation of the switch's
pulses.
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Figure 3.8: Modified single phase, five switches-based seven-level topology design [17-18].
Since each inverter topology has the potential for producing pulses is different from traditional
designs that activate the switches at the appropriate moment. Table 3.1 demonstrates the proposed
topology's switching states and output voltages.
Table 3.1: The seven-level output voltages and switching states for MLI.
output voltage S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
3Vdc 0 0 1 1 0
2vdc 0 1 0 1 0
Vdc 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
-Vdc 0 0 1 0 1
-2vdc 0 1 0 0 1
-3vdc 1 0 0 0 1
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Figure 3.9. Positive and Negative sequences for the output voltage seven-level.
(a) Vo = Vdc; (b) Vo= 2 Vdc; (c) Vo = 3 Vdc; (d) Vo = - Vdc; (e) Vo = -2 Vdc; and (f) Vo = -3
Vdc.
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3.2.2.1 PV and DC–DC Converter-based MPPT Technology

The photovoltaic panel is combined with a DC–DC converter that uses MPPT techniques to
maximize the PV system's effectiveness and get high power (see Figure 3.10). In PV applications,
these converters play an essential role by boosting the voltage output of the PV system. This is one
of the primary aims of enhancing the effectiveness of the PV system, and these converters help
achieve this goal. The main benefit of a converter DC–DC for getting maximum power under an
irradiation change is that it can be built with an MPPT. This work used a DC–DC boost separate
converter with individual MPPT techniques utilized to give the proposed MLI the best voltage and
get the most power out of the PV array. This was performed by using the modified MPPT
technique incremental conductance. As mentioned in Chapter one, InCond (i.e., Incremental
conductance) is widely utilized conventional MPPT technique.
Figure 3.10. Simulation diagram of the modified proposed design. a) Five switches-based seven-
level modified topology; b) PV system with a converter (PV group)
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Table 3.2: Parameters of the simulated system with boost converters and PV panel specifications.
3.2.2.2 The CONTROL STRATEGY

In providing electrical power to the grid, Multilevel operates as a converter that changes DC to AC. The
control of the suggested topology consists of three elements: the power grid current control, separate MPP
tracking in each cell, and voltage control.
Figure 3.11 shows a cascaded multilevel control approach where vd and id have active current and voltage
grid while vq and reactive current and voltage grid. The DC-link voltage regulation in the outer control
loop of the proposed grid-connected PV system is accountable for active power control in the suggested
connected PV system to the grid. To regulate reactive and active power is coordinated using phase-locked
loop (PLL) double-loop control to convert from abc to dq and convert from dq to abc. To drive the
modified inverter, pulse signals must be generated using (phase disposition) PWM (see Figure 3.11) (it will
be investigated in the next section[12, 19-20 ].
Figure 3.11: MLI control approach.
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Pulse width modulation (PWM)
The PWM for CHB MLIs is very effective in increasing performance in controlling the five
switches of the proposed MLI. Using this type of modulation PWM, the THD value of cascaded
MLI can be severely decreased to the lowest possible value. Pulse creation is required to achieve
the seven different levels of output. Identifying which PWM is the most appropriate for this
topology will always be necessary. The amplitude and phase angle of the carrier signals (shifted
below and above zero) have the Different in POD-PWM. This method has a higher modulation
index and better harmonics performance than previous methods as shown in figures(3.13 and )
where test THD for Phase Opposition Disposition is 18.17% , THD for the Phase Disposition is
18.91 %,THD for Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition is 18.91 % ,Phase Shifted is 55.79%.
the best THD is minim 18.17%.
The diagram of the simulation of the output voltage corresponding to the carrier signals produced
by the PWM approach is depicted in Figure 3.12a. Furthermore, Figure 3.12b shows the six
carrier signals required by the PWM approach to modulate the reference signal. Moreover, Figure
3.12c presents the signals pulse for each switch in the system.
(a)
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(b)
(c)
d)
Figure 3.12: a) Simulation of output voltage circuit that corresponds to the carrier signals
produced by the PWM approach. b) The diagram of the six signals carrier required by PWM
approach to modulate the reference signal. C) displays the signals pulse for each switch.d)
reference signal with switch
114
a)
b)
115
C)
d)
Figure 3.13: Test THD of the proposed seven-level voltage a) POD b)PD b)APOD d)PS
116
3.2.3 Simulation Results
The simulation experiments were conducted using the Simulink tool in MATLAB. The technique
that the suggested inverter would use to change between modes is outlined in Table 3.1. The
output of four PV groups (DC sources). These groups served as DC symmetric sources to test the
seven-level voltage output inverter .
The following equation (3.1) is used to calculate the difference in the number of switches between
conventional seven-level cascade multilevel )with twelve switches) and the suggested inverter
(with five switches) with four DC sources:
( ) .
Normal conditions (Constant Irradiance ):
The work multilevel in this section under constant irradiance level and constant temperature,
and to provide result 2kw for all PV group (see Figure 3.14) that
reports the simulation results for each PV group (power, current and voltage).
The simulation results of MLI topology Figures (3.15 and 3.16) show the output current and
voltage of the proposed multilevel topology. Figure 3.17 shows the spectrum FFT of the output
voltage without filtering.
Figure 3.14: PV current, voltage and power for each group PV.
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Figure 3.15. The output voltage for the proposed multilevel before PSC without a filter.
Figure 3.16: The output current of the proposed multilevel before PSC without a filter.
118
Figure 3.17:THD of the proposed seven-level voltage inverter without a filter.
The proposed inverter was connected to the filter LCL filter, where Inverter Filter Inductance
=40mH load inductance =120mH and Filter capacitance .The results
simulation are shown in Figures 3.18 and 3.19, including the output voltage harmonic spectra,
load current and nine-level inverter.
Figure 3.18: The output current and voltage of the proposed topology with filter (scale voltage:
gain by 1/12).
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Figure 3.19: THD of the proposed seven-level voltage of MLI with filter (Filter Inductance
=40mH , load inductance =120mH and Filter capacitance ).
Changes of Irradiance
Normally, temperature changes influence solar cells‘ open circuit voltage, whereas changes
primarily affect the short circuit current in irradiance.
In PV1, the irradiance changed from to becoming power =1KW. In PV 2,
the irradiance is changed from to , becoming power=500W without the
change PV3 and PV4.
The output voltage and current(simulation results) of the suggested multilevel inverter under PSC
are in Figures 3.20 and 3.21.
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Figure 3.20: The output voltage of the proposed topology after PSC without a filter.
Figure 3.21: The output current of the proposed inverter after PSC without a filter.
Also, the output current and voltage after filtering provided to the grid are shown in Figure 3.22,
that shown both voltage and current have sinusoidal waves using an LCL filter.
Under PSC, asymmetrical power sources resulted in a power loss of 31.25% in this particular
instance. Compared to the power losses in conventional PV systems, this proportion of the power
loss is good because of PSC, which are regarded as rather large and may reach up to 70% of the
entire amount of power produced [7].
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Figure 3.22: The output current and voltage of the proposed inverter with filter LCL
(scale voltage: gain by 1/12).
Comparisons with other topologies at the same seven level
This work presented a CMLI for a PV system. Then it was compared with a traditional cascaded
multilevel inverter and other novel multilevel topologies at the same seven voltage proposed in
[9–16]. Table 3.3 shows the proposed modified MLI topology was compared with recent MLI
topologies regarding the number of switches levels, diodes, capacitors and sources and lists the
overall harmonic distortion of the voltage THD1 before filtering.
Table 3.3: The comparison of this multilevel topology with existed topologies (have the same
level).
N N N N N THD1
Ref. Author Figure
Level Source Diode Capaciitor Switch (%)
[9] Sreedhar 3.1 7 3 - 3 12 13.28
[10] Gopal 3.2 7 1 2 - 7 10.01
[11] Alyami 3.3 7 1 4 3 8 17.01
[12] Vahedi 3.4 7 2 - 2 6 -
[13] Vahedi 3.4 7 1 - 1 6 12
[14] A. I. M. Ali 3.5 7 3 1 - 7 24.35
[15] Alateeq 3.6 7 1 - 1 7 -
[16] Liu, 3.7 7 1 - 3 8 23.86
Current study 3.8 7 4 - 4 5 18.17
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3.3 Nine-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter
3.3.1 Literature review of Nine-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter:
 Conventional Nine-Level Cascade Topology:
Figure 3.23 depicts a conventional CMLI comprises 4 H-bridge units, where each unit have 4
switches and 4 DC voltage sources for sixteen switches. The cascading of four bridges produces
waveforms that resemble a stepped stairway with nine levels [21].
Figure 3.23: Conventional nine-level cascade multilevel inverter [21].
 As illustrated in Figure 3.24, Liu, J [22] proposed a topology that contains: 9 switches, 2 diodes,
3 capacitors, and nine switches. The one H bridge included in the architecture serves mainly as a
polarity transitioning device. A particular state requires at least four switches to be activated to
create the levels.
123
Figure 3.24: Nine switches-based nine-level topology [22].
 As seen in Figure 3.25, Banaei [23] suggested the CMLI results in a nine-level architecture
with four different DC sources and ten switches .
Figure 3.25: Ten switches-based nine-level topology [23].
 Inverter with nine levels proposed by Alquennah [24]. As shown in is shown in Figure 3.26, it
consists of the following components: 1) DC voltage source (supplied by solar panels PV
applications and represents the output of DC–DC converter), 8 switches (Si, where i = 1... 8), 2
of them are bidirectional (S5 and S2), and a capacitor. Using switches S4 and S1, the DC link
is connected to the positive output terminal of the inverter. Additionally, these two switches
operate together to ensure that only one of the switches is always active. The negative output
terminal of the inverter is connected to the capacitor through the similarly functioning
switches S3 and S6.
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Figure 3.26: Eight switches-based nine-level topology [24].
 As illustrated in Figure 3.27, Prabaharan [25] proposed a new multilevel architecture

consisting of nine levels and ten unidirectional switches. The number of components was
minimized to create a group of output voltage from DC input levels, and MLI architecture was
designed. The suggested inverter, when cascaded, generates a positive output voltage. The
bridge inverter is connected in series with the suggested unit to generate positive and negative
output waveforms and alter the polarity.
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 A cascaded nine-level transformer MLI is developed by reducing the number of switches.

With all the energy it needs, a local load or grid can be supplied from a single DC source
through cascading transformers and multilevel inverters. DC sources are batteries, solar
panels, fuel cells, and similar energy generators. The suggested topology is shown in Figure
3.28 Zare [26], which consists of four legs, each of which has two unidirectional switches (8
switches).
 As illustrated in Figure 3.29, Chen M [27] proposed a topology for a multilevel system with 3
diodes, 4 capacitors, 9 switches and nine levels. A technique called "multicarrier PWM"
operates the proposed inverter in different states. MLIs can also be used to get higher voltages
between lines in three-phase systems. So, they can be used for many different things, such as
renewable energy systems. The objective is to create a boost-type DC–AC power converter
with high voltage gain and minimal voltage stresses using as few switches and a single DC
source as feasible.
126
Figure 3.29. Nine switches-based nine-level topology [27].
 As shown in Figure 3.30, Nakagawa [28] proposed a new topology consists four capacitors,
twelve switches and nine levels. It shows that twelve switches(S1–S12), three capacitors (C1–
C4) and an input voltage source (V1) for the hybrid nine-level inverter (H9ISPC) described in
[19]. The H9ISPC automatically maintains the voltage of each capacitor. Compared with other
nine-level inverters, fewer components are utilized in a nine-level bus voltage. The H9ISPC can
be used as a step-up inverter by rearranging the capacitors and voltage sources. Depending on
your preference, either the C3 or C4 capacitors or the C1 or C2 capacitors are replaced by
floating power sources. To produce an inverter with a higher step-up ratio and additional levels,
the number of switched capacitor cells could be increased.
Figure 3.30: Twelve switches-based nine-level topology [28].
127
 Liu [29] assessed a topology with nine levels consisting of three diodes, three capacitors and
eight switches (see Figure 3.31) [29]. The 9LSCI that was suggested for further research in this
investigation has the capabilities of inductive load capability, self-balancing voltage, fewer
components, and quadruple boost. Only eight switches can be used. Using the multicarrier PD
PWM method, a prototype for experimentation was developed.
 As shown in Figure 3.32, Velliangiri [30] suggested a topology (9L-SCMLI) with two diodes,
two capacitors and nine switches to provide nine levels. To evaluate the suggested design's
functionality, a simulation was run using the Matlab/Simulink software package. The
simulations' results demonstrated that the suggested converter's multilayer voltage output is
adequate, with just a little harmonic distortion. This design is adaptable for use in applications
requiring high voltage and medium power.
128
 As shown in Figure .3.33, Tirupathi [31] developed multilevel architecture consisting of nine
levels, nine switches, and three capacitors. With a nine-level gradation, this design can provide
an output voltage waveform with fewer switching devices than conventional methods. This
arrangement is formed by the cascade connection of three separate parts. To begin, there are a
total of two L.F. switches. As discussed earlier, two capacitors, a dc source, and six switches
have appeared as one of the most popular topologies. A conventional H bridge and an F.C.
have included in Section 3 capacitors and two switches. The connection between Sections 1
and 2 is made up of a single DC power supply as well as 2 DC link capacitors. The proposed
design generates an output voltage from 0 to Vdc with a step size of Vdc/4 by assuming the
switching devices function appropriately.
129
 According to Gupta [32], custom power devices have become increasingly significant in the
battle against power quality (PQ) issues. (see Figure 3.34). The new architecture consists of
nine levels, two dc sources (the PV system), eight switches, and two transformers. D-
STATCOM is crucial in managing electric power systems' real reactive power flows and
eliminating harmonics.
 The nine-level switching capacitor MLI has been suggested by Kumari [33] (see Figure 3.35).
It operates in single-phase mode. Every phase consists of ten switches (S1 to S10), three
capacitors (C1, C2, and C3) and a single input voltage source. The suggested circuit may
produce any desired voltage (2 Vdc, 1.5 Vdc, Vdc, 1.5 Vdc, and 0).
130
 In Figure 3.36, Wang [34] developed a nine-level MLI constructed using a T-type switched
capacitor module with a single DC source consisting of two diodes, four capacitors, and ten
switches (S1-S10).
 Li, X [35] designed a single-phase nine switches-based nine-level inverter topology with two
Dc sources (see Figure 3.37). The suggested inverter achieves the best choice for the
renewable energy generation application. The suggested design is a simple structure, low
THD and fewer switches by compare with other topologies.
Figure 3.37: Nine switches-based nine-level inverter [35].
131
 Jafar Siahbalaee [36] proposed and evaluated several new cascaded topologies (NCTs) to a
traditional multilevel inverter. In each cascaded topology, NCTs consist of several switches,
four DC sources and nine levels. The feature of the designs are: NCT with 13 switches, NCT
with 12 switches, NCT with 11 switches, NCT with 10 switches, and NCT with 8 switches,
132
3.3.2 Proposed new nine-level cascaded inverter
As shown in Figure 3.38, in [37] we suggested a new nine-level MLI with four independent DC
sources and seven switches. This design is the simplest of all the existing and traditional
topologies. The suggested inverter has a simple construction, and its switching states are simple.
Figure 3.38. Seven switches-based nine-level proposed topology (a) based on 4 series of DC
sources; and (b) a single DC source with four capacitors [37].
To calculate the total number of possible output voltage levels for the suggested architecture, we
have:
m = (2 × n + 1) (3.2)
where n and m are the numbers of the DC sources and output voltage levels respectively. The
following equation can be used to calculate the reduced number of switches required by the
proposed cascaded MLI compared to that of a standard cascaded multilevel inverter:[37]
( )
where S = the number of switches

The suggested inverter's pulse-producing circuit architecture changes from conventional designs to
produce a novel pulse pattern that properly activates the switches. The circuit requires fewer
switches than conventional inverters, making it more compact and user-friendly. As a result of
133
using just four DC sources throughout the proposed nine-level MLI, switching losses are
minimized. The suggested topology reverses polarity with two switches and eliminates needing an
H- bridge.
Figure 3.39a-d depicts the positive operating modes required to generate each of the nine states
(listed in Table 3.4). Figures 3.39a-d demonstrated the negative-signal operating modes required
to generate the same 9 states. These sequences of operations demonstrate how the suggested
topology synthesizes DC voltage sources following a basic concept. Hence, lowering the stress
voltage across the active switch and generating an adequate voltage without requiring complicated
regulation of the switches' emitted pulses.
Table 3.4. Switching states and the output voltages of the proposal [37].
Leve Output voltage S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
1 Vdc 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
2 2 Vdc 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 3 Vdc 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
4 4 Vdc 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 −Vdc 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
7 −2 Vdc 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
8 −3 Vdc 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
9 −4 Vdc 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
134
Figure 3.39: Positive sequences for synthesizing the nine-level output voltage.
(a) Vdc; (b) 2Vdc; (c) 3Vdc; and (d) 4Vdc.
135
Figure 3.40: Negative sequences for synthesizing the nine-level output voltage.
(a) -Vdc; (b) -2Vdc; (c) -3Vdc; and (d) -4Vdc.
3.3.2.1. DC–DC Converter and PV System with MPPT Technology
To increase the PV system's efficiency and achieve a high output power. The output voltage of the
PV module is increased using a DC–DC converter with MPPT technology, which is essential for
PV applications. The principal advantage of an irradiation change DC–DC converter is its MPPT
controller. Thereby, a DC–DC boost converter with MPPT technology was used in this study to
provide the optimal voltage for the proposed MLI and generate the optimum power from the PV
array using the modified incremental conductance MPPT technique.
Incremental conductance, or "In Cond," is a common conventional MPPT technique. This
approach makes use of a changeable step size [38]. A simulation schematic for a seven-switch,
nine-level multilevel inverter that includes a PV group (see Figure 3.41). A PV group, including a
PV system and a boost converter using MPPT technology (see simulation diagram).
136
(a)
Figure 3.41: a) Simulation diagram of the proposed seven switches-based nine-level topology.
b) PV group (Simulation diagram) of a PV system with a boost converter.
where Cout denotes the output capacitor, L represents the input inductor, and d is the duty cycle. As
shown in Figure 3.41, the DC–DC boost converter may be calculated using the corresponding
formulae [39,40].
( )
137
Suppose the boost converter's output, denoted by (Vout), and its input, denoted by (Vin), are given.
The switching period is denoted by (Ts), ∆L denotes the ripple current in the inductor, the ripple
value in the capacitor is denoted by (∆Vout), and R denotes the output load resistance of the boost
converter.
Table 3.5 lists the parameters used in this design for each of the four boost converters. The V-I
and P-V characteristics (PV group) of a PV system with a boost converter and decreased power
due to a change in irradiance due to a partial shade situation (see Figure 3.42).
Table 3.5: Parameters of the simulated system with boost converters and PV panel specifications.
Parameters Assigned values
Kyocera KC200GT PV solar panel 2 Series × 10 Parallel

Maximum power 200 W
Short-circuit current (Isc) 8.21 A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 32.9 V
The voltage at maximum power point (Vmp) 26.3 V
The current at maximum power point (Imp) 7.61 A
Vout boost converter 100 V
Vin boost converter 52 V
Duty ratio ( )
Output capacitance ( )
Inductor (L)
138
Figure 3.42: P-V and V-I characteristics of the PV system under PSC.
3.3.2.2 Control Strategy

In the process of delivering electrical power to the grid, the cascaded multilayer architecture
functions as a converter that changes direct current DC to alternating current AC. The suggested
architecture has the control divided into two types: regulating the output voltage and current for
the inverter and tracking MPP in each cell with a converter. Comparison of the output voltage of
each PV boost converter equipped with MPPT concerning a reference voltage. Voltage and
current feedback were used to compare the final outcome. Control is achieved using a phase-
locked loop (PLL) control method in conjunction with a PI controller (see Figure 3.43). The pulse
width modulation ( PWM) is responsible for producing pulse signals for each switch (S1–S7) (will
be explained further later). It is the control process component of the utmost significance [12].
139
Figure 3.43: Simulation diagram of a cascaded multilevel control approach.
 PWM
Pulse width modulation (PWM), which is responsible for producing pulse signals for each switch
(S1–S7) and will be covered in more depth in the this section, is the component of the control
process that is considered to be of the utmost significance. Pulses created by carrier-shifted signals
may be used to trigger power switches by being compared to a sinusoidal wave. The amplitude
and phase angle of the carrier signals that are shifted above zero and below zero are for control
multicarrier PWM. PWM is the best used to generate a pulse with nine inverter proposed .This
method has a higher modulation index and better harmonics performance than previous methods
as shown in figures(3.44 and3.45 ) where test THD for Phase Opposition Disposition is 12.86% ,
THD for the Phase Disposition is 13.71 %, THD for Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition is
15.57 % ,Phase Shifted is 55.04%. the best THD is minim 12.86%.
This modulation method is best for multilevel inverters. In addition to the proposed inverter's
output voltages, each switch's switching states are included in Table 3.4. A simulation
representation of the voltage waveform that corresponds to the carrier signals produced by the
PWM approach can be seen in Figure 3.44a. The PWM method requires eight carrier signals to
modulate the reference signal. These eight carrier signals are shown in Figures (3. 44b) and (3.
44c) illustrate the pulse signals for each switch in the system (S1–S7).
140
(a)
(b)
141
(c)
(d)
Figure 3.44. PWM for seven switches with nine levels. (a) Simulation diagram of PWM, (b)
carrier signals with the reference signal, and (c) pulse signals for seven switches (S1 to S7) of the
proposed nine-level MLI (d) reference signal with switch.
142
a)
b)
143
C)
d)
Figure 3.45: FFT spectrum of the output voltage inverter nine level a)POD b)PD c)APOD d)PS
144
3.3.3 Simulation Results
MATLAB/Simulink was the software used to carry out the simulation. The technique that the
suggested inverter would use to flip between modes is outlined in Table 3.4. The output PV
groups, which functioned as symmetric sources to confirm the nine-level output voltage inverter,
are equal to 100 V and are denoted as Vdc1 = Vdc2 = Vdc3 = Vdc4 = 100 V. An inverter circuit
with four DC voltage sources, seven switches, and a maximum output voltage of 400 volts was the
subject of this investigation. In the first scenario, the simulation was run with a resistive load of
R=40 (see Figures (3. 46–3.48) .
After adding a filter C = 15 µF and L = 50 mH , Figure 3.49 represents the proposed inverter's
output voltage. Table 3.4 shows that the output voltage has nine different levels depending on the
switching state. The stair voltage is determined using the formula: m = 4 × n + 1 = 4 × 4 + 1 = 9.
The following equation(3.4) can be used to calculate the difference between the suggested inverter
that has seven switches and four DC sources and a standard nine-level cascade design that has
sixteen switches and four DC sources:
( )
The suggested inverter makes use of all DC sources in order to reach all nine levels, which is in
contrast to certain topologies reported in the literature that have four DC sources but only seven
levels [17], which suggests that there is a redundant source.
Figures.3 49and3. 50 illustrate the waveforms of the load current as well as the harmonic content
at nine different levels. The fact that the load current looks like a sine wave, as shown in Figure
3.49, is evidence of the benefits provided by the suggested inverter. Figure 3.50, on the other
hand, shows the THD spectrum of the nine-level output. The results discussed current and voltage
shown in Figure 3.51were found before LC filtering.
The suggested inverter was connected to an LC filter .The results of the simulation are shown in
Figures 3.48and 3.49, and they include the nine-level inverter output voltage, the load current, and
the harmonic spectra. The suggested inverter is capable of using any switching mechanism for
multilevel inverters, such as the multilevel carrier-based POD-PWM approach that was used for
the purposes of this research.
145
The output load current has the appearance of a sine wave. The symmetric multilevel inverter that
was suggested was validated and shown to be successful via both simulation and theoretical
research.
Figure3. 46: Nine-level output voltage of the proposed topology.
Figure3. 47:The output current of the proposed topology.
146
Figure 3.48 FFT spectrum of the output voltage before filtering.
Figure 3.49: The output voltage and current of the proposed topology after minimal filtering.
147
Figure 3.50: FFT spectrum of the output voltage after filtering. with C = 15 µF and L = 50 mH
Figure 3.51. The output voltage and current of the proposed topology .
PV 1 is reduced from 1000 W/m2 (P = 4 KW) to 500 W/m2 become (P = 2 KW) as a

consequence of asymmetrical power sources under partial shadowing condition (PSC), while PV 4
is reduced from 1000 W/m2 to 800 W/m2 become (P = 3.2 KW). However, there is no change in
PV2 and PV3 (4 KW).
148
The current and voltage of a symmetrical power supply are shown in Figures 3.46and 3.47,
whereas the current and voltage of an asymmetrical power supply are depicted in Figures 3.52and
3.53. The PSC results in a loss of 27.8 %t of the power .This proportion of power loss is
reasonable when compared to the power losses of standard PV systems caused to PSC, which are
very large and may exceed 70 % of the entire power produced [7].
Figure 3.52. The output voltage of the proposed topology under PCS.
Figure 3.53. The output current of the proposed topology under PCS.
149
2.8 Verification with counterparts (topologies) at the same nine level
This section verifies our proposal by comparison with counterparts (a traditional cascaded inverter
and other innovative inverters in the references [21–35]). Rather than redundant DC sources, the
suggested design uses fewer switches and suitable gate driver circuits to generate a nine-level
output voltage. Table 3.6 lists the verifications, which are in terms of the following parameters:
 THD : the percentage of total harmonic voltage distortion before filtering.
 N capacitor: The number of capacitors.
 N diode: The number of diodes.
 N switch: The number of switches.
 N level: The number of levels.
The suggested construction minimizes the space required for the installation and the associated
costs, making the control method simpler.
Table 3.6: Performance evaluation of the proposal and counterparts (topologies).
Ref. Authors Figures N Level N Source N Capacitor N Diode N Switch THD%
[21] Al-Rubaye 3.23 9 4 - - 16 13.63

[22] Liu, J. 3.24 9 1 2 2 9 -
[23] Banaei 3.25 9 4 - - 10 12.66
[24] Alquennah 3.26 9 1 1 - 8 -
[25] Prabaharan 3.27 9 2 - - 9 13.51
[26] Zare 3.28 9 1 2 - 8 14.23
[27] Chen 3.29 9 1 4 3 9 16.7
[28] Nakagawa 3.30 9 1 4 - 12 17.3
[29] Liu 3.31 9 1 3 3 8 -
[30] Velliangiri 3.32 9 1 2 2 9 15.63
[31] Tirupathi 3.33 9 1 3 - 10 16.73
[32] Gupta 3.34 9 2 - - 8 11.43
[33] Kumari 3.35 9 1 3 - 10 12.46
[34] Wang 3.36 9 1 4 2 10 12.15
[35] Li, X 3.37 9 2 - - 9 16.75
Current study 3.38a 9 4 - - 7 12.86
150
3.6 CONCLUSION:
By simulating the circuit in Matlab/Simulink, we were able to produce a distinct stepped nine-
level waveform, which we used to demonstrate a CMLI with nine levels that uses just seven
switches. The suggested topology was probed with the use of the POD-PWM technique. When
compared to conventional symmetric and asymmetric topologies, the novel design seems simpler
and has fewer components. When compared to the topologies provided in the literature, the
suggested nine-level multilevel inverter reduces the THD to an acceptable value 12.8%. In
particular, a large amount of electricity must be generated by a large number of individual
photovoltaic (PV) panels in an array. Mismatched power between panels might be the
consequence of a partial shading condition (PSC). Compared to the very high power losses
incurred in conventional PV systems owing to PSC, which may exceed 70% of the total produced
power or cause overall system damage, the 27.8% power loss under PSC.
151
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154
GENERAL CONCLUSION
Summary of the work:
A continuous rapid increase in population density led to a great need for electricity. As a result of
this need, alternative energy is crucial instead of fossil fuels to produce electrical power.
Renewable energy is alternative clean energy, the most demanded energy for producing electrical
power compared with fossil fuels, because clean energy no causes pollute the environment, no
causes climate change and global warming. In addition, the high cost of extract of fossil fuels
compared to free renewable energy, for example, sun, wind, etc. Solar PV power generation is one
of the most important RES and the most widespread in the world to generate electric power in the
last ten years because of the Researchers' interest, labor markets and major countries in this
energy. Therefore, recent reports showed that the production of electrical PV energy increased,
reaching 945 GWatt in 2021. This great interest and motivation of researchers and markets in
developed countries to developing the work of solar energy technologies led to a perfect drop in
the price of producing this energy compared to the cost of producing electric power with fossil
fuels, which reached a value of 0.46 USD in the year 2021. The most critical problem for PV
systems is PSC. Partial shading in the PV system causes by moving and static objects, such as
clouds, and cumulative dust on panels, birds, buildings and trees. The PSC problem has attracted
scholars to propose real and applicable solutions for this problem. This problem reduces output
power and contributes to problems that hot spots can cause. Eventually, the malfunction of
shaded modules and damage to all system.
In the literature, many methods proposed to extract the maximum power from the PV system and
mitigate the partial shading influences. Multilevel inverter-based MPPT is one of the best PV
system Architecture topologies (usually used to alleviate PS). Very briefly, with an independent
MPPT controller and a DC–DC converter, multilevel inverter-based MPPT uses individual solar
panels or a small string on a separate DC link. Because each PV array is a separate DC source, the
CMLI is considered more suitable for PV applications among the three types of multilevel
inverters.
To get power quality, we need to increase the number of switches, so we need to obtain maximum
level voltage with low reduced numbers of switches. Researchers have provided designed many
155
topologies to solve the problem of an increase in the number of switches. They aimed to reduce
the number of switches, decreasing the number of driving circuits and switching losses.
Consequently, reducing the cost, size and complexity of the control circuit.
In the beginning, we presented a modified single-phase, simple seven-level CMLI architecture for
PV applications with only five switches. This design includes four sources and five switches to
provide seven voltage levels. This inverter has fewer switches than the Recently published
cascaded at the same seven-level multilevel topologies. The THD of the proposal has been
reduced to an acceptable level of 18.17%. In addition, the proposed multilevel topology-based
MPPT is considered a good solution for PSC by connecting this inverter to the PV panel
integration with a separate DC–DC converter controlled by an independent MPPT method to
obtain high power under partial conditions. The results show that the proposed inverter has losses
of 31.25% under PSC. This percentage of power loss is acceptable compared to the power losses
of conventional PV systems caused by PSC, which are considered significant and may exceed
70% of the total power produced, resulting in system damage.
Next, we investigated the problem with the cascaded seven levels inverter failing to exploit the
four sources fully. Therefore, we added two switches to improve power quality by fully exploiting
the four sources.
We presented a simple single-phase, nine-level CMLI for PV systems with minimum power
components and passive parts. Compared to the existing designs, the inverter switching techniques
and control are very simple. The performance of the inverter has been evaluated in terms of CMLI
topology, which need recent design cascade topologies with the same nine voltage levels. In the
evaluation, we compared the number of active switches and components (capacitors and diodes) in
the inverter. Consequently, the proposal is simple and can reduce the number of components
compared to standard asymmetric or symmetric topologies. THD has decreased to an acceptable
value of 12.8% compared to the existing topologies. The impact of a PSC can result in
mismatched power between panels. Under PSC, 27% is the power loss amount of the generated
power. The findings outperformed the power losses of the conventional PV systems (due to PSC),
which can exceed 70 per cent of the total generated power or cause overall system damage.
156
Recommendations:
Due to PV systems‘ ecological and economic importance, their problems must be addressed
carefully, especially PSC. Scholars must pay attention to a hybrid switched capacitor. To get better
control, we needed to investigate the performance of adding control voltage to an inverter with
CMLI-based MPPT.
157
Doctoral school Science
Republic of Tunisia and Technology
Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific
Research Doctoral thesis
University of Sfax Electrical Engineering

National Engineering School of Sfax Order number: 30/ 2023
Multi-level converter for PV solar power

system
Ali Abedaljabar Hussen AL-Samawi
Abstract: This thesis focuses on two parts. Firstly, the topic of partial shade condition (PSC). The goal is to use a
strategy multilevel inverter-based Maximum power point tracker (MLI-MPPT). MLI -MPPT is one of the most
important solutions to mitigate PSC. The main objectives are providing the grid system with high-quality power
from photovoltaic (PV), lessening the impact of the PSC in the PV system, and tackling the problem of
mismatched power. This thesis proposes a modified seven-level inverter and a new simple design single-phase,
nine-level cascade inverter for a PV that uses a minimal number of the power switch device components and
passive elements. Secondly, this decrease in the number of switching devices reduces the number of driving
circuits and switching losses. Consequently, it decreases the intricacy of the control circuit and, as a result, reduces
the control circuit‘s size and cost. The suggested inverter demonstrates the proposal contributed to achieving a low
total harmonic distortion of the output voltage. Additionally, our proposal outperforms the existing counterparts,
where the switching methods and inverter control are much less complicated. To test the performance of the
suggested inverter, we compared the cascaded multilevel inverter architecture. The modern cascade topologies
required the same voltage levels (nine). The evaluation depends on several characteristics, including the number of
active switches inside the inverter and the total number of components (including capacitors and diodes). It also
includes the comparison of overall harmonic distortion. In the design and validation, we conducted MATLAB (via
Simulink) models for a grid-tied PV system empowered by the suggested nine-level inverter.
Key-words:, PV system, cascade multilevel inverter, reduce number switches, new nine single-phase
inverter, seven-level inverter. THD
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Doctoral school

Republic of Tunisia Science and Technology

National Engineering School of Sfax

ALI ABEDALJABAR HUSSEN AL-SAMAWI

Multi-level converter for PV solar power

Defended on July ,10 ,2023 , in front of the following committee:

Mr. RIDHA DJEMEL (Professor) President

PSC :Partial shading Condition

MPPT: Maximum power point tracker

MLI : Multilevel inverter

CHB-MLI :Cascaded H-bridge Multilevel inverter

FC-MLI :flying capacitor Multilevel inverter .

NPC MLI :neutral-point clamped Multilevel inverter .

DC-MLI : Diode Clamped Multilevel inverter

CMLI :Cascaded multilevel inverters

PWM :Pulse Width Modulation

POD : Phase Opposition Disposition

APOD :Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition

THD :Total harmonic Distortion

1.1 Why do we need to PV system? .................................................................................. 1

1.2 Why do we need to multilevel inverter? ..................................................................... 3

4. Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................................ 7

5. List of publications ................................................................................................................... 8

1. Background and Motivation:

1. Why do we need to photovoltaic (PV) system?

Figure 1: Global electricity access and population growth, 2000–2020[1]

sustainability of human civilization. Therefore, Renewable energy technologies have gained

2. What are the PV conversion components and problems?

3. Why do we need to multilevel converter?

2. Based on the waveform.

Figure 3. Advantages of MLI [5].

This thesis focuses on two critical parts:

The main contributions of this thesis are concisely summarized as follows:

 Show mitigation methods of partial shading conditions in PV systems.

controllers. Therefore, CMLI is better for PV applications because each PV array is a

 Article Published in journals

1. A. A. Al-Samawi and H. Trabelsi, ―New Nine-Level Cascade Multilevel Inverter with a

 Article Published in conferences:

1. A.A. alsamawi, Trabelsi H.Seven-level Cascade Multilevel Inverter based Minimum

Reference general Introduction:

 The main components of conversion PV energy.

 The most important problem of PV systems is Partial Shading Mitigation.

 Clarification of most Techniques to mitigate this problem. One of these techniques is a

List of figures ..................................................................................................................12

1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................14

1.2 PV system .............................................................................................................................17

1.3 Electrical model of photovoltaic PV Solar cell ................................................................... 18

1.4 The power conversion system ........................................................................................... 20

1.4.1 DC–DC Boost converter ............................................................................................ 23

1.4.2 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)……………………………………….....24

1.4.3 Design DC–DC Boost converter………………………………………………….…27

1.4.3.1 Output resistance ………………………………………………….……..28

1.4.3.2 Output voltage….…………………………………………………….….29

1.4.3.3 Inductance and output capacitor…………………………………… .30

1.5 Multilevel converters based MPPT in PV systems…………………………………...… .30

1.6.1 General configurations……………………………………………………….….34

1.6.2 Multilevel Inverters of Grid-Connected PV System…………………………….35

1.7 Partial Shading Condition (PSC)……………………………………………………..…….37