MILITARY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

(IPE)

Manufacturing Process II Sessional (IPE 204)

Level – 2, Term - II
Contact Hours- 3/2, Credits Hours- 0.75

Experiment Name:
1. (a) Study of Chips and Cutting Zone Temperature in Turning Medium
Carbon Steel by Uncoated Carbide Insert
(b) Study and Determination of Tool Wear
2. Manufacturing of a Spur and Helical Gear on a Column & Knee Type
Milling Machine
3. Study of Rapid Prototyping Process with the help of 3D Printer
4. Study of Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM) Process
5. Study of CNC Milling Machine
6. Study of Laser Cutting Machine
General Guidelines:
1. All students must follow the rules of MIST.
2. Students shall not be allowed to perform any experiment without apron and shoes.
3. Students must be prepared for the experiment prior to the class.
4. Report of an experiment must be submitted in the next class.
5. Viva for each experiment will be taken on the next day with the report.
6. Report should include the following:
➢ Top sheet with necessary information
➢ Main objectives
➢ Work material/machines/tools/equipment used (with their specifications)
➢ Experimental procedures (if necessary)
➢ Experimental results and discussions (experimental set up, experimental conditions,
data, graph, calculations etc.)
➢ Conclusions
➢ Assignment
7. A quiz will be taken on the experiments at the end of the semester.
8. Marks distribution

Reports and assignments 20%

Class Attendance & Performance 10%

Viva 20%

Quiz 50%

Total 100%
 Experiment-1

(a) Study of Chips and Cutting Zone Temperature in Turning Medium Carbon Steel by
Uncoated Carbide Insert

Objectives

i. To study different types of chips(type, shape and color)

ii. To determine chip reduction co-efficient
iii. To determine temperature (θ) at chip tool interface

Theory

Chip Formation: When force is applied by cutting-tool against the work-piece, the uncut layer
deforms first elastically followed by plastic deformation due to the shearing action near the
cutting edge of tool. Shearing takes place along a shear zone and shear is of maximum at the
shear plane. After passing out of the shear plane, the deformed material slides along the tool face
as chips with the progress of cutting. Four main categories of chips (as shown in Fig-1) are:

Discontinuous Chips: These chips are small segments, which adhere loosely to each other. They
are formed when the amount of deformation to which chips undergo is limited by repeated
fracturing. Hard and brittle materials like bronze, brass and cast iron will produce such chips.

Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips: In continuous chip formation, the pressure of the work
piece builds until the material fails by slip along the plane. The inside on the chip displays steps
produced by the intermittent slip, but the outside is very smooth. It has its elements bonded
together in the form of long coils and is formed by the continuous plastic deformation of material
without fracture ahead of the cutting edge of the tool and is followed by the smooth flow of chip
up the tool face.

Continuous Chip Built Up Edge: This type of chip is very similar to that of continuous type,
with the difference that it is not as smooth as the previous one. This type of chip is associated
with poor surface finish, but protects the cutting edge from wear due to movement of chips and
the action of heat causing the increase in tool life.

Serrated Chips: These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth
appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed
by low shear strain. This chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals
such as titanium alloys, nickel-base super-alloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are
machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more common
work metals (e.g., steels), when they are cut at high speeds.
Chip Shape: Chip shape depends on the state of chip curling. Chip shape can be ribbon-like,
helical (tabular), spiral, one turn, half, turn etc.

a. Discontinuous Chips b. Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips

c. Continuous Chip Built Up Edge d. Serrated Chips

Figure 1.1: Four types of chip formation in metal cutting

Chip Reduction Coefficient: Chip reduction coefficient (ξ) is the ratio of chip thickness (a2) to
the uncut chip thickness (a1).(as shown in Figure 1.2) Mathematically

𝑎2 𝑎2
ξ= 𝑎1
= 𝑆𝑜𝑆𝑖𝑛∅
………………………………………………. (1)

The inverse of ξ is denoted by rc and is known as cutting ratio. ξ is an important index which
indicates the degree of deformation and hence the force required. ξ is affected by process
parameters (i.e. 𝑉𝑐,𝑆𝑜, 𝑡, γ etc.) and other variables (i.e. friction at tool-chip interface, cutting
fluid, tool material, work material etc.)

Here, 𝑉𝑐=Cutting velocity

 𝑆𝑜=Feed rate

Machine, Equipment & Work Material

1. Lathe machine
2. Work material (medium carbon steel)
3. Cutting tool (High speed steel)
4. Milli-voltmeter
5. Mica
6. Slide caliper

Procedure

i. Turn the work material in engine lathe with three different cutting velocities (Vc) at a
constant feed rate (So).
ii. Repeat the above procedure for three different feed rates.
iii. Collect the chips obtained, study them to identify their types, shapes and colors and
calculate the chip reduction co-efficient for each chip.
iv. Take the mV reading from the Millivoltmeter and then determine temperature (θ) at the
chip-tool interface from θ=75.28+63.05mV-,57mV2.
v. Plot ξ vs Vc ; ξ vs So; θ vs Vc/So
 DATA SHEET

Study of chips and cutting zone temperature in turning medium carbon steel by uncoated carbide
insert

Work Material:

Diameter:

Cutting tool:

Cutting Conditions:

Feed rate:

Depth of cut:

Environment:

So N Vc mV (℃) a1 a2 ξ Chip
(mm/rev) (rpm) (m/min) (mm) (mm)
type shape color
(b) Study and Determination of Tool Wear

Objective:

To study and determine different types of too wear.

Theory:

Wear: Wear is defined as the progressive loss or removal of material from a surface. The cutting
tools are subjected to high localized stresses, high temperatures, sliding of the chip along the
rake face and sliding of the tool along the freshly cut surface. These conditions induce tool wear,
which, in turn, adversely affects tool life, the quality of the machined surface, and its
dimensional accuracy, and consequently, the economics of cutting operations. After a certain
degree of wear, the tool has to be resharpened for further use.

The rate of tool wear depends on tool and workpiece materials, tool shape, cutting fluids, process
parameters (i.e. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut) and machine-tool characteristics.

Causes of wear:

The following basic causes, depending on cutting or environmental conditions, solely or in

combinations produce tool wear-

i. Abrasion: The inherently hard constituents present in workpiece, the strain hardened chip
and workpiece or broken BUE can cause abrasive wear while sweeping over tool face and
flank.
ii. Adhesion: If fracture takes place not along the interface of chip and tool during sliding at
the point of adhesion but in the tool material, tool material is removed with the chip.
iii. Diffusion: Metal and carbon atoms may diffuse from tool surface into work material and
the chips. It depends on high temperature and pressure and the metallurgical relationship
of tool and work material.
iv. Attrition: Fragments of tool may torn intermittently from tool surface at low cutting
speed where flow of material past the cutting edge is irregular and less streamlined.
v. Corrosion: It is due to chemical reaction between the tool surface and work material or
environment (i.e. cutting fluid).
 vi. Electrochemical: It occurs when ions are passed between the tool and workpiece causing
an oxidation of tool surface, cutting fluid action as electrolyte.
vii. Plastic deformation: When high compressive stresses act on the tool rake face, the tool
may be deformed downward (primarily in the nose area) which promotes other wears.
viii. Thermal cracking: Owing to thermal cyclical stresses at the cutting edge, short cracks
called comb cracks are often observed in the tool. These cracks start at the cutting edge
and then widen along the rake face and flank.
ix. Fatig wear: It is due to cyclic loading.
x. Chipping: It is the sudden breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge or nose
of the tool. It may be microchipping, macrochipping or fracture.

Types of wear:

The main wears in the cutting tool are as follows:

Flank wear: It occurs on the principal and auxiliary flanks of the tool and develops a wear land
as shown in figure2.1. It is mainly due to rubbing of the tool by the machined surface causing
abrasion. Adhesion is also a factor. When BUE is torn away, it takes particles of tool material
with it. Thermal cracking is also a cause of breakdown of small particles in the flanks,
predominant in brittle material and in case of discontinuous chips. The width of the wear land is
usually taken as the measure of the amount of wear and can be readily determined by means of a
toolmaker’s microscope.

Here, VN= notch wear

VB= average principal flank wear

VM= maximum principal flank wear

VS= average auxiliary flank wear

VSM= maximum auxiliary flank wear

 Figure2.1: Flank wear & Crater wear Figure2.2: Crater wear

The tool life is generally determined by VB. If VB greater than 300μm, the tool needs
resharpening. VB varies with machining time as show figure2.3. The curve can be divided into
three regions:

1. The region AB where the sharp cutting edge is quickly broken down and a finite wear
land is established.
2. The region BC where wear progresses at a uniform rate.
3. The region CD where wear occurs at a gradually increasing rate.

Region CD is thought to indicate the region where the wear of the cutting tool has become
sensitive to the increased tool temperatures caused by the presence of a wear land of such large
proportions. Clearly, in practice, it would be advisable to regrind the tool before the flank wear
enters the last region (region CD in figure2.3) where rapid breakdown occurs.

Crater wear: It occurs on the rake face of the tool, where there is a direct contact of tool with the
chip, in the form of cavity as shown in figure 2.1 and 2.2. It is prominent in ductile materials like
steel and its alloys. It occurs at the point of impingement of chip on tool and widens with time. It
does not actually reach the cutting edge but causes rupture of tool before reaching. It leads to the
weakening of tool, increase in cutting temperature, friction and cutting forces. The most
significant factors influencing crater wear are (a) temperature at the tool-chip interface and (b)
the chemical affinity between the tool and workpiece materials. Additionally the factors
influencing flank wear also influence crater wear.
 Figure2.3: Development of flank wear with time

Crater wear has been described in terms of diffusion mechanism, that is, the movement of atoms
across the tool-chip interface. Since diffusion rate increases with increasing temperature, crater
wear increases as temperature increases.

Here, KL= crater length, KT=maximum crater depth, KB= crater width and

KM= distance of maximum crater depth from cutting edge

Maximum KT is at the location of maximum temperature at tool-chip interface. Crater wear is

characterized mainly by KT and KB. Change in the length of crater (KT) is negligible.
Nose wear: With the time of machining, the tool nose becomes blunt and round due to wear. It is
less significant for failure than flank or crater wear.

In the general case, both crater and flank wear increase in course of operation. But depending
upon the machining condition, one of them may predominate. The study of tool wear is
important in finding optimal tool wear before grinding, scheduling of production, correlating
other factors of cutting etc.

Machine, equipment & Work Material:

i. Lathe machine
ii. Work material
iii. Cutting tool
iv. Microscope
v. Brush

Procedure:

1. Turn the work material for a predetermined duration and remove the chip particles from
tool.
2. Observe the wear of the tool by microscope and measure VB.
3. Draw the wear diagram of the tool.
4. Take the above readings after turning for 3, 5, 10 and 15 minutes.
5. Plot VB vs Time in the report.

Assignment:

1. Why tool wear is important in metal cutting?

2. Discuss briefly the effect of BUE on tool wear.
3. Are the locations of maximum temperature and crater wear related? If so, why?
4. When the tool needs resharpening?
 DATA SHEET

Date:………………...

1. Job material:………………………………. Diameter:…………………..

2. Tool material:……………………………...

3. Cutting conditions:t=…………….mm, S0=……………..mm/rev, Vc=……….....m/min

4. Environmental conditions: dry/wet Cutting fluid used:…………….

No. of obs. Time VB

(min) (μm)

………………………………..
Signature of the teacher
 Experiment 2

Manufacturing of a Spur and Helical Gear on a Column & Knee Type Milling Machine

Objective

i. To introduce with different types of gears

ii. To operate milling machine to manufacturing a spur and helical gear

Theory

Gears are used for the transmission of motion and power between two shafts without slippage.
There are different types of gears such as spur gear, helical gear, bevel gear, herringbone gear,
worm and worm wheel, rack and pinion etc. Each type of gears is suitable for certain purposes.
In cutting gear on a milling machine, indexing is necessary.

Plain or simple Indexing:

Here, the work piece is positioned by utilizing the step index plate and the index crank. The
standard size index plate is provided with a number of circles having following number of holes:

Number of holes in Standard Index Plate

24 25 28 30 34 37 38 39 41 42 43 45 47 49 50 53 54 57 58 59 62 63

The number of turns of the crank of a dividing head (n), which is required to index the crank one
division is equal to the ratio of the dividing head (zo=40) divided by the number of equally
spaced divisions(z) required for the work piece.
𝑧0
n= 𝑧
So, if a gear has 36teeth, the indexing will be as follows:
40 4
n= 36 =1 36 …………………………………………………… (1)
Now to get consecutive spaces in the gear blank one must turn the crank handle through one full
turn and up to 4th additional hole on the index plate having 36holes in the circle.

Gear Parameters
Calculation:
We have,
π𝐷𝑁
V= 12
ft/min ………………………………………………………… (2)

Where, D = diameter of the cutter, inches

V= Surface Speed
If tool material is High Speed Steel (HSS) and blank material is Cast Iron (CI), then
Surface Speed, N= 90 rpm (approx.)

Figure 3.2: Gear Diagram

𝑇+2
Outside Diameter = O.D= ( 𝐷𝑝
) =Pd+2a……………………………… (3)
Where, T= No. of Teeth to be cut
Dp= Diametral Pitch
 𝑇
Dp=( 𝑃 ) ……………………………………………………………… (4)
𝑑

Where, Pd= Pitch Diameter

1
Addendum = a =( 𝐷 ) ……………………………………………….. (5)
𝑝
0.157
Clearance = c = ( 𝐷𝑝
) …………………………………………….. (6)
1.157
Dedendum = b = a+c = ( 𝐷𝑝
) …………………………………….. (7)
2.157
Full Depth = a+b = ( 𝐷𝑝
) ………………………………………... (8)

Machine, Equipment & Work Material

i. Milling machine
ii. Milling cutter
iii. Gear Blank

Procedure

i. Be introduced with different types of gears and their functions

ii. Study of different components of horizontal and vertical milling machine.
iii. Operate horizontal milling machine to manufacture a spur and helical gear
iv. Operate vertical milling machine to make a slot on a square block

iv.
Manufacturing of helical gear:

The set angle for the table is,

π𝐷
ω= arctan 𝑃ℎ.𝑔
Where, D= diameter of the work piece being cut; Ph.g= Lead of helical groove

If the helix is determined by lead angle α, the table should be

set at an angle 90◦-α. Slow rotation is imparted to the
dividing head spindle along the kinematic chain shown in the
figure 3.3 below.

The kinematic balance equation of this chain for setting up

𝑎1 𝑐1
change gear train 𝑏1 𝑑1
is worked out provided that for

every revolution of the work-piece the work table of the

machine travels by an amount equal to the lead Ph.g of the
groove being cut.
𝑧𝑜 𝑎1 𝑐1
1. 𝑍
.1.1.1. 𝑏1 𝑑1
.pl.s = Ph.g

With Z=1, we obtain

 𝑎1 𝑐1 𝑃ℎ.𝑔
𝑏1 𝑑1
=𝑧 𝑝
𝑜. 𝑙.𝑠

Where pl.s is the lead of work table lead screw, mm.

 DATA SHEET

Manufacturing of a Spur and Helical Gear on a Column and Knee Type Milling Machine

Work material:
Diameter:
Cutting Tool:
Cutting conditions:
Feed rate:
Depth of cut:

O.D of No. of Pitch Diametral Cutting RPM Cutter Depth No of

Blank gear Diameter Pitch Speed, (N) Diameter of Cut Cutter
(inch) teeth Pd (inch) Dp V (Inch) (Inch)
(T) (fpm)
 Experiment 3

Study of Rapid Prototyping Process with the help of 3D Printer

Objective

➢ To know different Operation in Rapid Prototyping

➢ To build a product using rapid prototyping

Rapid Prototyping:

Rapid prototyping is the speedy creation of a full-scale model. The word prototypecomes from
the Latin words “proto” (original) and “typus” (model).

In manufacturing, rapid prototyping is used to create a three-dimensional model of a part or

product. In addition to providing 3-D visualization for digitally rendered items, rapid prototyping
can be used to test the efficiency of a part or product design before it is manufactured in larger
quantities. Testing may have more to do with the shape or size of a design, rather than its
strength or durability, because the prototype may not be made of the same material as the final
product. Today, prototypes are often created with additive layer manufacturing technology, also
known as 3-D printing. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) may also be used to create
aluminum, stainless steel or titanium prototypes. This process uses laser beams to melt and fuse
metal powders into solid parts.

Basics of rapid Prototyping

➢ In rapid Prototyping process the 3D CAD data is sliced into thin cross sectional planes by
a computer
➢ The cross sections are sent from the computer to the rapid prototyping machine which
build the part layer by layer
➢ The first geometry is defined by the shape of the first cross sectional plane generated by
the computer
➢ It is bonded to a starting base and additional layers are bonded on the top of the first
shaped according to their respective cross sectional planes
➢ This process is repeated until the prototype is complete

Types Rapid Prototyping Processes

[1] SLA- Stereolithography

[2] SLS- Selective Laser Sintering
[3] SLM- Selective Laser Melting
[4] LOM- Laminated Object Manufacturing
 [5] FDM- Fused Deposition Modeling

SLA- Stereolithography

Process:

▪ Builds 3D model from liquid photo sensitive polymers when exposed to UV rays.
▪ Model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface of liquid epoxy or acrylate
resin.
▪ A low power highly focused UV laser traces
out the first layer, solidifying model cross
section.
▪ An elevator incrementally lowers the platform
into the liquid polymer.
▪ Process is repeated until prototype is complete.
▪ Model is the placed in an UV oven for
complete curing.

SLS- Selective Laser Sintering

Process:

▪ Uses laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials such as nylon, elastomer or metal
into a solid object.

▪ Parts are built on a platform which sits below the surface in a bin of heat fusible powder.

▪ Laser traces the pattern of first layer, sintering it together. Then platform is lowered,
powder is reapplied and process is repeated.

SLM- Selective Laser Melting

 ▪ Selective laser melting uses a laser to melt successive layers of metallic powder.
▪ The laser will heat particles in specified places on a bed of metallic powder until
completely melted. The CAD 3D file dictates where melting will occur.
▪ Then, the machine will successively add another bed of powder above the melted layer,
until the object is completely finished.

LOM- Laminated Object Manufacturing

Process:

▪ Layer of adhesive coated sheet materials are bonded to form a prototype.

▪ Paper laminated with heat activated glue is rolled up on spools.

▪ Heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base.

▪ Feeder/collector mechanism advances paper.

▪ Laser cuts the outline of first layer.

▪ Platform is lowered and fresh material is advanced.

▪ Process is repeated and a roller bonds the layers.

FDM- Fused Deposition Modeling

Process

▪ Filaments of heated thermoplastics are extruded

from a tip that moves in the platform to form the
first layer.

▪ The platform is maintained at a lower

temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly
hardens.

▪ After the platform lowers, the extrusion head

deposits a second layer upon the first

Experiment 4
Study of Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM) Process

Objective
 i. To study Electrical-discharge machining
ii. To determine material removal rate (MRR) and the Wear ratio

Theory
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a thermal process that involves melting and
vaporization of the work-piece electrode. It is primarily used for hard metals or those that would
be impossible to machine with traditional techniques as this process is based on melting
temperature, not hardness. EDM only works with materials which are electrically conductive. It
is widely used in aerospace, mould making and die casting industries for manufacturing plastics
mould, forging dies and die casting dies made from hardened tool steels, together with engine
components, such as compressor blades made from titanium alloys and nickel-based super
alloys.
The EDM process uses repetitive electrical discharges to remove material from the work-piece,
with each spark producing a temperature of between 10,000-20,000℃. A small gap
(approximately 0.025 to 0.075 mm) between the work material and tool is always maintained and
it is either flooded or immersed in a dielectric fluid. The electrical discharge is passed between
an electrode and the piece of metal being machined. The small amount of material that is
removed from the work-piece is flashed away with the continuously flowing fluid. After several
repetitive discharges, which create a set of successively deeper craters in the work- piece, the
final shape is produced.

Figure 4: Schematic view of ram electrical discharge machining

The material removal rate (MRR) means the amount of material is removed from the
work-piece over a unit of time. Generally it is expressed in the unit of mm3/min.

MRR= (Volume of Material Removed/ Machine Time)

MRR depends on

i. The electrical parameters of the machine tool.

ii. Size of the area to be machined.
iii. Depth of cavity or hole to be machined.
iv. Material of the tool electrode.
v. Work piece material.
vi. Kind of dielectric fluid.

Requirements of tool material

i. It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool wear ratio.
ii. It should be electrically conductive.
iii. It should have good machinability.
iv. It should have low electrical resistance.
v. It should have high melting point.

Typical electrode materials are

i. Copper
ii. Tungsten
iii. Graphite

The major drawback of EDM is the wear ratio of the tool. The less the wear ratio the better it is.
It can be expressed as follows

Wear ratio = (Loss of tool material in a given time/Volume of material removed from the
work-piece in the same time)

Purpose of dielectric fluid

i. Fluid is used to act as dielectric, and to help carry away debris

ii. It also act as a coolant for work-piece and the tool
iii. It acts as an insulated medium during charging operation of the condenser and provides
the correct condition for efficient spark discharge
The required characteristics

i. It should have an optimum viscosity.

ii. It should not react with the work material, the tool and the container.
iii. It should be inflammable.
iv. It should be cheap and easily available.
v. It should not evolve gases or toxic vapors during operation.
vi. It must be hydrocarbon.

Machine, Equipment & Work Material

i. Electrical-Discharge Machine
ii. Work material
iii. Electrode (Tool)
iv. Dielectric fluid

Procedure

i. Work with EDM machine to understand the process

ii. Study the various system of the machine such as power supply, dielectric system,
electrode feeding system etc.
iii. Identify the parameters influencing material removal rate (MRR) and product
characteristics.
iv. Calculate the MRR and Wear ratio of the process.
v. Draw graphs of MRR vs time and Wear ratio vs time.

Technical Data

Input (approx.)……… 13.5 KVA

Main voltage 3*380; 3*415; 3*440

Rectifier 3 phase bridge

Open circuit voltage of the power supply (approx.) 490 V

Automatic feed regulation with two phase regulating servomotor controlled by magnetic
amplifier
Max/min rated current is 0.3A/20A
 DATA SHEET
Study of Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM) Process

Machine Specification :
Minimum surface to be machined :
Maximum weight of the work piece :
Maximum dimension of the work-piece :
Vertical adjustment of spindle by hand :
Automatic vertical adjustment of spindle :
Horizontal adjustment of spindle :
Dimension of the working table :
Cleaning of the working fluid :
Output of pump :
Total capacity of fluid tank :
Output power :
Operating voltage :
Maximum working voltage :
Minimum rated current :
Maximum rated current :
Number of working ranges :

Obs. Time, Weight Weight Deviation Deviation Density Density MRR Wear
T of of tool of weight of weight of work of tool ratio
work WT for work for tool material material
Piece piece
Ww

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
XPERIMENT NO. 3: STUDY OF CNC MILLING MACHINE AND INTRODUCTION
TO CNC PROGRAMMING.

Objective:

(i) To study the different parts and functions of a CNC Milling Machine
(ii) To be introduced with CNC programming

Introduction

The term numerical control is a widely accepted and commonly used term in the machine tool
industry. Numerical control (NC) enables an operator to communicate with machine tools
through a series of numbers and symbols.

NC which quickly became Computer Numerical Control (CNC) has brought tremendous changes
to the metalworking industry. New machine tools in CNC have enabled industry to consistently
produce parts to accuracies undreamed of only a few years ago. The same part can be reproduced
to the same degree of accuracy any number of times if the CNC program has been properly
prepared and the computer properly programmed. The operating commands which control the
machine tool are executed automatically with amazing speed, accuracy, efficiency, and
repeatability.

The ever-increasing use of CNC in industry has created a need for personnel who are
knowledgeable about and capable of preparing the programs which guide the machine tools to
produce parts to the required shape and accuracy. With this in mind, the authors have prepared
this textbook to take the mystery out of CNC - to put it into a logical sequence and express it in
simple language that everyone can understand. The preparation of a program is explained in a
logical step-by-step procedure, with practical examples to guide the student.

Cartesian Coordinate System

Almost everything that can be produced on a conventional machine tool can be produced on a
computer numerical control machine tool, with its many advantages. The machine tool
movements used in producing a product are of two basic types: point to-point (straight-line
movements) and continuous path (contouring movements). The Cartesian, or rectangular,
coordinate system was devised by the French mathematician and philosopher Rene’ Descartes.
With this system, any specific point can be described in mathematical Preface 8 terms from any
other point along three perpendicular axes. This concept fits machine tools perfectly since their
construction is generally based on three axes of motion (X, Y, Z) plus an axis of rotation. On a
plain vertical milling machine, the X axis is the horizontal movement (right or left) of the table,
the Y axis is the table cross movement (toward or away from the column), and the Z axis is the
vertical movement of the knee or the spindle. CNC systems rely heavily on the use of rectangular
coordinates because the programmer can locate every point on a job precisely. When points are
located on a workpiece, two straight intersecting lines, one vertical and one horizontal, are used.
These lines must be at right angles to each other, and the point where they cross is called the
origin, or zero point (Fig. 1)

The three-dimensional coordinate planes are shown in Fig. 2. The X and Y planes (axes) are
horizontal and represent horizontal machine table motions. The Z plane or axis represents the
vertical tool motion. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs indicate the direction from the zero point
(origin) along the axis of movement. The four quadrants formed when the XY axes cross are
numbered in a counterclockwise direction (Fig. 3). All positions located in quadrant 1 would be
positive (X+) and positive (Y+). In the second quadrant, all positions would be negative X (X-)
and positive (Y+). In the third quadrant, all locations would be negative X (X-) and negative
(Y-). In the fourth quadrant, all locations would be positive X (X+) and negative Y (Y-). Fig. 2
The three-dimensional coordinate planes (axes) used in CNC. (The Superior Electric Company)
9 Fig. 3 The quadrants formed when the X and Y axes.

In Fig. 3, point A would be 2 units to the right of the Y axis and 2 units above the X axis.
Assume that each unit equals 1.000. The location of point A would be X + 2.000 and Y + 2.000.
For point B, the location would be X + 1.000 and Y - 2.000. In CNC programming it is not
necessary to indicate plus (+) values since these are assumed. However, the minus (-) values
must be indicated. For example, the locations of both A and B would be indicated as follows:

A X2.000 Y2.000

B X1.000 Y-2.000

Machines Using CNC

Early machine tools were designed so that the operator was standing in front of the machine
while operating the controls. This design is no longer necessary, since in CNC the operator no
longer controls the machine tool movements. On conventional machine tools, only about 20
percent of the time was spent removing material. With the addition of electronic controls, actual
time spent removing metal has increased to 80 percent and even higher. It has also reduced the
amount of time required to bring the cutting tool into each machining position.

Machine Types
Lathe

The engine lathe, one of the most productive machine tools, has always been an efficient means
of producing round parts (Fig. 4). Most lathes are programmed on two axes. • The X axis
controls the cross motion of the cutting tool. Negative X (X-) moves the tool towards the spindle
centerline; positive X moves the tool away from the spindle centerline. • The Z axis controls the
carriage travel toward or away from the headstock.

Milling Machine

The milling machine has always been one of the most versatile machine tools used in industry
(Fig. 5). Operations such as milling, contouring, gear cutting, drilling, boring, and reaming are
only a few of the many operations which can be performed on a milling machine. The milling
machine can be programmed on three axes: • The X axis controls the table movement left or
right. • The Y axis controls the table movement toward or away from the column. • The Z axis
controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or spindle.
Programming Systems

Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and the absolute system, are used for
CNC. Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no system is either right or
wrong all the time. Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling either
incremental or absolute programming

Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction from the
immediately preceding point (Fig. 6). Command codes which tell the machine to move the table,
spindle, and knee are explained here using a vertical milling machine as an example:
• A “X plus” (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the last point.

• A “X minus” (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the last point.

• A “Y plus” (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column. • A “Y
minus” (Y-) will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column.

• A “Z plus” (Z+) command will cause the cutting tool or spindle to move up or away from the
workpiece.

• A “Z minus” (Z-) moves the cutting tool down or into the workpiece.

In incremental programming, the G91 command indicates to the computer and MCU (Machine
Control Unit) that programming is in the incremental mode.

Absolute program locations are always given from a single fixed zero or origin point (Fig. 7).
The zero or origin point may be a position on the machine table, such as the corner of the
worktable or at any specific point on the workpiece. In absolute dimensioning and programming,
each point or location on the workpiece is given as a certain distance from the zero or reference
point.
• A “X plus” (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the zero or
origin point.

• A “X minus” (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the zero or
origin point.

• A “Y plus” (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column. • A “Y
minus” (Y-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column.

In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the computer and MCU that the
programming is in the absolute mode.

Point-to-Point or Continuous Path

CNC programming falls into two distinct categories (Fig. 8). The difference between the two
categories was once very distinct. Now, however, most control units are able to handle both
point-to-point and continuous path machining. A knowledge of both programming methods is
necessary to understand what applications each has in CNC.
Point-to-Point Positioning

Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to accurately locate the spindle, or the
workpiece mounted on the machine table, at one or more specific locations to perform such
operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and punching (Fig. 9). Point-to-point positioning
is the process of positioning from one coordinate (XY) position or location to another,
performing the machining operation, and continuing this pattern until all the operations have
been completed at all programmed locations.

In Fig. 9 point 1 to point 2 is a straight line, and the machine moves only along the X axis; but
points 2 and 3 require that motion along both the X and Y axes takes place. As the distance in the
X direction is greater than in the Y direction, Y will reach its 15 position first, leaving X to travel
in a straight line for the remaining distance. A similar motion takes place between points 3 and 4.

Continuous Path (Contouring)

Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work such as that produced on a lathe or
milling machine, where the cutting tool is in contact with the workpiece as it travels from one
programmed point to the next. Continuous path positioning is the ability to control motions on
two or more machine axes simultaneously to keep a constant cutter-workpiece relationship. The
programmed information in the CNC program must accurately position the cutting tool from one
point to the next and follow a predefined accurate path at a programmed feed rate in order to
produce the form or contour required (Fig. 10)

Interpolation

The method by which contouring machine tools move from one programmed point to the next is
called interpolation. This ability to Fig. 10 Types of contour machining (A) Simple contour; (B)
complex contour (Allen Bradley) 16 merge individual axis points into a predefined tool path is
built into most of today’s MCUs. There are five methods of interpolation: linear, circular, helical,
parabolic, and cubic. All contouring controls provide linear interpolation, and most controls are
capable of both linear and circular interpolation. Helical, parabolic, and cubic interpolation are
used by industries that manufacture parts which have complex shapes, such as aerospace parts
and dies for car bodies.

Linear Interpolation

Linear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked together by straight lines, whether
the points are close together or far apart (Fig. 11). Curves can be produced with linear
interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line segments. This method has limitations,
because a very large number of points would have to be programmed to describe the curve in
order to produce a contour shape.
A contour programmed in linear interpolation requires the coordinate positions (XY positions in
two-axis work) for the start and finish of each line segment. Therefore, the end point of one line
or segment becomes the start point for the next segment, and so on, throughout the entire
program.

Circular Interpolation

The development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation has greatly simplified the process of
programming arcs and circles. To program an arc (Fig. 12), the MCU requires only the
coordinate positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the radius of the circle, the start point and
end point of the arc being cut, and the direction in which the arc is to be cut (clockwise or
counterclockwise) See Fig. 12. The information required may vary with different MCUs.

Programming Format
Word address is the most common programming format used for CNC programming systems.
This format contains a large number of different codes (preparatory and miscellaneous) that
transfers program information from the part print to machine servos, relays, micro-switches, etc.,
to manufacture a part. These codes, which conform to EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
standards, are in a logical sequence called a block of information. Each block should contain
enough information to perform one machining operation.

Word Address Format

Every program for any part to be machined, must be put in a Circular Interpolation The
development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation has greatly simplified the process of
programming arcs and circles. To program an arc (Fig. 12), the MCU requires only the
coordinate positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the radius of the circle, the start point and
end point of the arc being cut, and the direction in which the arc is to be cut (clockwise or
counterclockwise) See Fig. 12. The information required may vary with different MCUs. 18
format that the machine control unit can understand. The format used on any CNC machine is
built in by the machine tool builder and is based on the type of control unit on the machine. A
variable-block format which uses words (letters) is most commonly used. Each instruction word
consists of an address character, such as X, Y, Z, G, M, or S. Numerical data follows this address
character to identify a specific function such as the distance, feed rate, or speed value.

The address code G90 in a program, tells the control that all measurements are in the absolute
mode. The code G91, tells the control that measurements are in the incremental mode.

Codes

The most common codes used when programming CNC machines tools are G-codes (preparatory
functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F, S, D, and T are used
for machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset, tool number, etc.

G-codes are sometimes called cycle codes because they refer to some action occurring on the X,
Y, and/or Z axis of a machine tool, Fig. 13.

The G-codes are grouped into categories such as Group 01, containing codes G00, G01, G02,
G03 which cause some movement of the machine table or head. Group 03 includes either
absolute or incremental programming, while Group 09 deals with canned cycles.

A G00 code rapidly positions the cutting tool while it is above the workpiece from one point to
another point on a job. During the rapid traverse movement, either the X or Y axis can be moved
individually or both axes can be moved at the same time. Although the rate of rapid travel varies
from machine to machine, it ranges between 200 and 800 in./min (5 and 20 m/min).

The G01, G02, and G03 codes move the axes at a controlled feedrate. • G01 is used for
straight-line movement (linear interpolation).

• G02 (clockwise) and G03 (counterclockwise) are used for arcs and circles (circular
interpolation).
M or miscellaneous codes are used to either turn ON or OFF different functions which control
certain machine tool operations, Fig. 15.

M-codes are not grouped into categories, although several codes may control the same type of
operations such as M03, M04, and M05 which control the machine tool spindle.

• M03 turns the spindle on clockwise

• M04 turns the spindle on counterclockwise

• M05 turns the spindle off

Block of Information

CNC information is generally programmed in blocks of five words. Each word conforms to the
EIA standards and they are written on a horizontal line. If five complete words are not included
in each block, the machine control unit (MCU) will not recognize the information, therefore the
control unit will not be activated.

Using the example shown in Fig. 17, the five words are as follows:

N001 represents the sequence number of the operation.

G01 represents linear interpolation

X12345 will move the table 1.2345 in. in a positive direction along the X axis.

Y06789 will move the table 0.6789 in. along the Y axis.

M03 Spindle on CW.

 Experiment No: 06

Laser Cutting Machine Lab Experiment

Objectives: The objectives of this laboratory is to learn the basics of 2D modelling and the use of
a laser cutter. The laboratory will go through the functions of a 2D modelling software that are the
most useful for laser cutting. Also, you will learn how to convert a 2D modelling file to a file that
can be cut in a laser cutter. Finally, you will learn how to operate a laser cutter.

Theoretical Background: Laser cutting uses a high-powered beam to cut material based on
computer-controlled parameters. As the laser guides its beam along the material, everything in its
direct path is vaporized, burned or melted. One of the benefits of laser cutting technology is the
cut product rarely needs any finishing work as this process ensures a high-quality surface finish.
A graphics software is used to import or create designs that are meant to be cut.

Introduction to SC2000 CNC Machine:

Operations:
Graphic import/drawing:

Graphic Processing:

Before importing the cutting file, user can set up all the conditions he needs, including whether to
auto remove minimal graphics, whether to auto remove duplicate lines and so on, so that the cutting
software can automatically optimize the file for cutting when open or importing the graphic.
Choose “ADVANCED”—>“Options”, select the options as below:
After importing/ newly building the file, user can revise the file if they need.
1、Choose in tool option “DRAW ”，select suitable tool to revise the graphic: Zoom in/out in
proportion, rotate, mirror, align, array, group, nest, merge, split, smooth, unload, chamfer, chamfer
R, refactor, fill circle.
2、Or use graphic transformation to adjust the graphics.

Path Planning:

After adjusting the cutting graphic, then comes path planning, including the lead line setting,
micro-joint, gap, home ref, path start, reverse, inside, outside.
Cutting Process Setting:

After checking the path planning, please set up the cutting process. SC2000supports multi-layers:
1 background layer, 10 cutting layers. And the parameters of each layer can be setup separately
according to user’s needs. Click the “Layer X” in the graphic properties to set up the layer
parameters, as below:
User can set up different parameters to achieve the best situation of cutting: cutting ways, cutting
speed, cutting power, gas type/pressure, up height and so on.

Checking Before Cutting:

Cutting:

The running control must be done on the real machine. So the motion control card must
communicate with SC2000normally, or the relevant buttons will turn gray and can’t be selected.

The meaning of each button shows as below: