Clara Vasconcelos (Eds.) - Geoscience Education - Indoor and Outdoor-Springer International Publishing (2016)

Clara
Vasconcelos Editor
Geoscience
Education
Indoor and Outdoor
Geoscience Education
Clara Vasconcelos
Editor
Geoscience Education
Indoor and Outdoor
Editor
Clara Vasconcelos
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade
do Porto
Instituto de Ciências da Terra (Pólo
do Porto)
Porto, Portugal
ISBN 978-3-319-43318-9 ISBN 978-3-319-43319-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43319-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956852
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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Preface
The United Nations declared 2008 the International Year of Planet Earth, under the
designation of Earth Sciences for Society. This had an impact on schools by requir-
ing a higher-quality Geoscience Education at all levels. The need to develop geosci-
ence literacy, namely, in schools, brought together a wide range of voices asking for
other kinds of literacies, something along the lines of commonly understood con-
cepts like language and mathematics literacy. The following two reasons, among
many others, explicitly justify the need for geoscience literacy: firstly, the need to be
aware of the threats that our planet is increasingly facing, resulting from processes
such as fracking and carbon emissions, and secondly, the need to inform citizens on
crucial issues related to the preservation of our planet and environment
sustainability.
Despite this glaring need for geoscience literacy, in some developed countries
such as Portugal, the science curricula of many elementary and secondary schools
do not cover as many topics in geoscience as they do in other science areas (such as
biology, physics or chemistry). Moreover, there is a shortage of teachers with an
academic degree in geoscience when compared to other scientific areas. In spite of
these obstacles, there has been a considerable amount of research in Geoscience
Education, centred on both the classroom and teacher education programmes. The
results of this research and efforts should be acknowledged, which is to say that the
knowledge produced by Geoscience Education research should inform school cur-
ricula, classroom practices and teacher education programmes (pre- and in-service).
It is necessary to disseminate this research and knowledge on Geoscience Education
so as to reach a large number of professionals in all levels of teaching.
The relevance of this book is precisely to present several works developed by
experienced researchers and teachers in Geoscience Education, in five different
countries (Portugal, Brazil, Spain, Israel and the United Kingdom). The research
areas that are presented throughout the 13 chapters cover a wide variety of subjects
that range from educational resources and fieldwork to science models. The research
focuses on indoor and outdoor environments in which teaching geoscience gains
particular relevance, significance and contextualization. Some chapters concern to
specific geoscience topics such as earthquakes, rocks, fossils and minerals. Others
v
vi Preface
present a more interdisciplinary approach addressing topics that are not usually
examined, such as geomedicine and geoethics, with a specific focus on sustainable
development and their alignment with the school curricula.
Throughout the book, readers can find research-based arguments illustrated with
practical examples, which will help them to innovate in their curriculum develop-
ment area, classroom practices and pre- and in-service teachers’ education. It is also
important to emphasize that an inquiry-based approach underlies the theoretical
framework of all chapters, highlighting the need to teach students the ability to con-
duct research during their science education process. The book challenges readers
to improve Geoscience Education by changing the ways of teaching, by enabling
students to exploit their natural curiosity and by spurring a learning process that
should not be confined to the classroom but rather maintained throughout life.
It is my expectation that this initiative of exploring new trends and approaches to
geoscience teaching, in indoor and outdoor environments, may give a contribution
to the development of this area of research and will further alert the scientific com-
munity to the need of highlighting these contents in the science education curricula
in all countries.
I wish you all a fruitful reading experience which will inspire teachers, students
and researchers to enjoy teaching and learning geoscience. Hopefully, this book will
contribute to the recognition of this scientific area as worthy of more focus in future
science curricula reforms and will encourage the development of further related
research studies.
Aveiro, Portugal Nilza Costa

Contents
Part I
1 Fostering Deep Understanding Through the Use of Geoscience
Investigations, Models and Thought Experiments: The Earth
Science Education Unit and Earthlearningidea Experiences ............. 3
Chris King
2 Models in Geoscience Classes: How Can Teachers Use Them?.......... 25
Joana Torres and Clara Vasconcelos
3 Simulating an Earthquake and Its Effects on Soils
and Buildings: A Practical Activity to Disseminate
Geosciences and Its Evaluation.............................................................. 43
Sara Moutinho, Rui Moura, and Clara Vasconcelos
Part II
4 Earth Systems Education and the Development
of Environmental Insight........................................................................ 59
Nir Orion
5 Field Classes for Geosciences Education: Teachers’
Concepts and Practices ........................................................................... 73
Celeste R. Gomes, Armando F. Rocha, Joaquim
A. Ferreira, and Ana Rola
6 The Importance of Geology as a Contribution to the
Awareness of the Cultural Heritage as an Educational
Resource ................................................................................................... 85
Ana Moutinho and Ângela Almeida
vii
viii Contents
7 Exploring Rocks and Minerals: An Experience of Integrated

Educational Approach ............................................................................ 103
Ana V. Rodrigues, Patrícia João, and Isabel P. Martins
8 Fossils, Smartphones, Geodiversity, Internet, and Outdoor
Activities: A Technological Geoeducational Bundle ............................ 133
Carlos Marques da Silva
Part III
9 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teach Geoscience .......................... 161
Arlino Camargo Livério Jr., Eduardo M. Santos, Adriana
P.B. Tufaile, Alberto Tufaile, Carlos Molina Mendes,
and Rosely Aparecida Liguori Imbernon
10 Textbooks: A Tool to Support Geosciences Learning .......................... 173
David Brusi, Amelia Calonge, and Edson Souza
11 Promoting Science-Technology-Society/Critical Thinking
Orientation in Basic Education.............................................................. 195
Rui Marques Vieira, L.F. Moreira, and Celina Tenreiro-Vieira
12 Geomedicine and History of Science: A Contribution
to Scientific Culture ................................................................................ 207
Isilda Rodrigues, Joana Torres, and Paulo Favas
13 Education and Geoethics: Three Fictional Life Stories....................... 225
Clara Vasconcelos, Maria Luísa Vasconcelos, and Joana Torres
Introduction
At least since the middle of the nineteenth century, inquiry-based teaching has been
in the educational landscape, encouraging students to question and to research in a
way similar to scientists when they study the natural world and thus mirroring sci-
entific inquiry. At that time, the relevance of teaching science and its inclusion in the
curricula resulted from the need to teach students something that could not be taught
in any other subject – the development of scientific reasoning and scientific
processes.
Laboratory and field activities, problem-based learned scenarios, collaborative
work and other types of strategies and educational resources were developed so as
to help the science teacher in his mediation role. As such, we may ask why it is that
this scientific area – Science Education – is having so much difficulty in consolidat-
ing its contribution to science and acquiring an equal recognition among other sci-
ences (geology, biology, chemistry, physics, etc.).
Although in some western countries the reforms of science curricula pursue a
better scientific literacy objective, which results from applying learning strategies
that promote students’ autonomy, the fact is that the reforms to curricula in other
countries are usually linked to hermetic assumptions and a top-down implementa-
tion rationale. As such, the contribution of educational research is greatly reduced,
since it is rarely considered in the curricula reforms, thus precluding its contents
from reaching and improving science classes. This generalized and international
lack of recognition of the efforts of Science Education in improving teaching and
learning processes increases the need for better and more innovative scientific
research in this field and its publication in international and index books and
journals.
A clear distinction may also be made regarding the number of researchers and
the number of publications that exist in different Science Education areas. No doubt
Geoscience Education has the narrower outreach. The fewer number of researchers
and the lower number of teachers who graduated in this area may explain this.
Moreover, the fact that geoscience teaching is generally aligned with (and is vaguely
addressed in) other scientific areas (geography, biology or even others) makes it
more difficult for Geoscience Education to consolidate its contribution.
ix
x Introduction
The significant distinction between Science for Teaching and Science Teaching
should also be clearly noted. No doubt, scientists perform the first one. But Science
Teaching requires both educational knowledge and scientific background and thus
should be undertaken by science educators. The need to merge this scientific and
educational knowledge is essential and justifies the efforts for the consolidation and
recognition of the relevance of Science Education.
The book herein presented focuses on Geoscience Education and indoor and
outdoor activities that may further its improvement. Portuguese researchers together
with their Master’s and PhD students are the authors of the majority of the works,
which also demonstrates the willingness and efforts to develop and consolidate this
area. The contribution of international authors enriches this publication and
enhances the strong commitment of the Portuguese geoscience educators to pursue
this endeavour. As such, some chapters have the contribution of well-known and
recognized authors from the United Kingdom, Israel, Brazil and Spain. These con-
tributions deepen the knowledge and broaden the outreach of this work by enlarging
the variety of topics, educational research methodologies and innovative experi-
ences that are considered in this area.
The first section is related to model-based teaching in Geoscience Education.
These chapters refer to the importance that laboratory work holds for the geoscien-
tist. While this importance has been claimed and accepted since the 1990s, there is
still a need to clarify the differences between analogous models, required for
researching, and the simpler teaching models that help students to depict their con-
ceptual or erroneous models. The Earth Learning Idea project is presented in the
first chapter, and the two chapters that follow emphasize the way geoscience models
can be used in teaching and in disseminating geoscience. Each of these chapters
promotes a deeper understanding of science through the use of geoscience research,
models and experiments.
The second section was conceived of as a guide to geoscience teachers during
their field trips. It focuses on re-establishing the importance of geosciences in earth
systems education and proposes several environmental insights. The fieldwork by
Professor Nir Orin establishes a clear linkage between learning through the earth
systems approach and the development of system thinking abilities, which are at the
core of environmental insights and positive environmental behaviour. The following
chapter reflects upon the relevance of beginning to teach geoscience even before
children attend school. This section ends with two chapters that reflect upon the use
of distant laboratory activities so as to promote earth sciences education in high
schools and the importance of geology as an educational resource that contributes
to the awareness of cultural heritage.
The final section presents an interdisciplinary approach. The need for this trans-
versal approach arises from the relevance that other methodologies and resources
also have in the process of teaching geoscience. Accordingly, textbook analyses, a
science/technology/society orientation aiming to promote students’ critical thinking
and a proposal to incorporate geomedicine in the geoscience curriculum, are
explored. Music is also the central theme of one specific chapter, showing us the
Introduction xi
unexpected results that were obtained through this interdisciplinary approach and
illustrating the importance of this educational resource in geoscience teaching.
The book concludes with an approach to geoethics as a redeveloped area, empha-
sizing the relevance of its alignment with geoscience curriculum. By referring to the
United Nations Global Agenda 2030, presented at the end of 2015, a reflection is
made upon the impacts of globalization and on how to achieve sustainable eco-
nomic growth and development. Geopolitical and geoethical concerns are addressed
through the presentation of three fictional stories that aim to pinpoint a few relevant
transversal geo-related problems. The ultimate aim is to signal how crucial it is to
be aware of geoethics so as to recognize the overall impacts that models of growth
and the use of geo resources have on the Earth and the well-being of mankind. An
awareness of geoethics contributes to a more sustainable development and balanced
globalization. Geoscience Education, as it is proposed, stands at the basis of this
awareness.
Hopefully, this book will contribute to the consolidation and recognition of
Geoscience Education as a key area for scientific literacy and sustainable
development.
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto Clara Vasconcelos

Instituto de Ciências da Terra (Pólo do Porto)
Porto, Portugal
Part I
Chapter 1
Fostering Deep Understanding Through
the Use of Geoscience Investigations, Models
and Thought Experiments: The Earth Science
Education Unit and Earthlearningidea
Experiences
Chris King
1.1 Deep Understanding
The term ‘deep understanding’ is widely used in educational discussions but is

rarely defined in the educational literature. It forms part of the educational debate in
Canada where the Teaching for Deep Understanding book has been published (Ed.
Leithwood et al. 2006) followed by the Teaching for Deep Understanding educa-
tional resource (ETFO 2013). The ETFO resource explains that, ‘Teaching for deep
understanding innovations are based on sound pedagogical methods of teaching
which encourage students to question, illustrate, and explain beyond the facts. The
students demonstrate interest in exploring further and delving deeper into a topic,
while showing greater levels of comprehension’ (p25).
‘Deep understanding’ in the context of science education has been discussed by
Zirbel (2006: 1) who suggests it is promoted by ‘making the students to question
their inherent conceptual knowledge of how the world works and on how to correct
these views should they be different from the scientifically proven views’.
Discussions about ‘deep understanding’ have often been related to the debates
about ‘deep learning’, mainly focusing on learning in higher education. ‘Deep
learning’ as opposed to ‘surface learning’ was first introduced by Marton and Säljö
in 1976 and was later developed by a number of authors including Entwistle (1981).
The deep approach described by Light (2009: 52) as adapted from Entwistle (2005:
19) involves:
• ‘Relating ideas to previous knowledge and experience
• Looking for patterns and underlying principles
• Checking evidence and relating it to conclusions
• Examining logic and argument cautiously and critically
• Becoming actively interested in the course content’
C. King (*)
Department of Earth Science Education, Keele University, Keele, UK
e-mail: c.j.h.king@keele.ac.uk
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

C. Vasconcelos (ed.), Geoscience Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43319-6_1
4 C. King
Meanwhile, advocates of teaching critical thinking argue that this can partly be
achieved by ‘deep questioning’. For example, Paul and Elder begin the preamble to
their guide to The Art of Socratic Questioning with ‘It is hard to imagine someone
being a critical thinker whilst lacking the disposition to question in a deep way (…)
those truly interested in critical thinking will also be interested in the art of deep
questioning’ (2006: 0). The historical foundations of questioning, which ‘began
about 2000 years ago with Socrates (…)’ (Robitaille and Maldonaldo 2015: 7) is
further discussed by these authors who note the support of Bloom (1984) and Adler
(1997) for this approach. They discuss the important contribution of deep question-
ing in the professional development of teachers and the importance of ‘students
having authentic and deep conversations about content, which includes their gen-
eration of higher-order questions followed by collaborative discussion about those
questions’ (p14).
It was with the objective of fostering ‘deep understanding’, promoting ‘deep
questioning’ and as many of the elements of ‘deep learning’ as possible (as described
by the authors above), in the teachers of Earth science and their pupils, that the three
related initiatives described below were undertaken. The ‘story’ of these develop-
ments began with publication of the Earth Science Teachers’ Association Science of
the Earth series, continued through the Earth Science Education Unit professional
development initiative in the UK and reached a worldwide audience through the
Earthlearningidea website.
1.2 Initiatives to Foster Deep Understanding in Geoscience

Education
1.2.1 ESTA’s ‘Science of the Earth’
The Earth Science Teachers’ Association (ESTA) in the UK published its Science of
the Earth series in the 1990s (Kennett and King 1998). Each Science of the Earth
booklet contained a series of practical activities designed to teach Earth science in
engaging ways, whilst enhancing the subject knowledge of teachers and pupils. The
booklets were aimed at the Earth science component of the newly instigated national
curriculum for science (for England, Wales and Northern Ireland) which required
all pupils to be taught some Earth science as part of the science curriculum for the
first time.
Despite the availability of the Science of the Earth materials, research carried out
in the late 1990s showed that most of those teaching the Earth science component
of the science curriculum had received a poor education in Earth science them-
selves, used science textbooks written for pupils and their science-teaching col-
leagues as their main support, did not use Earth science-specific materials (such as
Science of the Earth) and rarely attended professional development in Earth science
1 Fostering Deep Understanding Through the Use of Geoscience Investigations… 5
education (King 2001). Later research showed that more than half of the Earth sci-
ence in the national curriculum was inadequately covered by UK science textbooks
and that they contained a very high level of error, averaging one error/misconcep-
tion per page of Earth science content (King et al. 2005; King 2010). The research
clearly showed that the quality of teaching of the Earth science component of the
curriculum across the country was likely to be poor.
1.2.2 The Earth Science Education Unit (ESEU)
The research described above was used as the basis of a bid to the trade association
of the oil industry in the UK (UKOOA, later Oil and Gas UK) for funding to develop
a programme to present short professional development workshops to science
teachers and trainee (preservice) teachers free of charge. The workshops would be
based on ESTA’s Science of the Earth activities. The bid was successful, the ESEU
was formed, and Oil and Gas UK provided funding from 1999 to 2015 to roll out
the initiative across the UK, for secondary (high school) teachers and trainees. The
remit was extended later to primary (elementary) teachers and to geography teach-
ers. The workshops were presented by a network of around 40 trained and experi-
enced facilitators across the UK.
The workshops were evaluated by a post-workshop questionnaire for their ‘effec-
tiveness’, ‘interest’, ‘relevance’ and ‘value’ on a 1 (high) to 5 (low) Likert scale over
the 16 years of workshop presentation. Mean annual figures were very pleasing,
ranging from 1.57 at best to a lowest of 1.96. The feedback also included a wide
range of very positive comments, such as ‘I was made to feel enthusiastic about
earth sciences, which I never thought would happen’, ‘I won’t think rocks are so
boring in future’ and ‘The best INSET day I have ever had’. Comments like these
were particularly welcome from participants who had previously thought ‘Rocks
are boring’.
The impact of ESEU workshops on teaching in secondary (high) schools was
researched in 2003/2004 and repeated in 2007/2008. The questionnaire feedback
(31 % response in both 2003/2004 and 2007/2008) showed that in well over two
thirds of the schools visited (94 % in 2003/2004; 70 % in 2007/2008), the school’s
schemes of work (teaching schemes) had been changed in the light of the profes-
sional development received. Thus the teaching of Earth science to all pupils receiv-
ing those schemes of work had been revamped following the workshops (King and
Thomas 2012; Lydon and King 2009). This positive impact is supported by anec-
dotal evidence, such as a comment from Newman University, ‘PGCE tutors at
Newman University, Birmingham had observed a noticeable improvement in Earth
science teaching over the last few years when visiting schools and that was down to
ESEU’.
Over its 16 years of operation, to December 2015, the Earth Science Education
Unit presented workshops to 11,979 teachers and 25,512 trainees (preservice
6 C. King
teachers) across the UK, a total of 37,491 individuals. The mean cost of the initia-
tive per participant was £67 (around 75 Euro or 85 USD).
Important success criteria for the ESEU include:
• The positive post-workshop evaluation feedback.
• The fact that well over two thirds of the schools visited in a year had changed
their teaching schemes of work.
• The fact that by 2015, ESEU was visiting more than half the secondary science
teacher training institutions in England and Wales (the maintenance of these year
on year bookings shows the high value placed on ESEU workshops by the
teacher educators concerned).
No anecdotal evidence or evidence from the literature has been found of other
interventions around the world providing professional development similar to that
of the ESEU (King and Thomas 2012). Thus ESEU’s methodology of an industry-
education partnership providing successful professional development to teachers
and trainees, free of charge and nationwide, on a long-term basis, seems to be
unique.
Part of the reason for the success of the short (usually 90 min long) ESEU work-
shops is probably because of their subject-specific nature. In his review of profes-
sional development initiatives, Adey (2004) commented: ‘There is universal
condemnation in the research literature on professional development for the one
shot “INSET day” as a method of bringing about any real change in teaching prac-
tice’, but then went on to add: ‘Perhaps the only exception to this rule is the intro-
duction of a very specific technical skill, such as the use of a piece of software’
(Adey 2004:161). In the light of ESEU research, Lydon and King added ‘The evi-
dence described above indicates that this exception should be extended to include
the transfer of practical science teaching ideas (and fostering of skills and confi-
dence in using them, with the associated building of knowledge and understanding),
where training is delivered by a well-trained provider, within a well-structured
workshop that provides opportunities for exploration, practice and peer feedback’
(Lydon and King 2009: 81).
Part of the success of ESEU workshops may be the strategy employed of asking
participants to try out the activities themselves before demonstrating and comment-
ing on them to the rest of the group. In this way, each of the participants is involved,
at least second hand, in the testing and evaluation of each activity, together with
exploring how it develops knowledge and understanding. The teacher discussion
that develops around each activity exemplifies deep questioning, provides advice
and addresses misconceptions, whilst enhancing practical and investigative teach-
ing skills.
Another reason for the success of the initiative may be the high quality and vari-
ety of the workshop activities, as discussed later.
1.2.3 The Earthlearningidea Initiative
2008 was designated as the International Year of Planet Earth (IYPE) by the United
Nations, and, in the run up to this year, ESEU submitted a bid for IYPE funding to
run pilot ESEU initiatives in the Philippines, South Africa and Trinidad. The lack of
success of this bid provoked thought on how an international educational contribu-
tion to the IYPE could be undertaken with no funding. The result was that three
ESEU facilitators decided to work on a voluntary basis to publish a new Earth sci-
ence teaching activity each week during 2008. A new website was developed, called
Earthlearningidea (see Earthlearningidea website), and many of the activities previ-
ously published in the Science of the Earth series, and later used in ESEU work-
shops, were written up for publication on the new website.
This work provoked the development of new Earth learning activities, the offer of
other activities by geoscience educators, and the offer to translate the activities into
Spanish. The offers of new activities and translations were eagerly accepted, and
these were later followed by the offer of translations into other languages as well.
Each Earthlearningidea is briefly described as simply as possible using photo-
graphs and diagrams, usually on a single page. This is followed by teacher backup
materials such as pupil learning outcomes, underlying principles, thinking skill
development, resource lists, the ‘answers’, etc. Simple language is used to make the
ideas as accessible as possible, particularly for those for whom English is their sec-
ond language. All the early Earthlearningideas focussed on relatively straightfor-
ward ideas and used only simple apparatus and materials, likely to be available to
teachers in developing countries. However, when it became clear that the activities
were being widely used in more developed countries as well, later activities used
more abstract ideas and/or apparatus and materials likely to be available in science
labs in these countries (these activities were called ELI+ ideas). More recently
Earthlearningideas for early years (kindergarten-aged) children have been added
too (called ELI early years).
Currently, activities are being published at a rate of one every 2 weeks, and there
are 50 more activities in the pipeline. By May 2015 there had been more than 2.5
million downloads of the pdf files of the activities, at a rate of more than 55,000 per
month during 2016 (Fig. 1.1). Two hundred and thirty activities had been published
in English, and the website carried nearly 700 translations into 11 languages
(Fig. 1.2). The Earthlearningidea blog had been accessed in 198 countries and more
than 9500 cities and towns worldwide. Meanwhile, Earthlearningideas had been
used as the basis of teacher training workshops in at least ten countries across the
globe.
The educational reasons for the startling success of this unfunded initiative,
based on the efforts of three individuals working on a voluntary basis, will be dis-
cussed below. However, one reason may be that working on a voluntary basis
encourages others to do the same. The unexpected result has been the momentum
built up by volunteer individuals across the world translating the ideas and promot-
ing and supporting the initiative.
8 C. King
70000
Earthlearningidea activitypPdf downloads
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Nov Apr Sep Feb July Dec May Oct Mar Aug Jan Jun Nov Apr Sep Feb Jul Dec
'08 '09 '09 '10 '10 '10 '11 '11 '12 '12 '13 '13 '13 '14 '14 '15 '15 '15
Fig. 1.1 Monthly numbers of Earthlearningidea pdf downloads, November 2008 to April 2016
Cumulative graph - Earthlearningidea activities added to ELI

website
250 English
Earthlearningidea activities published
Castellano/Spanish
200 Norwegian
Italian
150 Mandarin
Tamil
100
Portuguese
German
50
Catalan
South Korean
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Polish
Fig. 1.2 Translations of Earthlearningideas to December 2015
Most of the Earth Science Education Unit activities, together with a range of
other activities, now appear on the Earthlearningidea website or will be published
during this year. The high value of these activities to teachers has been demon-
strated by the success of both the ESEU and Earthlearningidea initiatives. Thus the
activities are worthy of further analysis to distinguish the different types and
approaches used and to discuss their pedagogical value.
1.3 Analysis of Geoscience Teaching Activities:

Strategy Used
The rationale for the choice of categories used in the analysis is given below.
Soon after the national curriculum for science was first published in England and
Wales, the government’s National Curriculum Council (NCC) became concerned
that teachers of science lacked understanding of the pedagogical value of different
types of practical activities in science and so published a guide which recognised
four different types of practical work (NCC 1993), as follows:
• Basic skills – ‘used to develop skills such as selecting and using equipment; dis-
play skills, such as drawing graphs; basic practical techniques, such as measur-
ing force, pH, temperature, etc’ (p14).
• Observations – ‘[these] can take a variety of forms which may involve sorting
and classifying or noting similarities and differences; provide opportunities for
pupils to use knowledge and understanding to describe the important features of
some object or event they are studying; act as a starting point for investigations,
serving to encourage the formulation of questions, predictions or hypotheses’
(p16).
• Illustrations – ‘to give pupils a first-hand experience of a concept or phenome-
non (…) By following the instructions it is hoped that all pupils will think about
and possibly understand the concept or phenomenon (…) Teacher demonstration
can also be a valuable and powerful way of illustrating aspects of conceptual
understanding’ (p17).
• Investigations – ‘Pupils should be able to make decisions about the identification
and manipulation of variables (…)’ (p18) together with how the investigation is
carried out and the results interpreted.
This guide provided the background to the promotion by the NCC of ‘investiga-
tion’ as the most important and valuable part of science practical work that would
lead to understanding of, what was later described as, ‘How science works’ (QCA
2004:37).
Some of the ESEU activities published as Earthlearningideas can be used to
address all four of these forms of practical work, depending upon how the learning
objectives given to the pupils are set.
For example, the ESEU activity ‘Flowing water-moving sand’ published as
Earthlearningidea ‘Mighty river in a small gutter’, uses a metre-length square sec-
tion of guttering, with end pieces, filled with sand to near the top, to study the effects
of flowing water on loose sand. The gutter is set up as in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 with a
wooden block used to give the gutter a slope towards a sink (or bucket) to collect the
overflow and a water supply provided by a rubber tube connected to a tap (or a jug
of water).
Fig. 1.3 Guttering set up for the ESEU activity ‘flowing water, moving sand’ (Diagram: ESEU)
Fig. 1.4 Observing the gutter (Photo: Peter Kennett)

Using this apparatus, the following learning outcomes could be set for pupils:
• Basic skills – measure and record the angle of slope, the rate of flow of water
from the tap and the rate of flow of water across the sand.
• Observations – point out where most of the erosion, most of the transportation
and most of the deposition are taking place and explain these observations.
• Illustrations – the pattern of channels formed as the water flows over the sand
develops in the same way as the pattern developed by water flowing over a beach.
Describe this pattern (orally, in writing or by using annotated diagrams/
photographs).
• Investigations – use the apparatus to investigate different factors that affect the
rates of sediment erosion, transportation and deposition and prepare a report on
the investigation.
The results of these activities are likely to be as follows:
• Basic skills – the angle of slope is measured with a protractor, the flow from the
tap can be measured by collecting it in a measuring cylinder over a measured
time and given in ml sec−1; the rate of flow of water over the sand can be mea-
sured through timing on how long it takes for a small polystyrene ball to be
moved over a measured length of gutter, in m sec−1.
• Observations – most erosion takes place at the erosion hollow formed where the
water enters the gutter; most transportation takes place in the channels between
the hollow and the pool; most deposition takes place in the pool at the end of the
gutter; the relative amounts of erosion, transportation and deposition are deter-
mined by the rate of flow: at high flow rates most erosion takes place; where flow
is moderate, most of the transportation occurs; and in the quiet pool area, deposi-
tion is predominant.
• Illustrations – the first flat-bedded channel which forms soon chokes with sedi-
ment, causing a new channel to form; as this process continues, a braided chan-
nel pattern develops, in the same way as where water flows over beach sand.
• Investigations – varying rates and patterns of erosion, transportation and deposi-
tion can be investigated at different slope angles, with different flow rates, with
sediments of differing sizes or mixes, with different amounts of sediment or with
different obstacles added to the gutter. Most erosion takes place where there are
the highest flows, as in the erosion hollow, on the outsides of braided channels or
as scours upstream of larger objects in the channel; most transportation is seen in
the channels, whilst most deposition occurs on the insides of braided channels,
as ‘sand shadows’ downstream of obstacles or in the micro-delta building out in
the pool at the bottom.
Used in these ways, this activity is not a model or a simulation, since the move-
ment of sediment by flowing water is being studied in the lab in just the same way
that it could be studied in the natural conditions of a beach or shallow river. However,
a second use of the activity is to model larger-scale phenomena. When the activity
12 C. King
is used as a model in this way, the erosion hollow simulates a plunge pool beneath
a waterfall, the small-scale braiding equates to the large-scale braiding of rivers
such as the Ganges, and the micro-delta is comparable with the large-scale deltas
that build out at the mouths of rivers like the Ganges. Used in this way, the model
can be investigated further by placing small plastic ‘houses’ near the channels to
discover the effects of erosion, by building ‘dams’ or by excavating new channels to
test their effects.
Many of the ESEU and Earthlearningideas use models, since models are fre-
quently used in both geoscience studies and geoscience education. Indeed Schwarz
et al. argue that ‘Modeling is a core practice in science and a central part of scientific
literacy’ (2009: 632), whilst Coll et al. also state that ‘Models and modelling are key
tools for scientists, science teachers and science learners’ (2005: 183). Many studies
have emphasised the importance of using models in science and science teaching
(such as Harrison and Treagust 2000; Windschitl et al. 2008; Oh and Oh 2011;
Passmore and Svoboda 2012 and Krell et al. 2014), whilst others have focussed
specifically on the use of models in geoscience teaching (e.g. Sibley 2009; Jee et al.
2010; Covitt et al. 2015; Torres & Vasconcelos 2016).
Windschitl et al. argue ‘The general aim of modeling is to test an idea – repre-
sented as a system of related processes, events, or structures – against observations
in the real world and to assess the adequacy of the representation (i.e., model)
against standards of evidence’ (2008: 944), whilst Sibley extends this view in the
context of geoscience education, stating that ‘Scientific models (…) are representa-
tions shared by experts to make predictions or retrodictions about concepts, objects,
systems, data, processes or events. These representations may be verbal, diagram-
matic, physical and/or mathematical. This definition agrees with variations pre-
sented by science (…) with the addition of the term retrodiction, an important aspect
of geological reasoning’ (2009: 255).
Models used in science education can be subdivided in a number of ways but
most geoscience-teaching models are of the physical type, whilst some are of the
diagrammatic type.
In addition to the types of models described above, the use of mental models has
also been widely discussed as representations of different phenomena held in the
minds of individuals (e.g. see Harrison and Treagust 2000, and books published in
1983 by Gentner and Stevens and Johnson-Laird).
Nersessian (1992) indicates that thought experiments are a type of mental model-
ling. The track record of thought experiments goes back into antiquity but has been
summarised and discussed in his Thought Experiments book by Sorenson in 1992
and by Schick and Vaughn in various editions of their book up to 2012. Thought
experiments can be valuable tools to geoscientists and geoscience educators, allow-
ing them in particular to visualise phenomena operating in the past, so allowing
retrodiction.
The preceding discussion leads to a system by which the geoscience activities,
as used by ESEU and as published as Earthlearningideas, can be analysed. Despite
the overlap noted above, the activities can be divided into those focussing primar-
ily on:
• Basic skills
• Observation
• Illustration
• Investigation
• Physical models
• Diagrammatic models
• Thought experiments
1.4 Analysis of Geoscience Teaching Activities: Results

and Exemplars
The Earthlearningidea activities published to date together with those in the pipe-
line for the remainder of 2016, a total of 250 activities, have been analysed accord-
ing to the system explained above, as shown in Table 1.1. There was a good deal of
overlap, particularly between the ‘illustration’ categories and the ‘physical models’
category as many physical models are used for illustration, whilst most of the illus-
trations were by physical models. The 30 ‘unattributed’ activities included mainly
games, discussion and misconception activities and activities concerning famous
geoscientists.
The analysis shows that nearly half the Earthlearningidea activities use physical
models and that most of these are used to illustrate Earth phenomena. A good num-
ber of the activities involve observation or thought experiments; some focus on
investigation, whilst only a small number use diagram-based models or implement
the teaching of basic skills. Earthlearningidea exemplars of each of these types of
activity are given below.
Table 1.1 An analysis of 250 Earthlearningidea activities

No. of activities of this Percentage of activities of this
Type of activity type/250 type/250
Basic skills 11 4
Observation 40 16
Illustration 98 39
Investigation 26 10
Diagrammatic models 13 5
Physical models 111 44
Thought experiments 32 13
Unattributed 30 12
14 C. King
1.4.1 Basic Skills Exemplar
‘The do-it-yourself dip and strike model (with DIY clinometer)’ Earthlearningidea
uses a model sloping surface to teach students about the differences between strike
directions, dip direction and apparent dip, whilst enabling them to measure dips
using a homemade clinometer (Fig. 1.5).
1.4.2 Observation Exemplar
The suite of Earthlearningidea building stone activities asks students to compare

photographs of a range of cut building stones with examples in their locality to help
them identify and be able to explain the original formation of the different types of
stone commonly used, as in ‘Building Stones 2 – Igneous rocks’ (Fig. 1.6).
1.4.3 Illustration Exemplar
The ‘How many Beany Beetles? the evolution game: investigating evolution by
adaptation and natural selection’ game is one of the few Earthlearningideas which
illustrate a phenomenon without the use of a physical model. This game, aimed at
primary-aged (elementary) pupils illustrates how natural selection occurs, with a
random element provided by the use of a dice. See Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.5 The bedding

plane model and
clinometer in use (Photo:
Chris King)
Fig. 1.6 Southwest

England granite (coin
20 mm in diameter)
(Photo: Peter Kennett)
Fig. 1.7 The ‘evolution game’ with modelling clay ‘beetles’ (Photo: Elizabeth Devon)
1.4.4 Investigation Exemplar
In the ‘Will my gravestone last?’ Earthlearningidea and ESEU activity, pupils inves-
tigate a range of scientific questions, which can be addressed by examining the ages,
distributions, facing directions and rock types of the gravestones, as pupils are doing
in Fig. 1.8.
16 C. King
Fig. 1.8 Pupils studying

gravestones (in a snow
flurry!) (Photo: Peter
Kennett)
1.4.5 Physical Model Exemplar
Since nearly half the Earthlearningideas involve physical models, many different
exemplars could have been chosen to illustrate this group. The example shown here
(Fig. 1.9) is the Earthlearningidea and ESEU activity, ‘Magnetic Earth: modelling
the magnetic field of the Earth’, where a large clay (Plasticine™) ball containing a
bar magnet is used with either a Magnaprobe™, a magnetised needle on a thread or
plotting compass to ‘map’ the magnetic field of the magnet and the model Earth in
three dimensions (used matchsticks are pushed into the clay in the direction of the
magnetic field at that point to plot the magnetic distribution).
1.4.6 Diagrammatic Model Exemplar
The Earthlearningidea and ESEU ‘The meeting of the dinosaurs – 100 million years
ago: the evidence given by dinosaur footprints’ example uses a map of dinosaur
footprints drawn to provide a stimulus for pupil thought and discussion (Fig. 1.10).
Pupils are asked to consider what might have happened in the hidden area to the
Fig. 1.9 A Magnaprobe™

hovering above the North
Pole of a bar magnet,
hidden inside a sphere of
Plasticine™ (Photo: Peter
Kennett)
Fig. 1.10 The first of the

‘meeting of the dinosaurs’
maps (Copyright, 1964,
American Geological
Institute. Adapted, with
permission, from
Investigation 19-2, Earth
Science Curriculum
Project Laboratory
Manual, Johnson
Publishing Company,
Boulder, Colorado, USA)
right and what evidence might be found there to substantiate their ideas. This is fol-
lowed by further two maps to take the discussion forward and is an activity devised
to highlight the importance of hypotheses and evidence to scientific enquiry.
1.4.7 Thought Experiment Exemplar
Thirty-two of the Earthlearningideas are thought experiments of different types and

most are presented as discussion activities designed to consolidate pupil under-
standing through debate by using their imaginations. An example is the ‘Sand on a
18 C. King
Fig. 1.11 A 2 mm diameter grain of yellow-coloured sand on a windowsill with a circle drawn
around it (Photo: Chris King)
sill: What will happen to a sand grain left on a window sill? – a rock cycle discus-
sion’, where a sand grain, painted in a bright colour and left on the classroom win-
dowsill (Fig. 1.11), is used as the prompt for a debate about ‘What might happen
next?’ The prompt is used to promote pupil discussion about rock cycle processes
and possible links to other Earth cycles.
1.5 Discussion
The success of the Earth Science Education Unit professional development pro-
gramme, and of the Earthlearningidea initiative to provide teaching activities for
geoscience educators worldwide, has been demonstrated by a number of indicators.
Whilst there may have been different factors contributing to the positive outcomes
of each initiative, the factor they share is the activities promoted by both
initiatives.
Whilst there is a wide range of activities, the largest percentage of them is based
on physical models used to illustrate geoscience phenomena. It may be the case that
the models themselves are the factor that makes them popular with teachers; how-
ever, it may be the way that the activities are used which is most significant. For
example, many of the activities are written to encompass ‘deep questioning’.
Examples of activities focussed specifically on deep questions include:
• The Earthlearningidea, ‘What was it like to be there – in the rocky world?: bring-
ing the formation of solid rock to life – by imagining yourself there when it
formed’, which asks:
‘If you were there when this rock was being formed:
• Could you stand up?
• What would you need to survive?
• What might you see?
• What might you hear?
• What might you taste, smell?
• What might you sense?
• What might you be feeling? – scared? – happy? – amazed?’
• The ‘From clay balls to the structure of the Earth: a discussion of how physics
can be used to probe Earth’s structure’ Earthlearningidea and ESEU activity,
which asks how the clay balls could be tested without destroying them, by using
any apparatus available in the school or in the local town/city.
• The ‘Earthquake through the window – what would you see, what would you
feel?: asking pupils to picture for themselves what an earthquake through the
window might look like’, where the Earthlearningidea asks:
‘If an earthquake struck now:
• What would you see through the window/doorway?
• What would be happening to the ground?
• What would be happening to the buildings and trees?
• What would the people be doing?
• What would it be like inside this building?
• How would you be feeling?
• What would you do? What should you tell your friends to do?’
• The ‘Fieldwork – the ‘All powerful’ strategy: discussing geological histories in
imaginative ways’ Earthlearningidea, which asks, ‘If I were “All Powerful” what
would I have to do to re-create the view you see before you?’, and gives some
starters to the pupils to help them to tackle this question, enabling them eventu-
ally to reconstruct the geological history of the area.
• The ‘Fieldwork – interactive re-creation: activities using simple transportable
apparatus to simulate features in the field’, which asks ‘If I wanted to recreate
this sedimentary structure here and now, what would I need?’ and then goes on
to do so, prompted by pupil discussion, in front of the feature found in the rock
exposure.
It may be that the asking of ‘deep questions’ like these promotes the ‘deep under-
standing’ and the ‘deep learning’ that teachers are seeking, which is why these
approaches are so successful.
20 C. King
1.6 Conclusion
Following the previous success of the Earth Science Education Unit, King and
Thomas (2012) provided the guidance in Box 1.1 to others considering the develop-
ment of a similar initiative. Following ESEU’s success, this guidance remains
current.
Box 1.1: Guidance on Launching a Workshop-Based Initiative, Based

on ESEU Experience
To launch a workshop-based educational initiative, like that of the ESEU, suc-
cessfully in a new jurisdiction, the following aspects appear to be critical:
• The content of the workshops must be part of the national curriculum or
national standards.
• Suitable materials must be available for use in devising workshops.
• Teachers and educators in the jurisdiction concerned must be involved in
the development of the workshops.
• Workshop materials should be hands-on, interactive and capable of being
implemented easily in schools.
• The materials should be well presented, with teacher guidance
• An enthusiastic leader or team is needed to lead the initiative.
• Significant and sustained funding is required to develop professional
development workshops and take them free of charge to schools and
teacher training institutions; this allows a network of workshop presenters
to be identified, trained and paid to take the workshops to the institutions
concerned.
• Because of the ‘gearing’ involved, it is much more efficient to present
workshops to teachers than to pupils.
• Similarly, it is more efficient to present workshops to trainee (preservice)
teachers than to practising teachers, since trainees will generally teach for
longer than practising teachers, and, by visiting the same institutions annu-
ally, a new group of trainees can receive the workshops each year.
• Effective methods of evaluation should be in place during all stages of the
initiative so that success and impact can be demonstrated to all the parties
involved.
From King and Thomas (2012: 34).
Similar guidance, for those considering the development of a web-based resource

like Earthlearningidea, is given in Box 1.2.
Box 1.2: Guidance on Launching a Web-Based Resource Similar to

Earthlearningidea
To successfully launch an Earthlearningidea-like web-based resource, these
aspects appear to be important.
The activities should:
• Be innovative.
• Be ‘hands-on’ and practical, if possible.
• If practical, use readily available equipment and resources.
• Ask ‘deep questions’ in order to develop critical thinking skills.
• Be written succinctly and clearly in accessible language.
• Provide a range of teacher backup information, such as pupil learning out-
comes, underlying principles, timing, resource lists, follow-up ideas and
the ‘answers’.
• Address clear curriculum needs.
The website should:
• Provide the activities as relatively short pdf downloads free of charge.
• Post activities on a regular basis, as this provides regular alerts and remind-
ers to subscribers.
• Record and publicise data on usage.
• Provide a facility, e.g. a blog, so that feedback can be provided.
• Highlight a range of activities including the most recently posted.
• Include a high-quality search facility.
• Be able to accommodate translations.
The initiative should be:
• Widely publicised to an international audience
• Maintained over time, in order to build a profile
Our experience of undertaking this initiative on a voluntary basis is that the
voluntary aspect has encouraged other volunteers to offer translations, man-
age websites in different languages, disseminate the information and give
wider support, thus contributing greatly to the success of the project.
It would be wonderful to hear of successes like these being replicated elsewhere

in the world. Please contact the author if this is the case.
Acknowledgement The Earth Science Education Unit was funded by Oil and Gas UK (formerly
UKOOA) from 1999 to 2015, and this funding is very gratefully acknowledged. The support for the
Earthlearningidea initiative, run by Chris King, Peter Kennett and Elizabeth Devon, of many geo-
science educators across the world is also greatly appreciated. Thanks to Peter Kennett and
Elizabeth Devon for their comments on an earlier draft of this report.
22 C. King
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Chapter 2
Models in Geoscience Classes: How Can
Teachers Use Them?
Joana Torres and Clara Vasconcelos
2.1 Models in Science
Scientific models are considered to be fundamental in scientific activity, being not only
products of science but also tools and processes of science, which aim to explain or
predict target phenomena (Cheng and Lin 2015). Chamizo (2013) argue that one of the
main activities of scientists is to evaluate which models fit better with the available
evidences, seeking for the best explanation for some phenomena (Chamizo 2013;
Driver et al. 2000). Koponen and Tala (2014) claim that “models are central knowledge
structures in science and vehicles for developing, representing and communication
ideas” (p. 1143). Passmore et al. (2014) also state that “models are at the centre of the
day-to-day work of science; they are the functional units of scientific thought” (p.1174).
Despite the variety of scientific model definitions found in the literature (Chamizo
2013; Giere 2010; Gilbert and Ireton 2003; Oh and Oh 2011; Schwarz and
Gwekwerere 2007), their relevance in science is undeniable. In general terms, we
may say that scientific models are representations of different aspects of the world,
which are developed according to a specific goal (Chamizo 2010, 2013; Giere
2010). Scientific models may represent a variety of entities, such as objects, phe-
nomena, processes and ideas (usually referred to as “target”), in a way that simpli-
fies what is represented (Oh and Oh 2011). In fact, according to the Intentional
Conception of Scientific Representation proposed by Giere (2010), models result
from the objectives, interpretation and knowledge of the scientist, being considered
intentional and simplified representations. As a result, models are not copies of
J. Torres (*) C. Vasconcelos

Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências da Terra
(Pólo do Porto), Porto, Portugal
e-mail: joana.torres@fc.up.pt; csvascon@fc.up.pt

26 J. Torres and C. Vasconcelos
reality, but representations which are similar to the world only to the intended
degree of accuracy and according to modeller interpretation. Having in mind this
intentional conception of scientific representation, it becomes obvious that multiple
models exist to study different aspects of the same target, as the scientists specify
which aspects they intend to study [“(…) agents specify which similarities are
intended(…)”, as claimed by Giere (2010, p. 274)]. In the same way, multiple mod-
els may also exist to study the same aspect of the world, as scientists may have dif-
ferent ideas and may rely on different resources to build models (Oh and Oh 2011).
Scientific models may change along with the scientific knowledge development.
If scientific knowledge is tentative and may change according to new data and to the
reinterpretation of existing evidence (Lederman et al. 2002), it seems obvious that
scientific models (that play a crucial role in scientific knowledge construction and
development) also evolve (Oh and Oh 2011). Having this in mind, historical models
were consensus models (i.e. models that have gained acceptance among scientific
community) that were produced in specific historical context and that were later
superseded by other models (Gilbert et al. 2000; Justi 2000).
A model is also considered to be a mediator connecting a theory and a phenom-
enon, as its construction from data provides useful insight for the development of a
theory. Also, we can better understand theories when they are reified into a model,
which may map the theory onto the natural world (Oh and Oh 2011).
Regarding the theory-to-model relationship, Winsberg (2001) stated that theory
guides model development. However, in some cases, in the absence of established
theories and of well-known targets, models are considered to be, essentially, tools
for thinking, reasoning and exploring theoretical ideas (Koponen and Tala 2014). In
fact, scientists may design models that contain objects thought not to exist in the
real world, through inferences. Scientists may thus design, invent and infer new
realities, in order to obtain new information about phenomena, whose processes are
not observable (Halloun 2007; Oh and Oh 2011). For example, through the Standard
Model of particle physics, which describes the composition of the world around us
at a subatomic level, scientists theorised about the existence of a subatomic particle
that gives mass to particles (Higgs boson). Almost 50 years later, a particle consis-
tent with that particle predicted by the Standard Model was observed at CERN’s
Large Hadron Collider.
Scientific models are thus fundamental research tools (Cheng and Lin 2015),
which represents, describes, explain and predict particular phenomena (Baetu 2014;
Oh and Oh 2011). Scientific models prompt visualisation, which supports creativity
and favours understanding. Moreover, they function as auxiliary resources in the
communication and dissemination of science.
There is a wide variety of typologies of models. For example, Justi (2000) pre-
sented a typology where models were considered to be historical or hybrid, while
Chamizo (2013) presented one that divides models into two types: mental models
and material models, where the latest can be symbolic, experimental or iconic. When
describing the interaction between the real world, mental models, material models
and modelling, Chamizo (2013) pointed out a unique feature of chemical modelling:
the construction of new artificial substances that consequently change the real world.
2 Models in Geoscience Classes: How Can Teachers Use Them? 27
Undoubtedly, different models may be used with different purposes, depending

on a diversity of factors, namely, the scientific area we are talking about. For exam-
ple, in biology, model organisms play a major contribution to the development of
knowledge regarding the causes and mechanisms of biological phenomena (Baetu
2014). In this case, models serve as exemplars which lead to the production of
knowledge that can be transferred to other examples and entities (Creager et al.
2007).
In physics, Galileo represents a turning point between ancient and modern sci-
ence in the Western world, given his revolutionary methodological contribution by
considering idealised models of phenomena (Halloun 2007; Nola 2004). His mode
of inquiry consisted mainly of a cycle of model construction, analysis and corrobo-
ration (Halloun 2007).
In geology, Sibley (2009) highlights the addition of retrodiction as an important
role of models in geology, taking into account the relevance of making inferences
about past events in this scientific area.
2.1.1 Geoscientific Models
As described above, scientific models are extremely important in scientific knowl-

edge construction and development. In geology, models and analogical reasoning
acquire an even greater relevance as this scientific area heavily deals with processes
and forces that cannot be directly perceived (Frodeman 1995; Jee et al. 2010).
Despite the undeniable importance of models in geological research, its use was
heavily contested from the very beginning, as geology was mainly considered a
field science (Brandstetter 2011; Oreskes 2007; Vasconcelos and Torres 2015).
However, James Hall (1761–1832), who is considered the father of experimental
geology, tried to bring geology and modelling experiments into the laboratory, since
the early nineteenth century.
In order to explain the origin of the folds that he observed in mountain ranges,
Hall constructed a model, known as “Hall’s compression box”. In this box, he
placed layers of cloth that represented the strata and that were compressed horizon-
tally by two wooden boards, reproducing the formation of folded structures
(Graveleau et al. 2012; Oreskes 2007).
In spite of being successful in representing these folded structures, the use of
those laboratory methods in geology was highly criticised, namely, by his teacher
James Hutton (1726–1797). In fact, 50 years passed until other geologists resumed
Hall’s work. Lyell (1871), Favre (1878), Daubrée (1879), Reade (1886) and Cadell
(1888) are examples of some relevant geologists that developed different kinds of
experiments to study diverse aspects of folded structures and to study mountain-
building processes (Graveleau et al. 2012; Oreskes 2007). Through geological pre-
suppositions and the establishment of scaling laws in the twentieth century, it
became possible to guarantee the physical realism of experiments and achieve
significant results with modelling experiments (Brandstetter 2011; Graveleau et al.

2012).
In fact, modelling experiments are widely used not only in the understanding of
mountain belt evolution but also in the understanding of other phenomena, such as
tsunamis and earthquakes and their effects on buildings and coastlines. Model
experiments are presently important tools for geological research and are used to
demonstrate theories, make hypotheses plausible, test explanations and to access
the inaccessible. Currently, geological models are also intimately associated with
the desired to predict the future. However, it is essential to stress that many models
and predictions in geology are complex and deal with many uncertainties, as it is
impossible to fully test them (Oreskes 2007). The recognition of these uncertainties
is considered to be important to “understand the nature of scientific modelling as
well as to make relevant public policies” (Oh & Oh, p. 1120). Contrary to what hap-
pens in other fields of knowledge (where predictions are important in the formula-
tion of scientific knowledge, given the possibility to test them), geological
predictions have mainly a social character (generated by social and political pres-
sures) rather than epistemic (Oreskes 2007).
2.2 Models in Science Education
Regarding the relevance of scientific models in science, models and modelling are
fundamental for students to reflect scientists’ activities and to develop competences
that are in accordance with the assumptions of an inquiry-based learning approach
(Vasconcelos et al. 2015). In fact, modelling activities prompt the development of
important inquiry skills, such as observing, questioning, hypothesising, predicting,
collecting, data analysing and conclusion formulating (Akerson et al. 2011).
Models and modelling activities in science classes are fundamental for students
to develop accurate mental models, as visual representations are considered to be
auxiliary resources to the reasoning with our internal representations, i.e. our men-
tal models. However, models and modelling activities are also important for stu-
dents to develop inquiry competences and to understand different aspects of the
nature of science (NOS), including the relevance of models in science (Torres and
Vasconcelos 2015). As Justi and Gilbert (2002, 2003) highlighted, models and mod-
elling activities prompt the learning: (i) of science, as students come to know the
major models that are the products of science (that correspond to scientific concep-
tual knowledge); (ii) of how to do science, by creating and testing their own models;
and (iii) about science, by constructing an adequate view of the nature of models
and by being able to appreciate the role of models in the accreditation and dissemi-
nation of the products of scientific enterprise.
As models and modelling are important aspects of science, the understanding of
the nature of models contributes to a deeper understanding of NOS (Cheng and Lin
2015). Crawford and Cullin (2004) argue that models and modelling activities in
science classes may prompt the understanding of NOS as students may better realise
the tentative nature of models, the role that creativity plays in the construction of
models, the multiplicity of models and the iterative aspect of modelling.
Torres et al. (2013) also underline the relevance of analysing historical models as
a contribution to the understanding of science as a human activity that changes over
the course of time, as there are many aspects that influence models and scientific
knowledge construction. As mentioned by Justi (2000), the analysis of different
historical models in association with the description of the historical context in
which they were developed shows “that scientists were normal individuals who
communicated their ideas to others, dealt with technological limitations, and who
constructed both good and not-so-good ideas” (p. 225), emphasising the non-linear
and dynamic evolution of scientific knowledge. Furthermore, Gericke and Hagberg
(2007) point out the relevance of historical models as contributors to the under-
standing of the role of scientific models in scientific knowledge construction.
There are many studies that uncover the positive aspects of resorting to models
and to modelling in science classes. For example, Halloun (2007) reveals that mod-
elling activities applied in secondary school and university physics courses pro-
mote: better conceptual understanding of scientific knowledge, better performance
in the exams, better views about NOS and better learning styles and more equitable
learning. Also, this author claim that students develop stable inquiry skills, tools and
learning styles that may be used in other situations and courses. Moreover, Koponen
and Tala (2014) underline the relevance of models in science education not only as
tools to demonstrate consensual scientific ideas but also as tools for creative think-
ing and for knowledge construction.
Haugwitz and Sandmann (2010) in a study with models of the heart and the
blood vessels also conclude that building models collaboratively simplifies the
learning process, fosters the learning of conceptual knowledge and promotes the
interest of the students.
Moutinho et al. (2014a), in a study conducted with geological models applied to
126 secondary students, also exhibit that modelling activities help students in the
restructuration of their mental models and in their approach to scientific models,
contributing to scientific knowledge construction and significant learning. Bolacha
et al. (2012) also point out the relevance of models in geoscience education, as they
prompt a better understanding of deep time and the development of important skills
in geology, such as the ability to imagine geological movements and sections. In
fact, as geological research relies heavily on models, using them in geoscience edu-
cation acquires an even greater importance (Gilbert and Ireton 2003; Oh and Oh
2011).
Despite the relevance attributed to models and modelling in science education,
some studies reveal that teachers do not systematically resort to models, revealing a
limited knowledge regarding the role of models in science and for teaching (Khan
2011; Van Driel and Verloop 1999; Wang et al. 2014). For example, in a study con-
ducted with Portuguese science teachers and high school students, some inconsis-
tencies were found regarding the definition of scientific models (Torres et al. 2015).
Also, it was verified that science teachers only use models to facilitate and to pro-
mote a better understanding of phenomena, processes and the evolution of natural
phenomena, emphasising the value of models in the learning of science over their
value in the learning to do science and about science. Furthermore, science students
also mentioned that they do not have an active role as they are supposed to have
during modelling. As mentioned by Van Driel and Verloop (1999, p.1141) “teachers
usually present the models to be learned as static facts” and do not give students the
opportunity to actively construct and revise models. Moreover, some inconsisten-
cies regarding the definition of scientific models were also found in another study
conducted with Portuguese prospective science teachers (Torres and Vasconcelos
2015).
Another interesting finding was related with the analyses of the syllabus of geol-
ogy and biology education subjects of seven Portuguese universities, which aimed
to understand to what extent prospective science teachers deal with these issues in
their initial training. It was also verified that little relevance was attributed to models
and modelling activities in the training of biology and geology teachers, as well as
to history of science, models and modelling as fundamental contributors to NOS
understanding (Torres and Vasconcelos 2014a).
According to these results, we consider it fundamental that teachers develop their
knowledge of models and modelling during their initial and continuous training. In
fact, it is of the utmost importance that teachers fully understand the nature of mod-
els and their full potential in order to conduct effective modelling activities in their
science classes (Krell et al. 2014; Mendonça and Justi 2011; Moutinho et al. 2014b).
In this regard, Oh and Oh (2011), based on a literature review, presented five sub-
topics about models that should be known by science teachers: (i) meanings of a
model, (ii) purposes of modelling, (iii) multiplicity of scientific models, (iv) change
in scientific models, (v) and uses of models in the science classrooms. Bearing in
mind these topics and considering the three major aims proposed by Justi and
Gilbert (2002, 2003) of models and modelling in science education (described
above), we developed and applied an intervention programme to prospective sci-
ence (biology and geology) teachers.
2.3 Intervention Programme: Scientific Models, Modelling

and Nature of Science in Science Teaching
In this section we present a set of activities designed to improve prospective (and

even in-service) science teachers’ views regarding models in science and for teach-
ing. These activities were used with prospective science teachers in Portugal, which
greatly improved their views regarding models.
The intervention programme was developed in five classes, of five hours each,
which were organised according to the objectives presented in Table 2.1.
Afterwards, we are going to describe some of the activities which may be used
in the training of science teachers. These activities were designed for them to
Table 2.1 Main objectives of each class of the intervention programme

Class Main objectives
1. Scientific models and the (i) To understand what scientific models are and with which
development of scientific purpose they are used in science
knowledge (ii) To realise the relevance of modelling in science, namely, in
geology
(learning about science)
2. Models and modelling in (iii) To understand the importance of models and modelling
science teaching activities as contributors to the development of accurate mental
models and to the understanding of scientific activity and of the
nature of science
(learning of science; of how to do science and about science)
3. Historical models and (iv) To recognise the relevance of resorting to historical models
nature of science in science in order to promote the understanding of different aspects of
teaching nature of science
(v) To reflect on how to teach nature of science aspects and on
the importance for students to develop accurate views of nature
of science
(learning about science and of science)
4. Models, modelling, (vi) To understand the advantages and precautions to take when
analogies and nature of using models and analogies in science classes
science (vii) To analyse how textbooks and the science (biology and
geology) standard documents cover nature of science, models
and modelling activities
(learning of science; of how to do science and about science)
5. Models, modelling, (viii) To apply all the concepts developed in the construction of
analogies and nature of didactic materials and lessons plans and to justify their options
science – lesson planning (learning of science; of how to do science and about science)
understand the role of scientific models in scientific research, as well as the rele-
vance of models and modelling in science teaching.
2.3.1 Class 1: Scientific Models and the Development

of Scientific Knowledge
In the first intervention, we started with a problematic scenario that included a con-
cept cartoon, where it discussed the existence of multiple models to represent the
Earth’s interior and some titles of relevant articles. After posing and discussing
some questions, prospective science teachers were asked to collaboratively respond
to some questions, based on the analysis of some papers, like those of Oh and Oh
(2011), Chamizo (2013) and Giere (2010).
Those questions, which were mainly related to the understanding of scientific
models and their role in science, were provided below:
(i) What are scientific models? Please, provide some examples.
(ii) What can be represented by models?
(iii) “Abstraction is considered to be a powerful tool in the process of knowledge

acquisition”. Explain how a model may be considered an abstraction tool
(aimed for knowledge acquisition and for the understanding of reality).
(iv) Please comment on this statement: “Models are copies of the reality”.
(v) Please comment on this statement: “A model is an abstract tool to analyse
reality designed from the observation of that reality”.
(vi) What types of models may exist?
(vii) What is the relationship between models and theories?
(viii) What are the purposes of using scientific models in science?
(ix) Oh and Oh (2011) pointed out five relevant subtopics about models that
should be known by science teachers. Please specify the subtopics and briefly
describe them.
(x) In science education research, the use of methodologies that are in line with
inquiry-based learning approaches is currently advocated. In this way, why
do you consider that resorting to modelling is important in science teaching?
(xi) Oh and Oh (2011) stated that using models in geology teaching is extremely
important. Can you please explain why?
After discussing the answers to all these questions, a PowerPoint presentation
was analysed in order to prompt the understanding of scientific model contributions
in the development of scientific areas, such as physics, chemistry, biology and geol-
ogy. As this intervention programme was specifically designed for prospective geol-
ogy and biology teachers, more emphasis was given to geology and biology
models.
Concerning biological models, different types of models were discussed, and the
relevance of model organisms in the development of biological knowledge was
highlighted. In geology, through an analysis of a historical perspective regarding the
use of models (which was briefly described in the Geoscientific Models section), the
purposes, potentials and limitations of models in geological research were analysed
and debated.
At the end of this class, a final worksheet was given for prospective science
teachers to apply their knowledge by analysing different models and by classifying
them according to a specific typology of models.
2.3.2 Class 2: Models and Modelling in Science Teaching
In this class it was intended that prospective science teachers understand the role of
models for teaching, by discussing some theoretical aspects but also by developing
modelling activities.
With the intent to address the three main aims suggested by Justi and Gilbert
(2002, 2003) of models and modelling in science education, we started this lesson
by deepening the understanding of the role of models in the understanding of
Fig. 2.1 Modelling activities (A) determination of the angle of slope; (B) influence of water in
slope stability
science. To that end, prospective science teachers were encouraged to represent

their own mental model about Earth’s structure models through a drawing, its expla-
nation and a concept map. By starting with this activity and by focusing on some
studies concerning Johnson-Laird mental model theories, the intention was to clar-
ify mental model concept and the relevance of using models in order to support the
construction of accurate mental models.
Afterwards, prospective science teachers experienced different modelling activi-
ties in a way that allowed them to better understand the role of models in the learn-
ing of science, of how to do science and about science. The activities started with a
problematic situation concerning spatial planning and landslides. Thus, in order to
seek for some solutions, prospective science teachers developed some modelling
activities (with physical but also with digital models) where they analysed several
factors that influence the stability of a slope and where they analysed the effective-
ness of different mitigation measures for landslides (Fig. 2.1).
In these activities, prospective science teachers developed their conceptual
knowledge regarding landslides (understanding of science), but they also developed
their inquiry skills (the understanding of how to do science). Specifically, they were
instigated to observe, to measure, to formulate hypotheses, to predict, to analyse
data, to reason and to formulate conclusions, as those activities were planned and
guided taken those intentions into account and as they also filled in two Gowin’s
Vees.
Furthermore, at the end of those modelling activities, prospective science teach-
ers were asked about the activities they conducted and about models in science.
With the intention to explicitly develop prospective science teachers’ knowledge
about science, they were asked to discuss and answer some questions, such as:
(i) In your opinion, what is a model in science?
(ii) For what purposes are models used in science? For what purpose have you
used models in these activities?
(iii) How close should a model be to its target?
(iv) What is important to include in a scientific model?

(v) Is it possible that scientists have more than one model to represent the same
target?
(vi) Is there any circumstance that requires the change of a scientific model?
(vii) Why do you consider it relevant to use models and modelling activities in sci-
ence classes?
After all these modelling activities, a final discussion was held regarding all the
advantages of models and modelling in science classes.
2.3.3 Class 3: Historical Models and Nature of Science

in Science Teaching
The third class was mainly designed for prospective science teachers to recognise
the relevance of historical models as contributors to the understanding of the nature
of science aspects, as well as to discuss and deepen their knowledge regarding those
NOS aspects.
Thus, using the historical evolution of Earth’s structure models as a starting point
for the discussion, prospective science teachers were asked to analyse three main
documents about the historical evolution of Earth’s structure models from the sixth
Fig. 2.2 Historical evolution of Earth’s structure models (Credits: Marta Queiroz, 2016)
century B.C. to the twenty-first century (Fig. 2.2) and to discuss different aspects of
science (Torres and Vasconcelos 2014b).
The first document entitled “Historical models of Earth’s internal structure – The
first models” makes a brief and quick description of some models from the sixth
century B.C. until 1665, with Kircher’s model. With this document, it was intended
that prospective science teachers discuss different aspects that influenced knowl-
edge development, as well as some aspects related to models’ nature and function.
After the analysis of the text, prospective science teachers were asked to reflect and
respond to some questions, such as:
(i) According to document one, which factors have influenced the development of
knowledge about the structure of the Earth?
(ii) Although being created from a sun, what is the main difference between the
model of Descartes and the model of Kircher? Which factors may constrain
that distinction?
(iii) What are the main functions of the models of Descartes and Kircher?
(iv) Deparis (2001) mentioned that history is rich in speculations, sometimes auda-
cious, about Earth’s depths. Why did he use the expression “speculations”?
Could “speculations” be replaced by another expression?
a. What are the conditions to construct models?
Moreover, some complementary activities were also conducted, in order to better
distinguish observations from inferences, relying, for example, on the inferences
that Cadell made based on his experimental models.
Regarding the second document, entitled “Historical models of Earth’s internal
structure – How to explain the Deluge?”, the influence of several aspects in scien-
tific knowledge development, specifically religion, was emphasised. Some ques-
tions were asked in order to prompt the reflection and debate, such as:
(i) In document two, it is well illustrated the influence of one factor in the devel-
opment of scientific knowledge about the structure of the Earth. Can you please
identify it?
(ii) What other factors do you think interfere in the development of scientific
knowledge?
(iii) Woodward became interested in the study of plants and minerals, giving spe-
cial attention to fossils. For him, fossils were remains of animals and plants
which are related to specific rock formations. According to this information
and to the text, do you consider that scientists’ knowledge influence their inter-
pretation of data and their conclusions (about Earth’s structure model)?
(iv) Mention some examples where experiences and previous ideas influence sci-
entists’ interpretation and conclusions.
At the end of the analysis of this document, some complementary activities,
which included analysis of images, the viewing of a documentary and discussion of
some paradigmatic examples, were conducted concerning the subjectivity in
science.
With the third document “Historical models of Earth’s internal structure – From
amazing to current models”, some characteristics of scientific knowledge were dis-
cussed, like its dynamism, subjectivity, tentativeness, empirical character and the
inexistence of a single scientific method. Some of the questions that were discussed
were presented below:
(i) Bearing in mind the examples given, how do you characterise the development
of scientific knowledge?
(ii) What are the contributions of analysing models in science teaching?
(iii) How certain are scientists concerning Earth’s structure model? What evidence
do you think scientists used to develop Earth’s structure model?
(iv) How can we distinguish science from other disciplines?
Some other complementary activities were also developed. Discussed were
many aspects like the difference between theories and laws and the relevance of
imagination and creativity in science (Torres and Vasconcelos 2014b).
At the end of this class, a discussion was held on the relevance of teaching NOS
aspects and also the importance of its teaching in an explicit, embedded and reflec-
tive way.
2.3.4 Class 4: Models, Modelling, Analogies and Nature

of Science
Our intention in the fourth intervention was to have prospective science teachers
reflect and critically analyse how textbooks and the science standard documents
convey the nature of science, models and modelling activities, as well the advan-
tages and precautions to take when using models and analogies in science classes.
As such, prospective science teachers analysed Biology and Geology curricula
of the 10th and 11th grade (secondary school), in order to examine the suggestions
and recommendations provided concerning models and NOS.
Afterwards, an activity that relies on an analogical comparison was analysed by
prospective science teachers in a way that prompted the discussion concerning the
use of analogies and models in science classroom, emphasising positive and nega-
tive aspects of their use, the characteristics of good analogies and models as well as
the precautions to take when using them.
With the final activity of this class, it was intended that prospective science
teachers critically analysed and compare different textbooks, concerning models
and NOS. All the analysed sections of the textbooks were related to the theme of
Earth’s structure models. Questions like “Which textbook takes into consideration
the mental models of students?” and “Which textbook gives more relevance to the
nature of models and to NOS aspects?” were used to guide prospective science
teachers’ analysis.
2.3.5 Class 5: Models, Modelling, Analogies and Nature

of Science – Lesson Planning
In the final intervention, prospective science teachers were asked to present and
discuss their final work. This consisted of a lesson plan and associated activities,
which were related to a geological theme. The lesson plan must include a modelling
activity and must contribute to the development of conceptual knowledge, to the
development of inquiry skills and also to the understanding of the nature of models
and of the nature of science.
2.4 General Results
In this section, we present some examples which concern the views held by pro-
spective science teachers in Portugal towards some aspects of models [which were
better described in Torres and Vasconcelos (in press) paper]. Here we just want to
emphasise that the prospective teachers that attended the intervention programme
improved their views concerning models, especially with the aspects presented in
Table 2.2.
2.5 Final Remarks
As presented in Table 2.2, it was verified that prospective science teachers, who
attended the described intervention programme, improve their views concerning
models in science and for teaching. In this way, and given the relevance of models
and modelling in science classes, we consider it to be fundamental to implement
these kinds of activities in initial and even in continuous teacher training, if we
expect to have an effective use of models and modelling in our science classrooms.
However, we also consider it to be fundamental to accompany teachers in their ini-
tial classes in order to understand how they deal with modelling activities and how
different factors may mediate the translation of their views and knowledge into their
classroom practices.
Table 2.2 Some examples of the views about models held by prospective science teachers in
Portugal (before and after the intervention programme)
Conceptions before the Conceptions after the intervention
Analysed aspects intervention programme programme
Scientific model In my opinion, a scientific model A scientific model is a demonstration of
concept is a set of ideas, theories and a phenomenon. It intends to represent
methods to follow towards a certain phenomena of reality that we
problem to solve are trying to explain
Sofia
Sofia It is a representation of an idea or a
phenomenon in science (…)
Rita
Scientific model The main purpose is to explain Scientific models are used to explain
purpose the reality in a simple manner, in and represent ideas or phenomena. In
a way that everyone understands science they are also used to predict.
it. Models are used in the (…) Models are very important in
classroom or in training context. geology, as it is a science that deals
A teaching or learning context with aspects that are not directly
may be completed with scientific observed
models
Rita Rita
Models’ Models present a huge relevance Models may be used in the classroom
contribution in in science teaching as they allowing students to reflect scientists’
science teaching facilitate understanding and they work. In this way, they can see
motivate students. Models analogous phenomena and eliminate
provide us an idea of how a misconceptions. They also understand
scientific theory will be in reality that models evolve, as well as scientific
and they represent that theory in knowledge. (…) [By building models,
an interactive way, facilitating students develop scientific reasoning
the teacher’ work (…)].
Initially, I thought that scientific models
were only used to facilitate the
understanding and to motivate students
Carolina Carolina
Favourable The main conditions are the Students should have creativity and
conditions for scientific knowledge concerning imagination and also sufficient
students to the topic and the availability of theoretical knowledge. The
develop models the material and resources to construction of models should be
construct the models supervised by a teacher to avoid
misconceptions
Vera Vera
Note: All the names provided are fictional
Acknowledgements This work was supported by FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia
– under PhD Grant number SFRH/BD/85735/2012 (Joana Torres PhD scholarship).
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Chapter 3
Simulating an Earthquake and Its Effects
on Soils and Buildings: A Practical Activity
to Disseminate Geosciences and Its Evaluation
Sara Moutinho, Rui Moura, and Clara Vasconcelos
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Communication of Science vs Dissemination of Science
Education is a subject that is currently at the centre of a great debate among psycholo-
gists, educators and other experts. However, before any discussion on this subject
begins, it is important to understand what education is, including the different con-
cepts of education that are allowed to exist, such as formal and informal education.
Formal education is known as the official education and includes the courses
offered in schools with levels, degrees, programmes, curricula and diplomas (Gaspar
1990). This type of education is very important because it is responsible for the
development of students’ knowledge. However, the construction of knowledge is
not restricted to institutions, although the regulation and the transmission of this
knowledge had been delegated to school, or to formal education. There is another
type of education – informal education – where the learning process occurs without
classrooms, timetables or curricula. The knowledge is shared within a sociocultural
interaction that has, as the only necessary and sufficient condition, the presence of
those who know and those who want, or need, to know (Gaspar 1990).
In the case of science, informal education includes museums, exhibitions, scien-
tific activities promoted by specialized institutions and all initiatives with recre-
ational character and involving scientific subjects and the general public. All these
initiatives are also important to the process of dissemination of science, because
S. Moutinho (*) • R. Moura

Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências da Terra,
Porto, Portugal
e-mail: sara.moutinho@fc.up.pt; rmmoura@fc.up.pt
C. Vasconcelos
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências da Terra (Pólo do Porto),
Porto, Portugal
e-mail: csvascon@fc.up.pt

44 S. Moutinho et al.
they support the approach of individuals to scientific subjects, reduce the distance
between them and contribute to the promotion of citizens’ scientific literacy.
In fact, science is present in our everyday lives, having an important role because
we all need science for making effective decisions in our lives, as science explains
all phenomena that occur in nature and helps people to better understand the world.
However, at the individual level, its success depends on the beliefs that individuals
bring to it, which explains why some scientific results are difficult to comprehend.
In some cases, communication simply needs to fill the gaps in laypeople’s mental
models. In other cases, it needs to overcome misconceptions, be they the product of
clumsy communication or the result of effective disinformation campaigns
(Fischhoff and Scheufele 2013).
Scientific discourse is a terrain of competing discourses and practices (Myers
2003, p. 267), involving a wide range of genres, from research papers to science
news, through which scientific knowledge is constructed and communicated to a
plurality of different publics (Luzón 2013).
Having this in mind, it is necessary to understand two concepts that are related to
this subject, both of which are frequently misunderstood. These concepts are com-
munication of science and dissemination of science.
Dissemination of science includes the use of resources, techniques, processes
and products for the placement of scientific, technological and innovation associ-
ated with the general public (Bueno 2009, p. 162). On the other hand, science com-
munication is related to the transfer of scientific and technological innovations
which are designed for specialists in certain fields of knowledge (Bueno 2009).
Although the meanings of these two concepts are different, they are both related to
the communication of science to the public and their interaction.
For the ordinary citizen, one of the main forms children gain contact with science
is through education. As adults, the access to science occurs, for example, through
the media. In our daily lives, newspapers, magazines and television are fundamental
for us to gain knowledge and form an opinion on the developments in research and
their implications. The media coverage of science is influenced by a set of rules and
selection criteria and construction news (Carvalho and Cabecinhas 2004).
Some studies usually argue that the gap between science and journalism is due to
journalists’ indifference to scientists’ goals (Peters 1995) and to a kind of contempt
displayed by scientists towards the media. The most important criticisms expressed
by scientists against journalists include the lack of understanding, the oversimplifi-
cation and the sensationalism, while journalists generally criticize scientists for
their arrogance and their lack of communication (Colson 2011). For the exposed,
these gaps in communication between scientists and the public are an issue to which
is given special importance. In fact, a large part of the population does not under-
stand the scientific concepts and cannot recognize the social impact of scientific
discoveries (Bensaude-Vincent 2001). In this sense, the purpose of scientific dis-
semination is to fill the gaps between science and the public and is sometimes erro-
neously seen as a secondary activity which merely translates scientific language
into a simple everyday language (Bensaude-Vincent 2001).
3 Simulating an Earthquake and Its Effects on Soils and Buildings: A Practical… 45
According to Myers (2003), there are several assumptions created in this

context:
(i) scientists and scientific institutions are the authorities on what constitutes science; (ii)
public sphere is, on scientific topics, a blank slate of ignorance on which scientists write
knowledge; (iii) this knowledge travels only one way, from science to society; (iv) the con-
tent of science is information contained in a series of written statements; (v) in the course
of translation from one discourse to the other, this information not only changes textual
form, but is simplified and distorted. (p. 266)
According to Moutinho and collaborators (2014b), nowadays it is defended the

existence of mediators that promote a closer relationship between science and the
public. Some of them are scientists themselves, who increasingly recognize their
public duty, and therefore their scientific practice has evolved to make them respond
to the need to improve public access to science and to promote activities that foster
the understanding of science by people (Martín-Sempere et al. 2008).
Advances in science and technology in the last decades have changed the com-
munication process, contributing to the improvement of academic skills in dissemi-
nation of science. The effectiveness of this communication depends on the level of
comprehension of the target. Consequently, dissemination of science activities must
follow principles of science communication, differentiating messages according to
goals and target audiences. Therefore, it is important to define who is the receiver,
how to speak his/her language, how to stimulate his/her curiosity and how to listen
to others (Epstein 1998).
For most people, the reality of science is that which is presented by the media.
People normally develop their scientific knowledge through the media resources,
and not through direct experience or previous formal education. This situation
occurs because the information that is imparted by journalists is simpler than the
information that is transmitted by scientists. In fact, many scientists are suspicious
about journalists and accuse their reports of infidelity, oversimplification or even
sensationalism. On the other hand, journalists criticize the way science is presented
by scientists, universities and technical institutions, arguing that they provide very
intricate, inappropriate or incomprehensible information (Epstein 1998).
This situation is very delicate, because it could generate ineffective communica-
tion, and it could be costly to science as well as to society. Science requires the
publics’ support, and that depends on how much the public trusts and values sci-
ence. Although scientists may know more than anyone about the facts and uncer-
tainties, applications of science can raise complex ethical and social questions on
which reasonable people may disagree. If scientists want to be effective in their
communication, they must understand the perspectives of interest groups in debates
over decisions that require scientific expertise (Colson 2011). The more effectively
scientists have built bridges with the rest of society, the better chance they have of
getting an audience for their work (Luzón 2013).
In this context, there are authors that reject the traditional view of science dis-
semination, where there are only two clearly defined communities: scientists and
the general public. In this perspective, the public is viewed as passive and ignorant,
not contributing to decisions affecting the progress of science. Science
communication occurs in a linear, one-way process (Bucchi 2008, p. 58) in which

discourse for specialists and discourse for the lay audience can be sharply separated,
and the dissemination of scientific discoveries is a simplified version of the research
paper (Luzón 2013).
Cloître and Shinn (1985) distinguish four main stages in the process of scientific
communication: (i) intraspecialist level, which includes papers published in scien-
tific journals; (ii) interspecialist level, which involves interdisciplinary dissemina-
tion, for example, papers published in journals like Nature or Science; (iii)
pedagogical level, which refers to scientific textbooks; and (iv) popular level, or
dissemination addressed to the general public, mainly done by the media, for exam-
ple, science news in the daily press. In this model, dissemination is regarded not as
a translation or simplification of scientific discourse, but as a discursive recontextu-
alization for a less specialist audience, including scientists in other areas of knowl-
edge (Luzón 2013).
However, many scientists are still reluctant to become involved in public com-
munication of scientific information. This reluctance results from a combination of
reasons: (i) communication to the public is generally not seen by scientists as a
basic part of their work and is an activity regarded by scientists as neutral prospects
for promotion, (ii) negative reaction by colleagues, (iii) lack of training in public
communication and (iv) the need to adapt their work habits and communication
skills to a public about whom they do not know much (Martín-Sempere et al. 2008).
At the present, mass media are having a transformative impact on the public dis-
semination of science, blurring the boundaries between the public and the profes-
sional spheres of scientists (Trench 2008; Luzón 2013).
Given the increasingly important role of media as a channel for the public dis-
semination of science, we need to understand how scientific knowledge is mediated
and constructed in these media, that is, how scientific discourse is recontextualized
in media (Luzón 2013).
Presently, there are other forms of public interaction with science and scientist
that can be conceived as less mediated than the media, which includes science
museums, scientific exhibitions or scientific activities open to public (Carvalho and
Cabecinhas 2004).
3.1.2 The Importance of Mental Models and Model-Based

Learning in Geosciences Education
All citizens develop mental models that lead them to observe, understand and
explain the world around them (Kurnaz and Eksi 2015). Thus, mental models are
mental representations of the world, correlations of the reality which constitute
working models, constructed trough propositions and images that can be related to
the model (Moutinho et al. 2014a). They are personal since they are constructed by
individuals, and because of this, they are different from one person to another, since
they are based on their life experiences, perceptions and understandings of the
world (Jones et al. 2011).
Moreover, students develop their scientific knowledge through the construction
of mental models, which help them to develop scientific reasoning and make deci-
sions, being the basis of individual behaviours (Jones et al. 2011).
In fact, students construct their personal mental models for a theory with all
knowledge that was developed in the learning process, but, normally, these mental
models are not precise, complete and scientifically consistent (Liu 2005), making it
necessary for teachers to promote their restructuring, in order to make them more
congruent to scientific models (Moutinho et al. 2013).
According to Moutinho and collaborators (2014a), scientific models correspond
to specific models that result from the creation of a scientist to represent an idea,
object, event, process or a system. They are scientifically accepted models and
reflect the representation of the shape of reasoning of a scientist (Justi 2006). These
models are the bridge between a theory and a phenomenon, as a scientific theory
does not have a direct correspondence to real-world phenomena which are too com-
plex (Torres and Vasconcelos 2015).
Given the complexity of scientific models that reflect the scientific phenomena
and the thinking of scientists, these models cannot be presented to the students at
school because they are too abstract and difficult to understand (Torres et al. 2013).
As such, simpler kinds of models – teaching models – were developed with the
purpose of helping students to learn some aspect of a scientific model, which could
include drawings, simulations and analogies (Justi 2006). They support the teaching
mediation processes responsible for the transformation of scientific knowledge into
school knowledge, lending consistency to the students’ mental models (Moutinho
et al. 2014a).
For the exposed, all these models are presented to students in school through a
teaching methodology, named model-based learning. This methodology is respon-
sible for developing conceptual tools in order to build students’ scientific knowl-
edge (Lopes and Costa 2007) and promote their scientific literacy. It involves the
construction of models that aim to recreate a physical phenomenon seeking to
respond to problem situations (Louca et al. 2011).
Having this in mind, model-based learning assumes an important role in science
education, as it is a teaching methodology which involves the construction of mod-
els that aim to recreate a physical phenomenon – scientific model – seeking to
respond to problem situations. In this context, models are powerful tools that scien-
tists use in developing scientific knowledge.
As a result, models and model-based learning in science classes may contribute
to the understanding of different aspects of science while demonstrating how sci-
ence operates and how scientists work (Crawford and Cullin 2004; Torres and
Vasconcelos 2015). Models and modelling have such an important role in scientific
activity that they play a major part in the understanding of many aspects of scientific
inquiry (Torres et al. 2015). They lead students to analyse and understand many
relationships between variables which can represent the scientific phenomenon and
recreate its behaviour (Louca et al. 2011).
Thus, model-based learning provides a good change for restructuring knowledge

because it induces a cognitive conflict by carefully introducing facts which contra-
dict the students beliefs (Pirnay-Dummer et al. 2012), an event which is necessary
to construct new knowledge. As such, many authors contend that models contribute
to an improved comprehension of scientific concepts and knowledge, and also to a
better understanding of scientists’ activities and the nature of science (Torres and
Vasconcelos 2014).
Gilbert and Ireton (2003) claim that the exposure to multiple models contributes
to a richer mental model construction. In fact, in science education it is possible to
use diverse models that highlight different characteristics of the phenomenon
(Vasconcelos et al. 2015).
Given the recognized importance of models and model-based learning in geosci-
ences education, a group of masters’ degree students in Biology and Geology
Teaching developed some different models and adapted them to Portuguese science
curricula. The purpose of these models was to simulate and explain some processes
related to seismology and natural hazards, included in the curriculum of Biology
and Geology (in high school) in Portugal. All these models were presented to high
school students, and science teachers, in a playful and dynamic activity, in the con-
text of informal education, developed for the Faculty of Sciences’ Open Days to
Schools.
3.1.3 Faculty of Sciences’ Open Days to Schools: A Practical

Activity to Disseminate Geosciences
The Faculty of Sciences of University of Oporto annually organizes the Open Days
to Schools, an event which promotes contact between high school students and
researchers from different scientific areas (Moutinho et al. 2014b). During this two-
day event, a number of laboratories of the institution are made available for high
school students and their science teachers, so that they can come in contact with the
research that is carried out by the faculty and interact with researchers, graduate
students and many techniques and technologies that are developed and applied in
the researches.
This initiative usually has great support from the public because it helps students
to understand scientists’ work, how they develop their investigations and how they
create science. Moreover, the Open Days to Schools are also important for the dis-
semination of science, through the contact between scientists and the public, and
constitute a good exercise for both researchers and students: for students it is an
enriching experience because they gain contact with specialists from diverse scien-
tific areas and can observe and learn about the different investigations that are devel-
oped in the institution. On the other hand, it is also important for scientists, because
through the contact with the public to present and explain the product of their work,
they gain a better understanding of how to adapt their speech so that the message
Fig. 3.1 Seismic effects on buildings as a function of their distance to the epicentre
that they transmit can be clear and objective. In doing this they also develop their
communication skills.
Being sensitive to the importance of the dissemination of science to high school
students, but also the importance of models in the promotion of scientific knowl-
edge, an activity was developed with the purpose of presenting and discussing the
historical phenomenon of the earthquake in Lisbon in 1755, according to a scientific
context, based on the application of three types of models to explore scientific con-
cepts related to seismology.
Models recreate the seismic effects on soils and buildings: (i) a model simulating
the seismic effects on buildings as a function of their distance to the epicentre
(Fig. 3.1); (ii) a seismic shaking table, which could handle multiple variables that
influence the effect of earthquakes on buildings (Fig. 3.2); and (iii) a model repre-
senting the effect of earthquakes on soils in moving strand zones (Fig. 3.3).
Figure 3.1 illustrates a model that enables the simulation of the seismic effects on
three buildings placed at different distances from the epicentre, which is represented
by metal pendulums, all of them in the same position. The clash between each pen-
dulum and the balls, which are positioned between the pendulums and the buildings,
simulates an earthquake and allows students to observe the propagation of seismic
waves, the effects caused when they reach the buildings, and to evaluate the
damages.
This model (Fig. 3.2) is constituted by three modules which simulate different
situations: (i) influence of the height and type of materials used in buildings on its
response to an earthquake event, (ii) importance of structural reinforcement in con-
structions – Pombal cage – for building integrity protection during an earthquake
and (iii) the influence of the base isolation in buildings during a seismic episode to
Fig. 3.2 Seismic shaking table (A) with the indication of the three modules (B)
minimize damages. To simulate the earthquake, the seismic table is horizontally

shaken, allowing students to observe the effects occurred in all modules.
The last model (Fig. 3.3) represents the effect of seismic waves, water and tilt
(horizontal and a 30° angle) in clayey and sandy soils. To simulate the earthquake,
two massage devices are placed at the base of the mobile platform causing the vibra-
tion of the platform and allowing students to observe the behaviour of both soil
materials at the same time.
After analysing all three models, only the third can be considered an analogue
model, because the materials used behave analogously to reality (sand and clay),
and the simulated situations recreate the conditions to which the materials are sub-
ject in nature (e.g. the slope).
Fig. 3.3 Soil movement on strand zones: side view (A) and front view (B)
3.2 Methodology
The purpose of this study is to analyse the attitudes of Portuguese high school stu-
dents towards the importance of model-based learning in teaching and disseminat-
ing the seismic effects on soils and buildings.
The data were collected through a Seismological Models’ Evaluation Scale
(SMES), applied to students. The scale was constituted by ten items related to the
importance of each type of model in study, and each one should be classified in a
scale with five points (from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree)).
Table 3.1 presents the description of each one of the ten items of Seismological
Models’ Evaluation Scale, applied in this study to evaluate each one of the three
types of models presented to students on Faculty of Sciences’ Open Days to Schools.
The content validity was ensured by the analysis of specialty literature for sup-
porting the formulation of the scales’ items, based on previous studies. The struc-
ture of the instrument was based on the Molecular Representation Scale of Treagust
and his collaborators (2004). Finally, the items were also validated by two special-
ists in the teaching of geosciences, which led to vocabulary changes and improve-
ments in its definitive structure.
SMES’ fidelity was determined by calculating Cronbach’s alpha that showed
high internal consistency values: (i) 0.80 for the subscale model of the distance to
the epicentre (Fig. 3.1), (ii) 0.80 for the subscale of the seismic shaking table model
(Fig. 3.2) and (iii) 0.81 for the subscale of soil movement on strand zones (Fig. 3.3).
These values of consistency (0.80) are satisfactory, according to Kline (2000) and
Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), especially because of the small number of items.
The results of its validation were presented in a conference related to geosci-
ences that occurred in the Faculty of Sciences of University of Oporto, in Portugal
(Moutinho et al. 2014b).
Table 3.1 Description of the items of Seismological Models’ Evaluation Scale (SMES)
Items Description
1 It allows the comprehension of how earthquakes occur
2 It presents the characteristics of seismic waves and how they propagate
3 It answers questions about the behaviour of some materials
4 It helps to understand the seismic effects on soils and buildings
5 It facilitates the approach to natural phenomena
6 It allows manipulating some variables involved during the earthquake episode
7 It helps in the construction/restructuring of students’ mental representations of the
phenomenon
8 It allows students to make predictions about seismic phenomena
9 It helps in solving theoretical and practical problems
10 It allows the testing of ideas
Table 3.2 Characterization of the students from the study sample (n = 126)
10th 11th 12th Total
f % f % f % f %
Female 35 27.78 28 22.22 14 11.11 77 61.11
Male 34 26.98 8 6.35 7 5.56 49 38.89
Total 69 54.76 36 28.57 21 16.67 126 100
Note: f frequency, % percentage
The sample of the study was a convenience sample, constituted by 126 students
from 10th, 11th and 12th grades, which were in a course of Science and Technologies.
Table 3.2 presents the data related to the students from the study sample, distributed
by grade and by gender.
3.3 Results and Discussion
After collecting the data, they were analysed through a 23rd version of the statistical
program SPSS.
In relation to the model of the seismic effects on buildings due to their distance
to the epicentre, students recognized some of its advantages, such as: (10) the model
allows testing ideas (f = 83; 65.9 %), (4) it helps to understand the seismic effects on
soils and buildings (f = 69; 54.8 %) and (2) it presents the characteristics of seismic
waves and how they propagate (f = 60; 47.6 %). However, some students believe that
this model does not answer questions about the behaviour of some materials (f = 12;
12.5 %). In fact, this model only simulates the effects of earthquakes on buildings
according to their distance to the seismic epicentre.
Moreover, students consider that the seismic shaking table (10) allows testing
ideas (f = 104; 82.5 %), (4) helps to understand the seismic effects on soils and build-
ings (f = 93; 73.8 %), (3) answers questions about the behaviour of some materials
(f = 89; 70.6 %) and (1) allows the comprehension of how earthquakes occur (f = 86;
68.3 %).
Finally, students recognize that the model of soil movement on a strand zone
allows the following: (3) the model answers questions about the behaviour of some
materials (f = 93; 73.8 %), (10) the model allows testing ideas (f = 88; 69.8 %) and
(9) it helps in solving theoretical and practical problems (f = 65; 51.6 %). Some
students refer that this model does not (2) present the characteristics of seismic
waves and how they propagate (f = 8; 6.3 %), which is true, since the model only
simulates the behaviour of soils during an earthquake.
3.4 Conclusions
The results let us conclude that students recognize the importance of models to dis-
seminate science because they help them to test ideas and hypothesis. Moreover,
they recognize that each model has specific characteristics according to its purpose,
as we could see with the three types of models that were applied.
In fact, according to the results, it is possible to admit that the use of models
(model-based learning) is an important methodology to disseminate science as it
helps to transform the scientific phenomena into something more concrete so that it
is simple and easy to understand by students or anyone else. Considering that dis-
semination of science refers to the interaction between scientists and the public with
a vague scientific knowledge, models could facilitate the visualization of the phe-
nomena and help to restructure the publics’ mental models about the process.
However, the authors consider that it is important that teachers comprehend that
models are representations of how phenomena occur and they could change over
time because they are constructed during a long period through hard work of many
scientists. Thus, it is also important that teachers understand that scientific ideas can
be explained through a model, but there are many other models that can represent
the same ideas, and this explains why sometimes different scientists use distinct
models to describe scientific phenomena.
All these considerations are necessary for teachers to come to understanding
about how they should develop models that they can use in their classrooms, to
teach scientific concepts and to promote the development of students’ scientific
knowledge. If models are well adapted and applied to a certain class, teachers can:
(i) promote the restructuring of students’ mental models and make them more con-
gruent with curricular models; (ii) improve students’ interest on scientific subjects
and their motivation in science classes; (iii) support students’ construction of
knowledge and the development of their scientific literacy, making them more
informed citizens and preparing students for their future lives; and (iv) disseminate
scientific concepts and phenomena to students, who are a younger public and will
be the citizens of the future.
Finally, the authors would like to emphasize the fundamental role of teachers as
educators and disseminators of science, as their teaching practice is based on pre-
senting and explaining scientific concepts to students, aiming to support their con-
struction of knowledge. In this sense, teachers are accustomed to adapt scientific
language so that it is more easily understood and internalized by students, highlight-
ing their valences in the field of dissemination of science.
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Part II
Chapter 4
Earth Systems Education and the Development
of Environmental Insight
Nir Orion
4.1 Introduction
The profile of environmental education within schools is growing. However, looking

closely on its influence on the development of environmental literacy among stu-
dents indicates that usually it never reaches far beyond the level of recycling and
cleaning of the schoolyard (Orion 2001; Negev et al. 2008). As a result there is a
growing movement within the science education community that suggests the focus
on the development of environmental awareness in many educational systems
worldwide is not enough and there should be a shift toward the perception of the
development of environmental insights as one of the central purposes of science
education (Orion and Ault 2007). Orion (2007) defined two principles of environ-
mental insight: (a) the understanding that we live in a cycling world that is built
upon a series of subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere)
which interact through an exchange of energy and materials and (b) the understand-
ing that people are a part of nature and thus must act in harmony with its “laws” of
cycling. Orion and Fortner (2003) suggested that the implementation of the Earth
systems approach might serve as an effective learning tool for the development of
this environmental insight. Earth system science (ESS) is the field of study con-
cerned with understanding the Earth as a system including understanding individual
systems (such as geosphere, hydrosphere, or atmosphere) and how these systems
interact and influence one another. The Earth systems approach is a holistic frame-
work for Earth sciences and science curricula that emphasizes the study of the cyclic
pattern of the transformation of matter and energy among the four Earth systems:
geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The study of cycles such as the
rock cycle, the water cycle, the food chain, and the carbon cycle emphasizes
N. Orion (*)
Science Teaching Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
e-mail: nir.orion@weizmann.ac.il

60 N. Orion
relationships among subsystems through the transfer of matter and energy based on
the laws of conservation. Such natural cycles are being discussed within the context
of their influence on people’s daily lives, rather than being isolated to scientific
disciplines. It also includes recognition that Earth systems are continuously chang-
ing, that systems must be understood over both time and space, and that processes
that influence Earth systems do so across many scales, from micro to planetary, and
over timescales from milliseconds to millennia. Ultimately, ESS works toward a
more holistic view of Earth and Earth processes.
An important part of the educational effectiveness of the Earth systems approach
depends on the system thinking abilities of its learners. System thinking is a higher-
order thinking skill required for the understanding of variety of scientific, techno-
logical, and social domains; thus, there should be close relationships between
environmental insight and system thinking ability (Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion
2005).
The Earth science education group of Weizmann Institute, Israel, has conducted
an in-depth, longitudinal study of curricula that encourage system thinking skills
over the last decade. This study includes a series of three independent studies with
8th grade (13–14 years old) junior high students, 4th grade (9–10 years old) elemen-
tary students, and 11th–12th grade (16–18 years old) high school students. All the
three programs consisted of three components: inquiry based, learner centered, and
integrating the lab, outdoor, computer, and classroom learning environments. A
System Thinking Hierarchic (STH) multilayered model emerged from data analysis
in all of the studies (Orion and Libarkin 2014).
There are several surveys assessing students’ environmental literacy in educa-
tional systems that have been conducted on national scale around the world.
However, none of them measured environmental insight and system thinking ability
in determining participants’ environmental literacy levels.
4.2 Methodology
This article summarizes two different studies that were conducted independently.
Although the two studies differ in terms of objectives and target population, they
share the following common characteristics: (a) Both tried to measure environmen-
tal literacy. (b) Both included the system thinking skills as a component of the envi-
ronmental literacy and measured by the same inventory (Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion
2005). (c) Both studies were based on the mixed-methods approach that combined
together qualitative and quantitative data collection tools.
The first study is a continuation to the national survey which was conducted
among the Israeli schools for measuring the level of environmental literacy of stu-
dents at the end of the elementary school (6th grade) and at the end of the high
school (12th grade) (Negev et al. 2008). One of the objectives of the current study
was the evaluation of the association among several components of environmental
literacy including environmental insight of students, in the same schools that were
4 Earth Systems Education and the Development of Environmental Insight 61
measured in the previous national survey, at the end of the elementary school, and
at the end of the high school (Sagy 2010). However, this article is related only to the
findings of the high school group, which was divided into two subgroups: those
participating in the Earth Science track and the general population of students.
This group included 12th grade students from seven high schools that were
divided to two subgroups: schools that offer an Earth Science track (EST subgroup)
for matriculation and schools with No Earth Science track (NEST subgroup).
The EST subgroup included four high schools who offer a major in the Earth
Science track that gives emphasis on environmental insight. All the students experi-
enced the same Earth Science program that is characterized by the following com-
ponents (Orion 2007):
1. It is an Earth systems-based program.
2. All the units of the program are the product of a design-based research.
3. All the units of the program are based on inquiry learning.
4. The learning sequence gradually shifts from the concrete to the abstract.
5. All the units of the program are based on context learning (authentic and rele-
vant context).
6. The outdoor learning environment is a central component of the program.
7. The program is based on a cross-curricular approach.
8. The learning is adjusted for variant abilities learners.
9. The learning is oriented toward the development of high-order thinking skills.
10. The teaching uses the emotional aspect as a key for the cognitive aspect.
The NEST subgroup included students in three high schools that had the highest
achievement in the national environmental literacy study, but do not offer a major in
Earth Science track.
The survey instrument was similar to that used in the earlier survey, which evalu-
ated knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Negev et al. 2008). However, to assess
environmental insight, supplementary questions were introduced which contained
both quantitative and qualitative elements updated from earlier research (Ben-Zvi-
Assaraf and Orion 2005).
Together the survey instrument included the following five separate sections:
Environmental Behavior Likert scales were designed to characterize the frequency

of an environmental behavior. A list of possible activities that Israeli students might
undertake was provided based on the earlier study. Respondents marked the fre-
quency that they performed each of these environmental activities.
Environmental Attitudes Likert scales were designed to characterize the attitudes

of the pupils toward the environment. The questionnaire was comprised of different
statements that reflect the following variables: awareness, skills, and sensitivity to
and willingness to behave in an environmental appropriate manner. The section
contained a list of 20 statements about the environment, and participants marked the
degree to which he/she agreed with a given statement.
62 N. Orion
Environmental Knowledge The questionnaire contained multiple-choice questions

on three topics: (a) general environmental knowledge, (b) ecological knowledge,
and (c) environmental knowledge which is relevant to Israel.
Cyclic Thinking Questionnaire This section was based on a Likert scale that is
designed to assess comprehension of cyclical processes in nature. The questionnaire
contained 16 statements after each of which students were asked to explain why
they did or did not agreed with a given statement. The questions are intended to
assess student understanding of different cyclical processes on Earth involving
transfer of matter and energy. This ability is at the higher levels of a hierarchical
model of system thinking that constitutes a central aspect of environmental insight.
Drawing of Ecological Systems In this assignment students were requested to add

missing details from a pictorial depiction of an ecological system. The assignment
offers an indication of ability to identify invisible components of systems. This abil-
ity is at the top of a hierarchical model of system thinking.
The quantitative survey instruments and the ecological drawing were integrated
into a single form, which students completed in the presence of the research team
during visits to the schools. The high school version inventory was distributed to all
the 12th grade students in participating high schools. Finally, 279 questionnaires
were completed in 13 classes in three NEST high schools, and 102 questionnaires
were completed in six classes in four EST schools subgroup. It is important to note
that only 42 % of the students of the EST subgroup participated at the Earth Science
track program.
Answers involving environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavior were
aggregated with a normalized score given for each respondent. With regard to the
qualitative section of the instrument, after being graded, the ecological drawing
scores were also entered into an excel file according to a highly detailed protocol.
From those questionnaire sections involving environmental insight, data was calcu-
lated into a single normalized score for this parameter. Descriptive statistics were
prepared involving averages and distributions in each school. Then t-tests were con-
ducted, comparing the new collective literacy measured with the levels recorded in
the earlier stage of the study. In addition, correlations between the four different
literacy scores (knowledge, attitude, behavior, and insight) were assessed.
The second study is the first in Israel to attempt an understanding of the environ-
mental literacy components of an adult population. More specifically, the study
addresses the question: which of the variables of environmental literacy have a
dominant effect on the environmental behavior of Israeli adults? It also seeks to
assess environmental behavior in practice, in the context of various situations.
That study was based on 11 different questionnaires that examine the cognitive,
affective, and behavioral aspects of environmental literacy. Most of the question-
naires are Likert type, based on a total of 111 statements, but the respondents were
also asked to explain their answer for each item, and the final scores for the various
statements were determined based on those explanations (Table 4.1). Following
Table 4.1 Descriptive information of the tool

No.
of
Variable Dimension Measurement scale items α Kronbach
Cognitive System thinking Likert scale with option to 10 0.6
aspect explain and argue each item
Action-related Likert scale 4 0.6
knowledge Likert scale with option to 20 0.7
explain and argue each item
Effectiveness One choice from two options 10 0.65
knowledge and option to explain and
argue each item for its
environmental consequences
Social knowledge Likert scale 7 0.7
Affective Humanity’s place in Closed question with six 1
aspect the natural system distractions, room for
explanation and reasoning
Likert scale 4 0.7
Environmental Likert scale 5 0.7
concern
Self-efficacy regarding Likert scale 5 0.7
the environment
Locus of control Likert scale 5 0.7
regarding the
environment
Willingness to act for Likert scale 5 0.7
the environment
Behavioral Likert scale in four dimensions 13 0.6
aspect Two closed options or you can 13
fill out your own reason
Personal State your own reason 9
details
many previous studies that found no significant relationship between factual knowl-
edge and actual environmental behavior, this study ignored the variable of factual
knowledge and rather focused on other dimensions that go into making up the cog-
nitive aspect.
The reliability of the research tool ranged between 0.6 and 0.7 for all 11 ques-
tionnaires. The tool was found valid as indicated by several statistical validity tests:
factor analysis, Pearson correlation and regression (Levy 2016).
The population of this study included approximately 3000 employees in one of
Israel’s largest insurance companies. It includes a wide range of occupations, such
as engineers, lawyers, managers, secretaries, and administrative employees. A com-
parison between the characteristics of the research population and the data from the
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) for citizens aged over 18 (minorities, like the
Arab and ultra-Orthodox population, not included) shows that the distribution of the
study population according to age and religiosity is very similar to the national
64 N. Orion
distribution. One the other hand, there is a higher percentage of women working at
the insurance company than their overall percentage in the national job market.
All of the employees in the company were sent an online questionnaire inside a
message from the company’s management asking them to take part. The question-
naire was presented as a collaborative effort between the company and the academic
institution. It was anonymous and when complete was emailed directly to the
researcher.
The final sample consisted of the 659 insurance company employees who com-
pleted the full questionnaire. The comparison between the study population and the
sample indicated that the characteristics, “education,” “family status,” and “religios-
ity,” of the sample’s data are very similar to that of the overall employee population
and of the national working population (minorities excluded) noted by the Central
Bureau of Statistics in 2010. The distribution of gender in the sample is similar to
that of the larger study population and opposite to that in the national job market by
the tendency of the sample toward the female.
The comparison between the environmental literacy components and the respon-
dents’ personal characteristics (gender, education, family status, economic status,
and religiosity) was conducted using a t-test. Prediction of environmental behavior
based on various environmental literacy components was done by means of one-
way variance analysis and multiple regression analysis.
4.3 Results and Discussion
4.3.1 Outcomes and Discussion of the High School Students

(Study 1)
The sample of four high schools which offer the special Earth Science matriculation
program as a high school major was divided into two subgroups: (a) students who
studied the Earth Science program and (b) students who studied other disciplines as
a major program. Using a t-test to compare these students with the national survey
of high schools, it was found that students participating in the Earth Science pro-
gram had a statistically significant higher environmental literacy score for all three
components than the national average (Table 4.2).
When these scores were compared with the three schools that served as a control
group (high schools that had the highest achievement in the national environmental
literacy study, but do not offer a major in Earth Science track), measurements of
knowledge, behavior, as well as cyclical thinking among students in the Earth
Science program were higher at a statistically significant level than environmental
science students in schools without the program (Table 4.3). It is important to men-
tion that the control group involved schools that had relatively high scores in the
national environmental literacy test.
Table 4.2 Comparison of the Earth Science program sample with national sample
Sample group
Earth science National survey
Literacy component (0–100) N M SD N M SD t P
Knowledge 42 75 17 1525 62 19 −4.58 **
Attitudes 43 72 14 1526 64 15 −3.65 *
Behavior 43 57 29 1526 45 22 2.65- *
*p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001
Table 4.3 Comparison of students knowledge, behavior, and cyclical thinking between the EST
and NEST subgroups
Subgroup
EST NEST
Literacy component N M SD N M SD t P
Knowledge (0–100) 42 75 17 282 70 16 2.1 *
Behavior (0–100) 43 57 29 287 47 22 2.1 *
Cyclical thinking 42 62 26 252 34 19 6.7 **
*p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001
When comparing the Earth Science sample with the Non-Earth Science sample
in the same high school (t-test), it was found that there was no statistically signifi-
cant difference in terms of knowledge or attitudes between the two groups. Yet, with
regard to cyclical thinking abilities and behavior, there was a significant advantage
among the students in the Earth Science program relative to their peers who were
studying other majors. The cyclic thinking ability of the Non-Earth Science sample
was quite low and was in the level of junior high school students who did not experi-
ence Earth systems-based program (Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion 2005).
According to the model of Orion and Libarkin (2014), the cyclic thinking ability
presents a higher level of system thinking. Therefore, the findings above support the
assumption that system thinking constitutes a major element in the process of devel-
oping environmental insight and consequently exerts a positive influence on envi-
ronmental behavior as well.
Table 4.4 presents the results of Pearson chi-squared tests applied to students in
high schools with the Earth Science programs. These findings suggest that the
dimension of knowledge had an expectedly important role in this group as the sole
variable that showed a positive correlation with three of the other four variables. In
addition, the correlation between attitudes and behavior was unprecedentedly high,
relative to previous research in Israel (Peer et al. 2007; Tal et al. 2007) as well as in
similar studies from around the world (Chu et al. 2005, 2007; McBeth et al. 2008;
Tuncer et al. 2005).
When evaluating the values of the Pearson correlation among students in high
schools that do not offer the special Earth Science program, three correlations con-
spicuously emerge (Table 4.5). The correlation between attitudes and behavior was
only found at a moderate level, while correlation between knowledge and attitudes
66 N. Orion
Table 4.4 Pearson correlation comparing the five components of environmental literacy scores for
EST high schools (N = 102)
Ecological Cyclical
systems thinking Behavior Attitudes Knowledge
Knowledge 0.35* 0.5** 0.4** 1
Attitudes 0.6** 1
Behavior 1
Cyclical thinking 1
Ecological systems 1
* Significance <0.05; ** Significance < 0.001
Table 4.5 Pearson correlation comparing the five quantitative components of environmental
literacy scores in NEST high schools (N = 216)
Ecological Cyclical
systems thinking Behavior Attitudes Knowledge
Knowledge 0.3** 0.3 ** 1
Attitudes 0.5** 1
Behavior 1
Cyclical thinking 1
Ecological systems 1
* Significance <0.05; ** Significance <0.001
and knowledge and cyclical thinking were low. These findings indicate that connec-
tions between different components of environmental literacy are weak or
nonexistent.
The findings above emphasize the potentially important role that cyclic thinking,
which is a central component of system thinking consequently environmental
insight, might have a part of environmental literacy. The levels of correlation
between environmental attitudes and behavior among students who studied the
Earth systems-based program were the highest yet measured in Israel (Tal et al.
2007; Goldman et al. 2006) and were among the highest reported in international
studies)Shin et al. 2005; McBeth et al. 2008; McBeth et al. 2011; Erdogan 2009;
Erdogan and Ok 2011).
The above study indicates that when given an Earth science curriculum that
focuses appropriately on the development of system thinking skills, through the
study of the Earth systems approach, it has a significant positive influence on the
development environmental behavior. Moreover, such a positive development was
not observed in students of the same high schools who didn’t study the Earth
systems-based program and even with those who studied the high school environ-
mental science program for matriculation.
It is important to note that the Israeli Earth Science program focuses on the devel-
opment of system thinking, as a vehicle to develop environmental insight (Orion
2007). Thus, the study of an Earth science curriculum might equip students with
unique tools for internalizing the implications of environmentally responsible behav-
ior, without having to resort to preaching or excessive inculcation of attitudes.
Table 4.6 Averages and Dimension Avg. S. D

standard deviation for
Humanity’s place in the system 4.0 0.6
dimensions of environmental
literacy (scale 1–5) Locus of control 3.9 0.7
Environmental concern 3.9 0.7
Action-related knowledge 3.7 0.4
Self-efficacy 3.3 0.6
Social knowledge 3.2 0.7
Willingness to act 3.1 0.8
System thinking 2.6 0.6
Table 4.7 Cumulative Knowledge and thinking R2

prediction of cognitive dimensions cumulative P
variables on environmental
System thinking 0.20 0.001
behavior
Social knowledge 0.15 0.001
Action-related knowledge 0.20 0.001
Effectiveness knowledge 0.25 NS
4.3.2 Outcomes and Discussion of the Adults (Study 2)
Table 4.6 details the average and the standard deviation for eight dimensions of
environmental literacy examined in that study on the same scale (1–5). It shows that
the lowest averages were found in the category system thinking.
Table 4.7 indicates that the most significant dimensions of environmental liter-
acy, which have the greatest impact on environmental behavior, are system thinking,
social knowledge, and action-related knowledge.
Thus, it was found that most of the dimensions of the cognitive aspect that were
checked (system thinking, action-related knowledge, and social knowledge) are sig-
nificant predictors of the behavior in practice aspect.
The regression analysis of the affective aspect showed that the attitude toward
the “humanity’s place in the natural system” is one of the three dimensions that
significantly predict environmental behavior (Table 4.8).
The variable humanity’s place in the natural system refers to the question – does
a given individual see themselves as part of the natural system or as external to (or
above) nature (Stern 2000; Dunlap 2008)? The focus of the current study was to
look at the respondents’ attitudes/perceptions of humanity’s place in nature in the
context of the Earth systems approach that stresses the perception of humanity’s
relative insignificance within the Earth systems’ span of time and space. An element
that perceived only limited attention in previous studies (Dunlap and Van Liere
1978; Dunlap et al. 2000). The significant relationship between the humble percep-
tion of human’s role and impact on the Earth systems in the dimensions of deep time
and space supports Orion and Fortner, (2003) who claimed that development of
environmental insight is a precondition for positive environmental behavior and that
the Earth systems approach is a powerful educational tool for the development of
environmental insight.
68 N. Orion
Table 4.8 Cumulative Environmental attitudes and R2

prediction of affective beliefs cumulative P
variables on environmental
Willingness to act 0.2 0.001
behavior
Locus of control 0.2 0.001
Humanity’s place in the natural 0.2 0.002
system
Environmental concern 0.25 NS
Self-efficacy 0.25 NS
Although the two studies presented here were conducted independently with a
completely different research populations and circumstances (high school students
vs. adults), they share common findings. Both studies indicate low systems skills
abilities of both 12th grade high school students and adults. This finding is consis-
tent with Orion and Libarkin (2014), who, based on previous studies (Ben-Zvi-
Assaraf and Orion 2005; Orion and Bassis 2008; Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion 2010),
showed that the system thinking ability does not develop overtime spontaneously or
following learning the traditional school curricula including science or environmen-
tal programs. Moreover, the first study presented here is consistent with an addi-
tional finding presented by all the studies mentioned above which also support that
the system thinking abilities of elementary, junior high, and high school students
who studied Earth systems-based programs were significantly higher than the sys-
tem thinking abilities of their peers who didn’t study such programs.
The study of the adult population also highlighted the influence of the perception
of humanity’s place in the Earth systems on positive environmental behavior. Thus,
this study indicates that system thinking ability that focuses on an in-depth under-
standing of Earth systems and their interactions, as well as humanity’s place in them
and how they are impacted by our actions, influences environmental behavior of
adults. This finding is the first empiric data that supports the environmental insight
concept. A concept that suggested that environmental insight is based on the under-
standing of the Earth systems concept and that people are a part of nature (Orion
et al. 1996; Orion 1997; Orion 2001; Orion & Fortner, 2003; Orion 2007; Orion and
Libarkin 2014).
A key element of the environmental insight requires the understanding of the
cyclic interrelationships among the Earth systems. Orion and Libarkin (2014) pre-
sented a long-term design-based research project for the development of K-12 Earth
systems-based units that focus on the development of system thinking (Gudovitch
and Orion 2001; Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion 2005; Orion and Kali 2005; Orion and
Bassis 2008; Orion and Cohen 2007; Ben-Zvi-Assaraf and Orion 2010). The out-
comes of all the above studies indicated that those programs improved the system
thinking ability of students from K-12. The study of the high school students pre-
sented here is an independent empirical support for the above findings, since it
indicated that system thinking ability of high school students who study the Earth
science was significantly higher than the other students in their schools. In addition,
like the adult’s sample, the environmental behavior of this Earth science high school
students sample was also significantly higher. As already mentioned these two com-
ponents constitute the key elements of the environmental insight concept.
Moreover, the findings also support the assumption that the Earth Systems
Education (ESE) might serve as a powerful vehicle for the development of environ-
mental insight. Although, the theoretical background for ESE in schools was first
introduced more than two decades ago, its implementation in schools is still limited
and subject to interpretation (Mayer 1991; Mayer and Fortner 1995; Orion and
Libarkin 2014). Therefore, it does not imply that any ESE program will lead to the
improvement of system thinking skills, development of environmental insight, and
consequently environmental behavior. However, the encouraging findings presented
above concerning the positive influence of the ESE approach were related to ESE
programs that had the following common principles and characteristics (Orion
2007):
Principle 1 Learning in authentic and relevant contexts.
Following this principle each program included the following characteristics:
(a) Each learning unit was developed around environmental real-life issues.
(b) Using the outdoor as an integral and essential learning environment.
(c) Using the Earth systems approach as a platform for the curriculum.
(d) The learning revolves around authentic questions and authentic assignments.
Principle 2 The learning sequence moves gradually from the concrete to the
abstract.
(a) Each learning unit started with hands-on activities in the lab and in the
outdoors.
(b) Following the authentic questions that were raised and the understanding that
was built, students move to deal with more abstract concepts that could be built
through concrete interactions with the natural phenomenon.
Principle 3 Adjustment of the learning for variance of learners.

(a) Each unit included a variety of learning strategies and environments dealing
with both cognitive and emotional aspects.
(b) Teachers were trained to focus on both the cognitive and emotional needs of the
students.
(c) Programs were adjusted for multiple intelligences (Gardner 1992).
4.4 Summary
Orion (1997) claimed that the impact of the traditional environmental awareness-
based curriculum will never reach far beyond the level of recycling and cleaning of
the schoolyard and only environmental insight-based curriculum will lead to a
70 N. Orion
genuine change of environmental behavior. This integrated study is the first empiri-
cal support of this notion. Both independent studies, the adult and the high school
students’ samples, empirically indicate a significant relationship between system
thinking and environmental behavior. In addition, the high school students’ study
empirically demonstrated the influence of studying Earth systems-based Earth
Science program on both system thinking and environmental behavior. Moreover,
all the high school students who developed better system thinking skills and envi-
ronmental behavior studied the same of Earth systems-based curriculum. Thus, the
use of the principles and the characteristics of that curriculum for the development
of any Earth science curricula which seeks to develop environmental insight might
be recommended.
The above empirical data, conclusions, and suggestions are based on only two
studies with a quite limited population. Therefore, in order to extend the validity of
these findings, more similar studies are needed with students and adults in different
cultures and different educational systems.
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Dunlap, R. E. (2008). The New Environmental Paradigm scale: From marginality to worldwide
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Dunlap, R. E., Van Liere, K. D., Mertig, A. G., & Jones, R. E. (2000). New trends in measuring
environmental attitudes: Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: A revised
NEP scale. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 425–442.
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dents’ environmentally responsible behaviors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Middle East
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Nationwide survey. International Journal of Science Education. doi.
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Goldman, D., Yavetz, B., & Pe’er, S. (2006). Environmental literacy in teacher training in Israel:
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Chapter 5
Field Classes for Geosciences Education:
Teachers’ Concepts and Practices
Celeste R. Gomes, Armando F. Rocha, Joaquim A. Ferreira, and Ana Rola
5.1 Introduction
Field classes have been presented as an important resource in science education

(e.g. Dourado 2001, 2006). Various advantages are pointed out to highlight the
importance of this practical means of working (Hodson 1988) in the teaching of
geology. Authors like Pedrinaci et al. (1994), Rebelo and Marques (2000) and Orion
(2001) attribute particular importance to opportunities which enable understanding
of concepts, objects and geological processes which are difficult to bring into the
classroom, for example, those with higher complexity due to the spatial and tempo-
ral contexts in which they are found. Orion (1993) believes that direct experience
with concrete materials and processes enables abstract concepts to be formed and
aids memorization. This idea has been supported by studies that have shown the
greater capacity of those students who participate in activities in field classes to
observe, memorize and recall facts (Orion and Hofstein 1991). Field classes are key
to the development of general and specific scientific procedures, making use of
C.R. Gomes
Centro de Investigação da Terra e do Espaço, Departamento de Ciências da Terra,
Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: romualdo@dct.uc.pt
A.F. Rocha
Agrupamento de Escolas Coimbra Sul, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: armandoferreirarocha@gmail.com
J.A. Ferreira
Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação, Universidade de Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: jferreira@fpce.uc.p
A. Rola (*)
Centro de Investigação da Terra e do Espaço da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: ana.ave@gmail.com

74 C.R. Gomes et al.
charts or maps, measuring directions of geological structures and checking the

sequence of events, among others (Pedrinaci et al. 1994). Field classes also consti-
tute a tool with strong heuristic value for skills development (Andrade 1991; Orion
and Hofstein 1991), play a motivating role in learning in geosciences and boost
cooperation, teamwork and creativity (Pedrinaci et al. 1994; Esteves et al. 2015). By
involving contact with the environment where multiple factors interact, field classes
can be a teaching tool capable of promoting interdisciplinarity (Andrade 1991).
The objectives defined for field classes by Praia (1999), along with those set by
Companiani and Carneiro (1996), reflect the interest and value given to field classes:
mobilizing previous geological knowledge, building representations from the inter-
pretation of geological objects, posing problems based on doubts and questions,
structuring hypotheses which are confronted by the knowledge acquired and devel-
oping attitudes and values inherent to working in a natural environment. In sum, in
nonuniversity teaching of geology and in line with Pedrinaci et al. (1994), it can be
stated that with the use of fieldwork activities, the intention is not to train geologists
or perform research in the field of geology, as what traditionally happens at college
level, but to work on basic geological concepts, skills and attitudes which help the
student understand and interpret the natural environment and realize how important
knowledge of earth sciences is for the development of humanity.
Despite the importance, interest and value given to field classes, they have been
forgotten or even removed from teaching practices (Orion and Hofstein 1994; Praia
and Marques 1997). However, teachers seem, in general, to have a positive concep-
tion of the importance and objectives of field classes, as was concluded, for exam-
ple, in a study by Rebelo and Marques (2000). The reasons for not conducting field
classes may be various. Orion (2001) considers that conducting fieldwork is fre-
quently hampered by conflicts of interest between educational needs and adminis-
trative or personal difficulties. The administrative difficulties arise with the
governing bodies of the schools, not only financially but also in legal constraints, for
example, civil liability, and structural constraints, such as a lack of flexibility in the
way schools operate or indeed the rigidity of timetables. In terms of personal diffi-
culties, Orion (2001) reports that teachers have difficulty teaching in outdoor envi-
ronments as they do not feel prepared. This is reinforced by Rebelo and Marques
(2000), where it can be seen that teachers have difficulties in terms of geological
content which are related essentially to the lack of support material, either for the
preparation or implementation of field classes. This itself, according to these
authors, is one of the causes of dissatisfaction among teachers carrying out field
classes. According to Fonseca (1996), these difficulties, which are related to a lack
of scientific and/or inadequate educational training, are associated, in a broader
sense, with a failure to carry out practical work and practical classes. Trindade
(1996) also takes into consideration the difficulties resulting from encyclopaedic
programmes, particularly in secondary education, and the great social pressure,
either individual or collective, for gaining entry into higher education, as causes for
not conducting field classes.
Dourado (2001), to summarize, presents a number of difficulties posed by
teachers in carrying out field classes, such as logistics (inadequate organization of
5 Field Classes for Geosciences Education: Teachers’ Concepts and Practices 75
academic time, planning, excessive number of students per class, lack of prepara-
tion time or lack of transport to the required locations), lack of suitable places to
carry out fieldwork, lack of time, lack of suitable teaching materials, lack of stu-
dents’ knowledge, lack of assessment, lack of integration of fieldwork in the cur-
riculum, lack of cooperation between teachers, difficulties controlling the students,
the length of the programme and difficulties of a scientific nature for teachers in this
field of speciality.
Praia (1999) believes that students also have difficulties inherent to the nature of
geological knowledge and lists five which are considered essential:
(1) The interdependence of geological phenomena leading to teaching that links the
themes of programmes and the phenomena in a systematic way
(2) The uniqueness of geological phenomena that makes recording them in context
fundamental for the construction of knowledge, even if temporary
(3) The difficulty in understanding the space-time and process-time interrelation-
ships and the students’ need for time for the concepts to mature
(4) The spectacular nature of some geological phenomena which may devalue the
permanent and very gradual dynamic in which they are framed and explained,
due to their being difficult to observe
(5) The overvaluation of descriptive observation of phenomena at the expense of
interpretation, even if hypothetical
Usually, a field class constitutes an enrichment of lessons and usually occurs after
the teaching of a given unit, often seen, according to Orion (1989), as a reward for
students. They are carried out as an exceptional circumstance and are generally
unrelated to other teaching and learning activities. Thus sometimes there is a mis-
match between the field class and theoretical concepts that are being taught due to
organizational difficulties (Mercedes and Mariano 1993 cited in Dourado 2001).
Similarly, Pedrinaci et al. (1994) consider that field classes are often seen by stu-
dents as having little relation to what is being taught and therefore advocate, as do
Prieto and Villasán (1998) and Orion (1989, 1993, 2001), that fieldwork activities
must be contextualized and integrated in curricula.
Orion (1989, 1993, 2001) argues further that fieldwork should be introduced
early in the teaching/learning process without, however, being among the first activ-
ities. The author therefore suggests a holistic model of integration of learning activi-
ties in indoor and outdoor spaces, with the teacher taking the role of linking the two
spaces. Thus, field classes and laboratory activities or even other practical activities
which take place in the classroom may complement each other (Dourado 2006).
In the model outlined by Orion (1989, 1993, 2001), the field class starts in an
indoor space with its preparation and is also completed in this space. It can be con-
strued as a spiral model, occurring in three phases: preparatory phase, field class
phase and summary phase. The guiding principle “is a gradual progression of con-
crete curriculum levels for their more abstract components” (Orion 2001, p. 103),
with each phase acting as a bridge to the next, through an appreciation of geological
processes, that is, an appreciation of observation, measuring, benchmarking, han-
dling, identification, interpretation and conclusion activities.
Learning begins with the preparatory phase, in an indoor environment, and the
main function is to prepare the student for the outdoor activities in the next phase.
For Orion (1993), the benefit of the field class will grow as the student is more pre-
pared cognitively, about the study area and about the work in which they will par-
ticipate. Respecting the idea of gradual transition from the concrete to the more
abstract, the preparation should be based on concrete experiences and work on the
various factors involved in learning in an outdoor environment. The preparatory
phase is essential to reduce the negative effect which Orion (1989) termed “novelty
space” in learning. In the outdoor environment, there are a large number of stimuli
which may distract students from the intended purpose. Therefore it is necessary to
reduce this effect in order for students to have greater capacity for concentration and
learning in field activities. Orion and Hofstein (1994) identified some factors that
influence the learning ability of students in outdoor environments such as cognitive
factors, when student learning is conditioned by their prior knowledge, since this
may hinder, or even prevent, activities proposed for the field taking place; psycho-
logical factors, when previous experience negatively influences student learning;
and geographical factors related to the lack of knowledge of the study area and
which hinder student learning. Students should become familiar with the places to
visit via prior knowledge of the sites.
The next phase occurs in the outdoor environment, and the intention is that stu-
dents interact with objects and natural processes, not the teacher. This interaction,
according to Orion (2001), should lead students to two main educational objectives,
the construction of knowledge and research related to issues associated with the
phenomenon under study. The role played by the teacher is that of advisor/facilitator
between the students and the processes/objects observed. The last phase is con-
ducted in the indoor environment and may involve lectures, discussions and sum-
maries. In this phase, the work is based around more abstract components (Orion
2001).
Orion’s model (1993) is thus aimed at a link between indoor and outdoor learn-
ing spaces. The intention is to coordinate activities taking place in the classroom
with those in the laboratory and in the field and should take into account the speci-
ficity of each of these spaces. The activities of the three phases that make up the
model should lead pupils to questioning attitudes, leading to a systematic search for
interpretations for their observations.
Field classes have to be seen not as an isolated and complementary activity, but
as a contextualized and integrated activity in the curriculum and in continuity with
what is done in the classroom and laboratory. However, Dourado (2001) found that
teachers do not seem to have an adequate conception of how to implement field
classes in an integrated way and often consider that the main purpose is to collect
samples for later analysis in the laboratory. Field classes should be designed so that
the student is an active element, taking responsibility for their own learning, devel-
oping various abilities, overcoming difficulties and building geological knowledge.
The fact that its implementation may be quite sporadic contributes, in the opinion of
Carmen and Pedrinaci (1997), to the teacher becoming the protagonist, directing
students to the aspects that need to be observed.
The importance of field classes in science education seems consensual and is

considered an indispensable strategy in geosciences. This idea is implicit in the
methodological guidelines of the geology component of the subject of biology and
geology in Portuguese high school: “(…) Geology, due to its syncretic character
(…) offers the possibility of diversifying learning environments, with special focus
on the execution of field activities” (Amador et al. 2001, p. 6) or that “(…) one of
the aspects most worth mentioning in methodological terms is that of designated
field activities” (Amador et al. 2001, p. 12). However, these methodological guide-
lines are not new. They were present in the programmes of Earth and Life Sciences
and Laboratory Techniques in Geology, in the previous curriculum reform. But even
so, field classes have not become part of teaching practice, as shown by the studies
by Rebelo (1998), Rebelo and Marques (2000) and Dourado (2001), although there
are teachers who believe in the didactic and pedagogical potential of these activities.
There are teachers who assign a less important role to field classes and believe they
can be substituted by other activities which are carried out in an indoor environment
(Dourado 2001) and still others who are frequently dissatisfied with their field class
practices (Rebelo 1998; Rebelo and Marques 2000). Orion and Hofstein (1994) and
Praia and Marques (1997) even believe that field classes have been forgotten or even
banned from teaching practice.
Based on the above problems, this study aims to evaluate the importance attached
to geology field classes by teachers of the third cycle of basic education and of sec-
ondary education in Portugal.
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Instrument
With the aim of assessing the importance that teachers attach to field classes in geol-
ogy – in the preparation phase, the field class phase itself and the summary phase – a
questionnaire was developed (QIFA – questionnaire on the investigation of field
activities), consisting of two different parts. In the first part, the intention was to
obtain data to characterize the sample (gender, age group, length of service, profes-
sional category, initial and further training). The second part consisted of 22 closed-
answer items, rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1
point) to “strongly agree” (5 points). Items 7, 12, 20 and 22 were written in the
negative (“key reversed”) to prevent the phenomenon of compliance. The data
obtained were processed using SPSS, version 14. The QIFA also included one open-
answer question, which aimed to evaluate teachers’ understanding of the impor-
tance and impact of field classes on students’ learning and development of skills in
geology. The questionnaire has an internal consistency of 0.80, highly satisfactory
for research issues (Hill and Hill 2000, p. 149).
In this study, 178 questionnaires were completed by teachers of basic education

(third cycle) and secondary education in Portugal, from the subject group of biology
and geology. The sample was obtained from an experimentally accessible popula-
tion from 38 basic and secondary schools in Portugal. This sample corresponds to a
non-probabilistic convenience sampling, and therefore the results obtained and con-
clusions only apply to the sample, as there is no assurance that this is representative
of the universe (Hill and Hill 2000).
5.2.2 Sample
The sample consists essentially of females (77.0 %) with a mean age of 38.6 years
(standard deviation = 8.117). Respondents are tenured teachers (82.6 %) and hired
qualified teachers (13.5 %), with an average length of service of 14.31 years (stan-
dard deviation = 7.738). The sample also includes a group of trainee teachers. The
data suggest that respondents are a relevant group of teachers with teaching experi-
ence. The most representative basic training is a degree in biology (44.9 %), fol-
lowed by geology (28.1 %). The sample also includes a significant percentage of
teachers with initial training in both areas, biology and geology (21.9 %). Those
with no degree (3.9 %) are the trainee teachers. Teachers with a degree in marine
biology and fisheries and agricultural engineering represent 1.2 % of the total sam-
ple, having obtained professional status through practice. It should be pointed out
that 25.8 % of teachers have additional training (master’s degree).
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Analysis of Closed-Answer Items in the QIFA
The data relating to the frequencies, means and standard deviations of the closed
QIFA items are shown in Table 5.1.
The study allows us to say that the teachers in the sample consider field classes
important in initial teacher training (item 1) and for the teaching of geology (items
2 and 3), mainly in secondary education (item 3). Of the participants in this study,
62.9 % indicate that carrying out field classes motivates students (item 14), and
78.7 % of teachers report that they feel the students are most motivated when con-
ducting field classes (item 9). Importantly, 50 % of teachers do not feel motivated to
carry out field classes (item 20). As for encouraging colleagues to carry out field
classes, 48.3 % motivate other teachers (item 19).
Regarding prior preparation of field classes (item 5), 88.2 % of teachers plan les-
sons, and 76.4 % do previous fieldwork (item 21). Field classes are valued by 61.8 %
of teachers in their teaching practice (item 16). Preparation of field classes is done
Table 5.1 Frequencies, averages (A) and standard deviations of QIFA items
Likert scale/frequencies (%)
Items/ QIFA 1 2 3 4 5 A SD
1 1.7 34.8 63.5 4.62 0.521
2 2.2 7.3 53.4 37.1 4.25 0.687
3 0.6 0.6 3.4 44.4 51.1 4.45 0.647
4 1.7 9.6 26.4 40.4 21.9 3.71 0.970
5 0.6 2.2 9.0 41.6 46.6 4.31 0.775
6 0.6 2.2 18.0 53.9 24.7 4.02 0.770
7 6.7 19.7 31.5 31.5 10.7 3.20 1.084
8 7.9 30.3 18.0 40.4 3.4 3.01 1.079
9 1.7 19.7 51.7 27.0 4.04 0.732
10 1.1 3.4 23.6 58.4 13.5 3.80 0.754
11 0.6 0.6 14.0 56.2 28.7 4.12 0.699
12 4.5 32.0 20.2 33.1 10.2 3.12 1.108
13 2.8 5.1 16.9 59.0 16.3 3.81 0.868
14 0.6 10.7 25.8 47.2 15.7 3.67 0.888
15 16.9 41.0 25.8 15.2 1.1 2.43 0.979
16 10.7 27.5 48.9 12.9 3.64 0.840
17 1.7 13.5 22.5 51.7 10.7 3.56 0.914
18 3.4 11.2 60.1 25.3 4.07 0.705
19 2.2 9.6 39.9 39.3 9.0 3.43 0.869
20 9.6 17.4 23.0 36.0 14.0 3.28 1.187
21 1.1 5.6 16.9 60.7 15.7 3.84 0.794
22 9.0 16.3 28.1 31.5 15.2 3.28 1.173
Legend: A average, SD standard deviation
with students by 75.3 % of teachers (item 13), and 85.4 % make a summary of the
work done in the field (item 18). When conducting field classes, 62.4 % of teachers
value the creation of specific teaching materials (item 17). In turn, 46.7 % of teach-
ers indicate that the lack of specific materials means they do not do field classes
(item 22).
We should highlight that 84.9 % of teachers say they agree that student learning
is more significant when participating in field classes (item 11). We can also see that
62.3 % of teachers prefer training in the field of geology, which includes field classes
(item 4), but “strangely”, only 43.8 % indicate they have learned to plan field classes
in their continued training (item 8). Although a significant number of teachers point
out they favour training courses which include field classes, only 16.3 % consider
that, throughout their career, they have attended a sufficient number of training
courses on field classes (item 15). This raises the question of whether the continued
training carried out by teachers was the most recommendable/necessary or the most
convenient.
5.3.2 Analysis of the QIFA Open-Answer Question
There was an answer from 46 % of the respondents to the open-answer question: “If
you carry out field classes (once or more per academic year), state their importance
and impact on student learning/skills development in the field of Geology”. The
analysis of responses allowed the definition of two categories: (1) teachers who
carry out field classes (although it is not explicit that they all do), 72 responses, and
(2) teachers who do not carry out field classes, 10 responses.
In the answers in category 1, teachers highlight motivation as an important aspect
in learning: “(…) Direct observation, the opportunity to manipulate and test the
material, develops curiosity and motivation” (P1); “With field classes students have
greater motivation and they often awaken in them a taste for geology. (…)” (P51).
Other answers emphasize the development of important skills in geology: “(…)
through direct observation, carried out in the field, students become curious, raise
questions, engage constructively, and thus reach the desired skills” (P51), or “(…)
skills in observation and interpretation are developed, curiosity is stimulated
and questions and hypotheses are formulated, opening pathways to deeper
knowledge” (P88).
We should also highlight some answers from teachers, linking field classes to
promoting education on the environment and citizenship: “(…) They take on a
responsible role in the contact with and preservation of nature, corresponding to a
concept of sustainable development” (P100); “Greater awareness of geodiversity
and its importance in the preservation of natural resources; contributing to environ-
mental education; (…) understanding the importance of Geology in sustainable
development”.
The answers in the second category present reasons for not conducting field
classes: “I do not carry out field classes as frequently as specified in the question.
The fact that the teacher is responsible for anything that might occur during a field
class is a disincentive for doing them” (P76), or “In recent years I have not felt
motivated to carry out field classes, because of overwork, (…) the number of classes
and students, (…) in terms of time to prepare for those classes, which require extra
effort. In addition, the workload of Natural Sciences and the number of students per
class are incompatible with these methodologies. (…)” (P124).
Although some teachers admit they do not conduct field classes, only one
mentions not feeling prepared: “I do not organize as many field classes as would
be advantageous essentially for two reasons: insufficient initial training; a lack of
supply of training in this area” (P142). In fact, many of the teachers are graduates in
biology and have little training in field classes. Often in initial training but also in
continued training, emphasis is placed on scientific aspects of geology, neglecting
the didactic aspects.
5.4 Discussion
Analysis of the results seems to reveal positive conceptions about the importance of
field classes on the part of teachers and also, generally, in line with Rebelo and
Marques (2000). The data show that 81 % of teachers surveyed recognize the impor-
tance of field classes in student motivation for learning content and 60 % considered
them a more important educational resource for the teaching of geology content
than the laboratory or classroom. A large majority of the teachers surveyed consid-
ered student learning to be more significant (84.9 %) and motivation higher (78.7 %),
when participating in field classes. They also consider field classes important to
develop skills in education for the environment and sustainability. A clear image
emerges of a group of teachers who are concerned with scientific and pedagogical
preparation to better organize field classes.
However, some of the constraints to the realization of field classes singled out by
teachers are in line with what is referred to in the bibliography. Orion and Hofstein
(1994) and Praia and Marques (1997) point out that, despite the obvious impor-
tance, interest and value given to field classes, they have been forgotten or even
excluded from teaching practice. Orion (2001) considers that the holding of field
classes is frequently hampered by conflicts of interest between educational needs
and administrative or personal difficulties. In this study, 42.2 % of teachers cite
administrative causes and difficulties imposed by the management as reasons for
not conducting field classes. An alternative would be multimedia exposition of
routes of geological interest (Pereira et al. 2000; Legoinha et al. 2006; Rola et al.
2014). Although virtual field classes do not replace real field classes, they have the
advantage of always being available, and weather conditions, difficulty of access,
economic problems, lack of materials and the lack of areas of geological interest
would never be constraints. However, the correct way should be, whenever possible,
to combine virtual field classes with real field classes.
Rebelo and Marques (2000) found that teachers’ difficulties are mainly related to
the lack of support material, either for preparation or for implementation of field
classes. The data show that 46.7 % of teachers say they do not do field classes
because there are no specific teaching materials. In fact, although in recent years
teaching materials have been written for field classes with specific routes in Portugal,
many of them were not widely disseminated enough. In many cases they are proj-
ects undertaken for master’s dissertations (e.g. Pinto 2005; Jesus 2006; Gomes
2007). In addition, an essential element in the preparation of a field class is the
geological map (scale of 1/50,000), and, in fact, in Portugal, some maps are still
unpublished and others were only published recently. However, even though there
are educational materials, one must know how to use them and adapt them to the
particular case, and it may be the case that teachers have not developed the skills
needed to use geological maps. Geology didactics, research in this area and a com-
mitment to initial and continuing teacher education may be the key support so these
difficulties can be at least minimized as advocated by authors such as Dourado
(2006), Nunes and Dourado (2009) or Barros et al. (2012).
5.5 Conclusions
The results are in line with teachers’ appreciation of field classes, particularly in
terms of motivation, the development of important skills in geology and raised
awareness of aspects related to environmental and geological ethics. However, some
difficulties in achieving this are identified, such as difficulty in completing pro-
grammes, lack of suitable sites, time constraints, students’ economic constraints,
unfamiliarity with areas of geological interest and difficulties in planning due to
lack of support materials. The difficulties related to the latter aspect could be bridged
by multimedia sharing of routes of geological interest and the use of virtual field
classes. Although we do not defend the exclusive use of virtual field classes, they
can assist in the preparation of the field class itself. They allow the review or discus-
sion of some observed aspects or make it easier to observe aspects that may not have
been observed at the site due to distraction, lack of time or poor weather conditions.
Another limitation pointed out is that teachers do not feel prepared. Therefore, it is
desirable that the institutions responsible for initial and continued training adapt
their programmes to the needs of teachers, particularly in the area of field classes.
To sum up, by valuing field classes, teachers are contributing to significant,
student-centred learning, and working against a mechanical education which results
in learning which is not significant is restrictive and demotivating. For all these
reasons, it is essential to overcome the difficulties identified for the non-
implementation of field classes, since this practical work mode stimulates students’
interest in geology, allows them to actively participate in the teaching and learning
process and involves them in relevant tasks, having a direct effect on establishing
links between what they learn and the reality of the outside world.
Acknowledgement This work was supported by CITEUC and is funded by national funds
through FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology) (project UID/Multi/00611/2013) and
FEDER (European Regional Development Fund) through COMPETE 2020 – Operational
Programme Competitiveness and Internationalization (project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006922).
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Chapter 6
The Importance of Geology as a Contribution
to the Awareness of the Cultural Heritage
as an Educational Resource
Ana Moutinho and Ângela Almeida
6.1 Introduction
A global interest for geology has increased during the last decades as the impor-
tance of the local and regional geology has been recognized in many areas of the
social development. The applications of the geological resources in everyday
domestic use, in sophisticated technological equipment for many purposes, in the
background of the technical procedures to implement a sustainable land and subsur-
face management, in the assessment of geohazards probability, both of natural and
anthropogenic causes that may deeply affect areas and their population, or simply
the recognition of the imposing stone buildings that defy centuries of history are a
few of the reasons why geology must be part of the basic scientific knowledge.
Learning through practice in the field constitutes an effective approach to under-
stand geological phenomena, in particular when young students and the public in
general are concerned. However, the concept of field in geology may acquire vari-
ous meanings besides the strictly rock outcrops mostly inaccessible to the people
living in urban settings. The urban environment is a true laboratory where all sorts
of rocks are displayed in many different ways. There are documents, both of planet
Earth and of history and culture, that can be consulted as an open book, from the
sumptuous monuments to the most humble homes, in the pavements or, more rarely,
as remains of natural outcrops of the geological substratum. Natural stone construc-
tions are a means to teach geosciences in a combined and articulated approach. One
A. Moutinho
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: anamoutinho@esplegua.com
Â. Almeida (*)
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Instituto das Ciências da Terra, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: aalmeida@fc.up.pt

86 A. Moutinho and Â. Almeida
of the most evident links is the morphology of the region and the historical develop-
ment, since remote human occupation being the dimension stone the fundamental
component of the built heritage. Even nowadays, in modern cities, the applied
building materials are mainly the result of advanced techniques that process natural
rocks and minerals that are eventually transformed into concrete with specific prop-
erties, often combined with other geological resources, namely, metals. However,
the applied stones in historical buildings and other man-made constructions suggest
a further reflection about the importance of geology in urban settings that is intended
to be transmitted as an educational resource. One of the main reasons that has ruled
this subject as a potential tool to better understand geosciences consists of the fact
that it is almost certain that the rock of an old historical building was extracted from
a nearby quarry that represents the geology of the area. In some monuments, there
is also the possibility to recognize different facies of the same rock type and/or the
application of a diversity of rocks of independent origin, allowing the opportunity
to discuss the concept of geodiversity. On the other hand, the effects of the environ-
mental factors through time are demonstrated by different ways in a variety of stone
decay types patented in the façades and in some parts of the building interior.
A particular monument, considered as a good example to express the integrated
characteristics previously presented, is selected and described in its every aspect as
an educational resource, to enhance the importance of the natural rock and geoma-
terials obtained from local geology in the development of history, architecture and
culture of a region. The stone decay on monuments has an additional interest as an
educational tool concerning the environmental factors. The relationship between the
nature of the rock and its deterioration is an indication of the influence of the local
atmospheric conditions. This problem is not only due to natural climate factors but
also to an increasing interactivity between the intrinsic properties of the rock and
environmental changes.
6.2 The Role of Natural Stone Built Heritage in Geoscience

Education and Public Awareness
The link between natural and built heritage is a subject deserving a particular atten-
tion recognized by numerous examples cited in scientific meetings and publica-
tions. Special issues have dedicated entire volumes to raise the public awareness
about the role of geology in human activities, including the urban management and
historical and cultural heritage. A selection of representative publications compris-
ing the relation between natural and cultural heritage is suggested, taking into con-
sideration some of the works that have been developed in European countries during
the last decades. Proposals of geosites, the influence of natural landscape on com-
munities, geology and built heritage, geology as an integrated cultural landscape
involving training and research activities that promote sustainable and economic
development are described in Parks, M.A. (Ed.). (2004); an interdisciplinary
6 The Importance of Geology as a Contribution to the Awareness of the Cultural… 87
application of geosciences in cultural heritage, developed in Maggetti, M. and

Messiga, B. (Eds.). (2006), is put in evidence with examples of studies on a diver-
sity of complex geomaterials and their behaviour in order to help solving problems
concerning their use in ancient constructions; Pereira, D., Marker, B.R., Kramar, S.,
Cooper, B.J. and Schouenborg, B.E. (Eds.). (2015) present distinct proposals of
natural ornamental stone towards its international recognition as global heritage
stone. The problem of stone decay, particularly the causes, consequences, preven-
tion and suggestions of adequate restoration measures, has been discussed in Baer,
N.S., Sabbioni, C. and Sors, A. I. (Eds.). (1989); Siegesmund, S., Weiss, T. and
Vollbrecht, A. (Eds.). (2002) edited a volume with an integrated scientific approach
to the study of the deterioration of geomaterials where case studies and strategies to
assess the deterioration degree and proposals to prevent further decay are illus-
trated; Přikryl, R. and Smith, B.J. (Eds.). (2007) offer an important contribution to
the knowledge of the causes of stone decay in stone buildings and monuments from
cultural centres of urban areas, presenting physical and chemical laboratory tech-
niques that have proved to be adequate and efficient in the diagnosis of stone decay
types. Despite the specific language and the detailed technical approaches of many
of the papers on this particular subject, they remain important sources to develop
educational resources that can be adapted to different age levels and public targets.
After the recognition and classification of each rock type, it is possible to follow
a trajectory from its origin to the present state as a dimension stone that may be
inserted in a kind of rock cycle. Using an adequate language according to the stu-
dent’s age, the teacher attempts to give the essential ideas about the rock petrogen-
esis including the broad thermodynamic and tectonic settings that are responsible
for that particular rock primary features. Then, a sequence of the possible alteration
and weathering processes must be mention in order to make students understand the
effects of exogenous geological agents that open the way to the environmental and
human activity, leading to stone decay.
6.3 Stone Decay in Portuguese Monuments
Stone decay phenomena are in first place a consequence of the primary and intrinsic
characteristics of the rock that make it more susceptible to future alteration: petro-
genesis, chemical and mineral composition, texture, degree of petrological evolu-
tion, deformation due to tectonic constraints during emplacement and other features
according to the specific rock type. When the rock suffers uplift and becomes an
outcrop at Earth surface, it is subjected to secondary factors that lead to its weather-
ing. If the outcrop is considered suitable to become a quarry, the methods of extrac-
tion both enhance the alteration reactions and enable the advance of other
environmental agents, especially the local climate conditions and anthropogenic
factors. Common examples of deterioration factors are the proximity of a maritime
environment in coastal areas, the influence of a polluted industrial activity, the urban
traffic, the use of pigments in graffiti randomly applied, the inappropriate use of
cements and mortars that react with some of the stone’s minerals, the insufficient
restoration measures, the inadequate cleaning techniques, the biological coloniza-
tion, the bird activity and the anthropogenic behaviour in general. In granitic walls
the action of the different factors triggers the stone decay being the formation of
soluble salts that are incorporated in the rock porous by capillarity the most aggres-
sive. The evaporation of water during warmer and drier seasons causes the increas-
ing of the crystal size and promotes the detachment of plates. Other salt products
form on the stone surface and, when associated to pollution particles, create thin
black films and/or black crusts. In limestone and marble monuments, the dissolution
of the stone by acidic atmospheric water is the main decay process, followed by the
formation of black films.
Considering the extraction of stone used in the old historical monuments, it is
noteworthy to mention that the less evolved technology and the exploitation of
human effort in older times made it necessary to search the most weathered zones,
where empirically stone workers knew it was easier to withdraw the rock blocks.
This evidence constitutes an additional factor involved in future stone
deterioration.
A selection of recent stone decay studies in Portuguese monuments can be found
in Delgado Rodrigues and Costa (1996), Begonha (2001), Aires-Barros (2001),
Dionísio (2002), Moutinho (2005), Almeida and Begonha (2008), Sequeira Braga
and Begonha (2010), Machado (2013) and Almeida and Begonha (2015).
Portugal possesses a rich natural stone built heritage that illustrates the great
variety of rock types that distinctly mark the geology of the country. In continental
territory, the most representative constructions in granite and, to a lesser extent,
schist are displayed in northern and central areas whereas limestone and marble are
the rocks applied in the architecture of the west and southern regions. In every situ-
ation, a relationship between the built heritage and the regional geology is well
established, demonstrating the important role of the natural stone in the social, cul-
tural, technical and economical development of the populations. On the other hand,
the environmental agents affect the built heritage all over the country, whatever the
nature of the applied rock, with intensities that vary according to the intrinsic prop-
erties of the rock as well as to geographical and climatic conditions and to human
activity. A case study tested with young students in a granitic monument in north-
western Portugal, in Oporto district, is presented as a contribution to illustrate the
natural stone as an educational resource potentially adaptable to other regions and
countries, comprising a global geological dimension.
6.4 Leça do Balio Monastery: Teaching and Learning

Geology in an Urban Setting
The criteria used in the selection of the Leça do Balio Church and Monastery took
into consideration the geographic localization close to schools, the optimization of
lesson time, the familiarity of the students with the local, the good access conditions
on foot and in areas where the physical integrity of those involved is not put at risk,
the lithological characteristics of the monument and surrounding buildings, the evi-
dence of the phenomena to be observed, and the possible articulation of contents
between different subjects allowing the involvement of students in the resolution of
problems and research work. With the selection of the proposed criteria, it is
intended to potentiate the practicability and applicability of the activities over time
and to develop teamwork.
The choice in this project of an application oriented in a teaching perspective and
on the Orion model (1993) is based on a theoretical framework about current trends
and perspectives on teaching, namely, the importance of the realization of outdoor
activities, involving the construction of specific material and the adoption of ade-
quate strategies that contribute to the recognition of the relevance of this type of
activities in the teaching process of natural sciences.
The activities are realized through a strategy implemented in the classroom
before the outdoor activity, serving as preparation and introducing or recalling cer-
tain aspects. They may also be applied later on, after the field trip, once again in a
classroom context, allowing the reflection and exploration of the geological phe-
nomena observed.
6.4.1 Geographical Localization and History
The selected area of study is located in the proximities of various schools of Oporto
area, in northwestern Portugal. This localization intensifies the exploration of dif-
ferent themes proposed by the curriculum guidelines of the Ministry of Education,
namely, the adaptation of natural sciences teaching to today’s society challenges.
The Church of Saint Mary of Leça do Balio, commonly known as Monastery of
Leça do Balio, is classified as a National Monument by Decree Law of 23 June
1910. It is considered an excellent historical building from the transition Romanesque
to Gothic style of the Portuguese architecture (Fig. 6.1), close to the Roman road
that linked Oporto and Braga. The Monastery celebrated one thousand years in
2003, based on the oldest known document dated 18 March 1003, but it is certain
that the foundation started before the tenth century. The temple is built with an East-
West trend. Between 1026 and 1336, the monument was subjected to sequent
rebuilding and enlargement in order to satisfy social purposes, initially of the
Benedictine community and, later on, of the Hospitallers of the Order of Saint John
of Jerusalem. Since then its architectural appearance has not changed considerably
despite the superposition of numerous restoration works until nowadays, mainly
intended to improve the security of the structure and consisting of drainage, remod-
elling of the roof and restoration of the pavement. In the surrounding area of the
church, randomly dispersed stones are still present as a testimony of the oldest
constructions.
Fig. 6.1 The tower and the south façade of Leça do Balio Monastery. The conspicuous brewery a
few metres from the monastery is one of the environmental factors partially responsible for the thin
black films and crusts that affect the building stones
6.4.2 Geomorphology and Climate
The geomorphology of the surrounding region is characterized by a platform relief,

of about 20–80 m in height, furrowed transversally by the Leça river. This is a
coastal area, where the outcropping lithology has practically the same resistance to
erosion. The river also conditions the morphology of the area. The characteristics of
the almost flat relief and the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean gave rise to a com-
posed bioclimatic habitat where the influence of the sea air is evident, being the
disposition both of the relief and the river valleys a factor responsible for the stabi-
lization of the climate. The dominant winds blow from the NW, NE and N quad-
rants, which may reach speeds of over 90 km/h.
The combination of moisture content and temperature forms distinct areas that
propitiate the fixation of man and vegetation in demarcated points.
6.4.3 Local Geology, Lithology and Stone Decay Study

Methodology in Leça do Balio Monastery
In the area where the Leça do Balio monument is emplaced, it is possible to find
outcrops that correspond to formations of the so-called Schist-Greywacke complex
(SGC), made up by the association of shale rocks, migmatites and gneisses, in addi-
tion to the medium-grain two-mica Oporto granite and fluvial and lacustrine depos-
its. The Church of Saint Mary of Leça do Balio is founded on fluvial and lacustrine
deposits of Medium Pleistocene and Quaternary age that do not normally exceed
20 m in altitude above the riverbed. A composite biotite granite, known as Ermesinde
granite, outcrops on the western direction. This granite outcrop comprises medium-
grained porphyry granites and granodiorites (Pereira 1989).
The most abundant and expressive rock applied in the church and monastery
building is the two-mica Oporto granite. However, the most ancient stones at the
base of the tower of the church, several of them with a cushion cut typical of the
Roman era, consist of the biotite Ermesinde granite. The presence of the cushions
and the historical connection of the location to the process of Romanization, being
located close to the Roman road that connected Olissipo to Bracara Augusta, leads
to the assumption that a great deal of the stones carved by the Romans were
reutilized.
In order to diagnose the deterioration of the monument by the identification of
the stone decay types and forms, as well as the degree of severity of the problem, a
particular methodology was applied. The study was conducted beginning with the
recognition of the lithologies followed by the definition of the macroscopic features
of the stones to search for the origin of the agents that lead to deterioration and to
understand the mechanisms of deterioration. Figures 6.2 and 6.3 illustrate the car-
tography of the main lithologies that are applied in the Monastery construction,
selected from the tower and the south façade, respectively.
After the recognition of the lithologies, a detailed cartography study must be car-
ried out to better understand the distribution of the main types of stone decay. The
main diagnosed deterioration types consist of plates, flakes, granular disintegration,
black crusts and thin black layers, efflorescences and biological colonization.
In Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, two examples of the stone decay mapping, both of the tower
and of the south façade, show the exhaustive work necessary to characterize the
variety of stone deterioration types that have globally affected the monastery. In
Fig. 6.6a, b there are evidences of the intensity of two irreversible deterioration
types, related with each other: granular disintegration and plates, respectively.
Fig. 6.2 Mapping of the lithologies of the eastern elevation of Leça do Balio Monastery tower
Fig. 6.3 Mapping of the lithologies of the south façade of Leça do Balio Monastery
Fig. 6.4 Mapping of the stone decay forms in the tower of the Leça do Balio Monastery
Fig. 6.5 Mapping of the stone decay forms on the south façade of the Leça do Balio Monastery
Table 6.1 exhibits the most abundant types of stone deterioration present in the
walls of the Leça do Balio Monastery and the respective intensity according to a
scale adapted from Fitzner et al. (1992). The degree of intensity was assessed by the
touch and sensitivity of the observer, and, for definition and cartography of the
forms of deterioration, two main groups were considered: loss of stony material and
discolouration and deposits on the surface of the stones. The state of deterioration
was determined by type, intensity and extension of damage caused by the various
degradations.
Fig. 6.6 Two expressive examples of stone decay types in the Leça do Balio Monastery external
walls: (a) granular disintegration and (b) plates
A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis by energy dispersive and by

wavelength dispersive X-ray (EDS-WDS) made possible the identification of the
soluble mineral salts and particles responsible for most of the deteriorations verified
on the stones of the monastery. The main soluble salts and minerals detected in the
exterior of the monument are listed in Table 6.2. A selection of two representative
images obtained by the emission of secondary electrons accompanied by their
chemical spectrum is presented in Figs. 6.7 and 6.8 with the purpose of illustrating
the most aggressive soluble salts, halite and gypsum, respectively.
The integration of every stage of the previous scientific research allows a thor-
ough characterization of the stone decay that has affected the monastery and is a
fundamental tool for the preparation of the field visit.
6.4.4 Manual of Activities
The support activities and exercises for teachers and students should be related to
the development of comprehension capacities and to the application of the princi-
ples of geosciences, in order to help the interpretation of the surrounding environ-
ment with a more scientific approach in accordance with the methodologies of
Table 6.1 Correlation between the stone decay forms and the damage classes in the ornamental
elements (O) and in the walls (W) of Leça do Balio Monastery
O I-II III-IV V
Damage Classes
W I II III IV V
Stone decay forms
Plates
Loss of stony
material
Flakes
Crusts
Discolouration
Efflorescences
and deposits
Biological
colonization
Detachment of Granular
material disintegration
O ornamental elements in the sculptures, W external walls, I, very slight damages; II, slight dam-
ages; III, moderate damages; IV, severe damages; V, very severe damages (Adapted from Fitzner
et al. 1992)
natural science. They should also promote critical and constructive attitudes in what
refers to science in general and its role in society. In this perspective, the proposed
activities and exercises are compiled in the form of a manual named “Activity Book”
(Casa das Ciências 2012) and intend to put into evidence the affiliation science-
technology-society-environment around the difficulties related to technological and
scientific development, contributing to a more meaningful learning process of the
students, optimizing the time and effort used by the teachers. The activities present
exercises of a transversal nature, relating geology with other subjects, aiming not
only to build knowledge but also to develop citizenship in the students, promoting
situations of dialogue and mutual help among them.
Table 6.2 Soluble salts and Mineral Composition

minerals identified in stone
Halite NaCl
decay samples of the Leça do
Balio Monastery Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Nitre K NO3 and NaNO3
Thenardite NaSO4
Mirabilite NaSO410H2O
Glauberite Na2Ca(SO4)2
Aptitalite K3Na(SO4)2
Syngenite K2Ca(SO4)2H2O
Calcite CaCO3
Gibbsite Al(OH)3
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH, F,Cl)
Kaolinite Al4 [Si4O10](OH)8
Arcanite K2SO4
Fig. 6.7 SEM images and chemical spectrum of halite in the granular disintegration. (a) Halite
crystals (secondary electrons image); (b) halite chemical spectrum
In the conception of the manual there are research problems. The preparation of
the materials obligates to adopt scientific knowledge underlying the specificity of
the geological know-how that depends on abstract situations, on the fact that the
geological phenomena are unique, irreversible and interdependent, inseparable
from the interactions of process-time that have in the background a geological cal-
endar that forces a strong understanding of the facts and of the dependence on
dynamic phenomena to a scale so indistinguishable that they become devalued com-
pared to events with great visual impact. Consequently, it is necessary try to help
students think about what they observe and about the meaning of what they observe.
The activities are developed in a specific sequence of easy access stops where
students have a direct interaction with the surroundings, prepare simple but efficient
materials that involve a constant analysis and reflection, acquire aspects of cogni-
Fig. 6.8 SEM images and chemical spectrum of gypsum in the plates. (a) Gypsum crystals (sec-
ondary electrons image); (b) gypsum chemical spectrum
tive, psychological and geographic nature to reduce the effect of novelty space and,
in this way, increase their level of concentration in order to optimize the act of learn-
ing, build their own knowledge with the inclusion of viable tasks and activities and
develop diverse attitudes, such as observation, interpretation, questioning, discus-
sion, rebuttal, cooperation, responsibility, organization, respect and appreciation of
built heritage.
In turn, it is intended for teachers to be able to make options in what concerns the
activities and exercises, according to the classes involved and the time available for
each group. Before the visit, in the classroom the teachers will provide the students
with maps of the location, or access to Google Maps, explaining the purpose of the
itinerary and supplying the information necessary to work with the maps, be
acquainted with the history of the monument and acquire some knowledge on what
they will observe. During the visit, the teachers should ask the students to mark the
monument on the map, note the elements that are representatives of previous eras,
namely, architectural styles, and all the observations that are being the object of the
field trip. After the visit, in the classroom, the teacher should invite the students to
write their reflections about the visit that must include the history of the monastery,
what they enjoyed or not and the identification of the most important aspects dis-
cussing the respective level of importance.
It is hoped to achieve the following objectives:
– Stimulate the capacity of observation and investigation.
– Recognize the state of conservation of monuments.
– Acknowledge that monuments built of stone also suffer from deterioration as a
result of natural and anthropogenic causes and need to be protected.
– Recognize and classify the types of physical, chemical and biological deteriora-
tion and the factors that promote them.
– Acknowledge that water, and excess of humidity, can increase deterioration

because it facilitates the interaction among pollutants, promotes the emergence
of microscopic living things and causes the emergence of erosive phenomena
through the solubility of the mineral salts present.
– Promote experimental activities in the classroom so that the students understand
the chemical reactions.
In order to achieve the expected results and products of the scientific work devel-
oped in the Leça do Balio Monastery under an educational scope, the following
aspects have been taken in consideration: (Moutinho 2005):
– The selection of a national monument as a teaching tool in articulation with dif-
ferent subjects particularly Geology, Geography, History, Chemistry and
Mathematics
– A geological reality through activities in an outdoor environment
– A different form of awakening the capacity of observation the surroundings
– A learning process through the suggestion of problems with a transversal nature
of contents
– The development of materials and resources that allow critical and participatory
attitudes about environmental affairs
– The composition of an educational manual entitled “Activity Book” adaptable to
various age groups, but more specifically developed for pupils aged from 12 to
15 and flexible in what concerns the updating of knowledge
– Activities suggested in a way that allows teachers to select those that best adapt
to their students and to their objectives
– A work in cooperation with teachers of other subjects and interactive scientific
areas to discuss topics of interdisciplinary nature, relating geology to other dis-
ciplines aiming the building of knowledge and the formation of citizenship, pro-
moting situations of dialogue and mutual help
– Activities adaptable to other monuments, with different lithologies and architec-
tural styles
With the purpose of making the realization of the activities proposed in the
guidebook easier, it is important that in the classroom, before leaving for the out-
door space, the students become familiar with topographic and geological maps, the
use of a GPS and a compass as well as the identification and classification of com-
mon minerals and rocks of magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic origin.
The manual (Activity Book) is divided in four parts (A, B, C and D). Each part
is schematically organized as follows:
The first part (A – activities for the classroom) presents activities and exercises
divided by the topics:
A1 – Observation and characterization of the most common rocks in hand
specimen
A2 – Identification of the major minerals in a particular rock
These activities are supported by documents that include a model of the rock
cycle and usual rock classifications in terms of colour, mineralogical composition,
structure and texture.
The second part (B – routes to carry out in outdoor activities) consists of three
routes with suggestions of a total of five stops:
B1 – Point of departure to the Leça do Balio Monastery (1st stop – exterior/interior
of the monastery)
B2 – From the school to the Roman bridge (2nd and 3rd stops – to observe selected
buildings and relate them with the local rock)
B3 – From the school to the train station (4th and 5th stops – to observe selected
buildings in the way and take a special attention to the stone the railway station
is made of, including deterioration aspects)
For each stop there is a poster with the features to be observed and a map with
the respective locations.
The third part (C – activities to carry out before and after the outdoor activities)
involves experimental procedures to better understand the phenomena related with
the interaction between environment and the rocks:
C1 – How does granite alter in the presence of water?
C2 – Does granite absorb water?
C3 – Are there solid particles in the air?
C4 – Where do the solid particles that exist in the air come from?
The fourth part (D – research activities) is the integration of the knowledge
acquired during the field activities, more specifically applied to the Leça do Balio
Monastery:
D1 – Identification of geometric shapes in the Leça do Balio Monastery
D2 – Identification of symmetry elements in figures of the ornamental stone works
D3 – Searching for aspects that can be considered as stone decay types: plates,
granular disintegration, black crusts, biological colonization
D4 – Are there living creatures colonizing the granite stones of the Leça do Balio
Monastery?
D5 – What may be the causes of the different types of stone decay in the granite?
D6 – Are there similarities between the solid particles found in the atmosphere and
the floating ashes that appear on the stones of the monastery?
D7 – What could be the origin of the solid particles and the floating ashes?
D8 – What might be the age of the granite used in the construction of the Leça do
Balio Monastery?
D9 – Where did the stone used to build the Leça do Balio Monastery probably come
from?
D10 – Understanding episodes of the history of Portugal as told by the Leça do
Balio Monastery.
On location, the students are divided into small groups and are told what they
should observe. Among the activities they take photos, draw schematic features,
measure distances and sizes of objects and take notes.
The students may be asked to complement their work with the following aspects:
– History – When was the monument built? How did it change through time? What
was it used for? By whom? What is the importance of the monument?
– Construction – What lithology and type of stone was applied? Was there a quarry
of the same type of rock near the monument?)
– State of conservation – Is the monument degraded? Is deterioration of the stones
visible? Where? What is the biggest problem of conservation?
– Presentation of the work
Before the field activity, every student has access to information about the route
used from the school to the area of study, the location of the different stops, the type
of activity to be done, the exercises to be accomplished, the material necessary for
the exercises proposed and the methodology to be used.
The topics for the questions of the group of stops suggest activities that can be
repeated at more than one stop. They address the location of the stop (on a topo-
graphic map and on Google Maps), the topographic characterization of the sur-
rounding scenery, the lithology of the stone applied on the monument or building,
the characterization of the types of deterioration found, and the intervention of man
and the explanation, reflection, analysis or study of hypothesis about the cause of
the deterioration observed in the stone.
The exercises also presuppose the occurrence of moments of discussion where
the students analyse situations that imply making decisions. Whenever feasible, if
the teachers and students do not obtain an answer on location, they may register
their doubts, leading to moments of discussion later on in the classroom.
The exercises are presented using language appropriate for students attending
elementary school (ages 12–14) and try to fulfil the basic functions of motivation,
knowledge building, application and assessment.
6.5 Conclusion
The geology in urban settings underlies every aspect of the knowledge that makes
humanity understand the social, cultural and architectonic character of a territory.
The proposed attempt to instil an enthusiastic interest for geology in school chil-
dren, based on a real experience that involved students from basic to secondary
level, has shown results that inspire the performance of similar activities applied to
places where a historical monument is the starting point to further knowledge. The
local stone is recognized as the support of the development of the area where it
outcrops, in various aspects, particularly in the natural design of the morphology,
the efficient use of soil, the adequate location for construction foundations and the
application to built heritage. In the end, the students must be capable of relating
aspects worked on in the classroom, identifying the different lithologies according

to the different phases of construction, being more sensitive to interdisciplinarity in
order to increase their motivation for continuous learning and be aware of the role
of the environment in the preservation of heritage, assuming an attitude of respect
for both natural and man-made heritage.
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Mosteiro de Leça do Balio – contributo para o ensino das Geociências. (Master dissertation).
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Pereira, E. (Coord.). (1989). Geological map of Portugal with the scale 1/200 000. Sheet 1.
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heritage stone: Towards international recognition of building and ornamental stones (Special
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Přikryl, R., & Smith, B. J. (Eds.). (2007). Building stone decay – from diagnosis to conservation
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Chapter 7
Exploring Rocks and Minerals: An Experience
of Integrated Educational Approach
Ana V. Rodrigues, Patrícia João, and Isabel P. Martins
7.1 Introduction
Society today is faced with problems, such as unemployment, poverty, hunger, part
of the population ageing, migration movements, wars and conflicts, depletion and
exhaustion of natural resources as well as the widespread impact of some of the
levels and patterns of consumption, which evidence the planetary emergency situa-
tion we have reached and we need to face (Rodrigues 2011). In order to deal with
this planetary emergency, a citizenship exercise of global dimension that implies an
insight into the scientific dimension of these issues is imperative, i.e. it is essential
to increase the scientific literacy levels of the population, as it has been internation-
ally acknowledged (Acevedo-Díaz 2004; Fensham 2004; Martins 2004; Osborne
and Dillon 2008; Rocard et al. 2007; Sanmartí and Marchán 2015).
According to the OECD, scientific literacy may be defined as “the ability to
engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citi-
zen” (OECD 2013, p. 7).
Thus, and according to Martins (2004), in order to promote students’ scientific
literacy, it is necessary to encourage them to identify problems, to explain phenom-
ena, to develop reasoned conclusions as well as to develop creativity and critical
thinking. These competences, which are considered essential for decision-making
and problem-solving, go beyond the school context, aiming at the development, in
A.V. Rodrigues (*) • P. João

Research Centre “Didactics and Technology in Education of Trainers” (CIDTFF), University
of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: arodrigues@ua.pt; pat.joao@ua.pt
I.P. Martins
Research Centre “Didactics and Technology in Education of Trainers” (CIDTFF), University
of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: imartins@ua.pt

104 A.V. Rodrigues et al.
the short and long term, of more emancipated citizens as far as the Science-
Technology-Society (STS) interrelationships are concerned. Science education
plays an essential role in providing students with the opportunities and resources
that may encourage them to develop these and other skills (DGEC 2007), through
innovative educational practices that motivate them to learn. However, many teach-
ers still argue for a teaching-learning process focused on content rather than on
students, teaching as they, probably, were taught. A paradigm shift is therefore
needed, so that, by promoting the development of students’ scientific literacy, we
may have an informed public, with critical thinking and rational and reasoned
behaviour (Aikenhead 2009). Innovative approaches to science education that take
into account all the diversity, namely, in terms of settings, available resources and
social contexts, and that promote the development of these and other skills are then
required. These approaches, in turn, demand reorientation in science teachers’
training.
However, and in spite of the importance of formal science education for this
increase in scientific literacy levels being widely recognised, it is acknowledged that
this is not sufficient; indeed, non-formal and informal science education contexts
are also key aspects for promoting the scientific literacy of the population in a per-
spective of lifelong learning. Currently, national and international guidelines for
science education point in this direction, i.e. they aim at integrating experiences of
non-formal and informal contexts, by valuing, in the students’ formal education
process, their personal and social experiences outside school (Guisasola and
Morentin 2007; ICSU 2011; NRC 2009; Pedretti 2002). Additionally, with regard to
this integration of formal, non-formal and informal educational contexts, several
studies suggest a deficit in teachers’ preparation. For example, in planning, guiding
and assessing study visits to non-formal and informal educational settings, the prep-
aration of the pre- and post-visit is non-existent or incipient (Faria and Chagas 2012;
Guisasola and Morentin 2007; Jarvis and Pell 2005; Kisiel 2006; Metz 2005;
Rodrigues 2011). Thus, it becomes crucial to include these guidelines in pre- and
in-service teacher training programmes, in order to maximise the opportunities that
visits to non-formal educational settings provide in terms of the children’s learning
development (DeWitt and Osborne 2007).
According to Rodrigues et al. (2015), teacher education is a public policy area
where best practices are demanded, thus contributing to the development of the best
educational models with regard to the integration of science education formal and
non-formal practices. It is therefore considered a promising way to develop a better
scientific literacy in future teachers and, subsequently, in their future students.
Teacher education assumes, thus, a leading role in this change process, both in
terms of theme and practices. However, so that these changes may have an effect in
the classroom and/or in other non-formal (e.g. science interactive museums and
centres) and even informal settings (e.g. factories, streets, monuments), it is neces-
sary that teachers understand, value and are able to implement new science teaching
approaches (Rebelo 2014).
In the science education field, less attention has been given to Geology, although
this is not evident in programmes and curriculum guidelines. According to Carvalho
7 Exploring Rocks and Minerals: An Experience of Integrated Educational Approach 105
(2015), in “our schools, and notwithstanding the always necessary and honourable
exceptions, this school subject is limited to a set of disconnected and decontextual-
ized topics, often seen as uninteresting and even tedious” (our translation).
Associated with this mind-set is the insufficient training of many, maybe the major-
ity, of the teachers. Still according to Carvalho (2015), “there are many poorly qual-
ified teachers that deliver themes unenthusiastically, by mere obligation (…)
uncritically, they follow the stereotyped and equally uncritical adopted textbook”
(our translation). According to the author, it is in this context that the majority of
men and women are graduating, including those who play decisive roles in politics,
administration, businesses and media. To reverse this situation, substantive mea-
sures are needed with regard to the teaching of Geology, such as changes in the
programmes, school textbooks, available teaching resources and even reformula-
tions in teacher education.
Thus, in the context of the current curricula of Geology, teacher education should
help teachers develop an integrated and holistic view about the organisation of geo-
logical knowledge, in order to adequately explore the “relationships between this
type of knowledge (e.g. geological resource), technological applications (e.g. tech-
nology involved in the prospection and transformation of the geological resource)
and society (e.g. use of geological resources by humanity)” (our translation) (Rebelo
2014, p. 7).
It is based on this issue that the present chapter gives an account of a study con-
sisting in the conception, planning, implementation and assessment of an in-service
training programme for primary school teachers on integrated practices of science
education, focusing on the exploration of a theme of Geology. Throughout the in-
service teacher training programme, a proposal for the didactic exploration of the
theme “Rocks and Minerals” by primary school children was developed with the
teachers. The proposal included the design of kits, as well as the elaboration of the
respective teacher’s guidelines concerning the exploration of the didactic resources
and the conception of guiding documents for pupils (tasks to be done and the cor-
responding experiment report worksheets). Teachers participating in the programme
adapted the activities to their classes and validated the didactic approaches
proposed.
7.2 Teacher Training Programme “Integrated Practices

of Formal and Non-formal Science Education”
The in-service teacher training programme “integrated practices of formal and non-
formal science education” assumed the workshop format and emerged from the
need expressed by a group of primary school teachers of the “Ciência Viva” School
of Vila Nova da Barquinha (VNB), which stands out for having an Integrated Centre
of Science Education (CIEC).1
1
Centro Integrado de Educação em Ciências (CIEC) – http://www.ciec.vnb.pt
This innovative school project emerged in the context of the National Programme
for the Re-qualification of the School Network of Preschool and Primary School in
Portugal (2007–2015). In this sense, the municipality of VNB decided to develop,
in collaboration with the University of Aveiro, the project of an innovative primary
school that would be based on guidelines emerging from research and that would
have a strong focus on science education. It was in this context that the CIEC
emerged, being also based on guidelines and recommendations on the importance
of lifelong learning (PE and CE 2006), in this case in science education and from
the early years of childhood; it also derived from the urgency of conceiving strate-
gies that would aim at the development of all individuals’ scientific literacy, by
integrating learning experiences resulting from different formal, non-formal and
informal contexts (Rocard et al. 2007).
The CIEC falls into this perspective in the sense that it aims to engage individu-
als, from early childhood, with science and scientific phenomena, for the promotion
of scientific literacy throughout life, namely, by integrating different types of sci-
ence learning, developed in formal, non-formal and informal contexts. The CIEC is
embodied by the creation of a non-formal science education setting within a formal
educational institution and by the creation of a science laboratory specifically
designed for the development of practical activities within the scope of primary
school formal education. It is an innovative perspective of the organisation of sci-
ence education, integrating formal and non-formal contexts (for further informa-
tion, see Rodrigues 2011).
It was in this context that the in-service teacher training programme entitled
“integrated practices of formal and non-formal science education”2 was conceived,
implemented and assessed, a programme in which two themes were explored, one
of which was “Rocks and Minerals”.
7.2.1 Structure and Organisation
Some of the guidelines underlying the design of this teacher training programme
were (1) teachers’ needs and expectations; (2) teachers’ reflections and sharing of
experiences, namely, in previous teacher training programmes (Rodrigues 2011);
(3) the priority given to carrying out science practical activities of the STS kind that
teachers could implement with their pupils; (4) the value assigned to group work;
and (5) the existence of science education teacher training integrated activities (in
formal, non-formal and informal contexts).
The following goals were defined:
– To raise teachers’ awareness about the importance of the development of indi-
viduals’ scientific literacy, from the earliest years of life
2
In-service teacher training programme accredited by the Scientific and Pedagogical Council for
In-service Teacher Training, with the reference n. ° CCPFC/ACC-83184/15.
– To optimise the teacher’s role in introducing pupils to the learning of sciences

– To develop teachers’ knowledge of disciplinary scientific and didactic content
– To promote the exploration of didactic approaches for the teaching of sciences in
formal and non-formal educational settings, considering the age and the cogni-
tive development levels of pupils
– To promote the planning, implementation and assessment of science education
integrated practical activities
– To develop an attitude of interest, appreciation and fondness for science and for
science education, both personally and professionally
The in-service teacher training programme, which took place between April and
November 2015, comprised 25 contact hours and 25 non-contact hours and was
attended by 12 in-service teachers (in-service teachers will be referenced when
needed as teacher trainees (TT) – TT1 to TT12).
Two researchers/teacher trainers developed this in-service teacher training pro-
gramme: one, holder of a Ph.D. degree in Didactics and Teacher Education, has
16 years of experience in higher education, namely, on experimental science teach-
ing in the early years of schooling, and the other holds a Master’s degree in Earth
Sciences.
The contact sessions took place in formal (laboratory), non-formal (CIEC) and
informal (streets and the Almourol Contemporary Sculpture Park3) settings. In the
non-contact sessions, the in-service teachers developed activities with a class of
primary school children, in formal, non-formal and informal contexts, and prepared
a communication poster in which they described the whole process of conception,
planning, implementation and assessment of the activities developed with the
pupils, as well as an individual reflection about the effects of the training programme
on their professional development.
Afterwards, they presented and orally defended the communication poster to
their peers and registered in grids, with previously defined criteria, their self-
assessment and the assessment of others’ performances. The two researchers/
teacher trainers also registered their assessment in an identical grid.
The minimum criteria for being approved in the training programme were the
participation in two thirds of the sessions and the delivery of the final assignments
established in the programme. The researchers/teacher trainers’ assessment of each
in-service teacher resulted in the number of credits presented below (Table 7.1).4
3
http://www.barquinhaearte.pt/pt/
4
This process was based on the joint guidelines of the CCPFC/DGRHE about the Qualitative
Assessment of Teacher Training Programmes (Circular Letter CCPFC – 3/2007, September 2007).
Table 7.1 Relationship between the quantitative and qualitative assessment scales and the number
of credits
Quantitative assessment
(on a scale of 1–10) Qualitative assessment Number of credits
1–4,9 Insufficient 0
5–6,4 Sufficient 2
6,5–7,9 Good 2
8–8,9 Very good 2
9–10 Excellent 2
Table 7.2 Scheduling of sessions and settings where they took place
Setting
Non-
Session(s) Date Time Formal formal Informal
I 28 March 2015 10:00 a.m.–01:00 p.m. X
02:30 p.m.–05:30 p.m. X
II 10 April 2015 04:30 p.m.–07:00 p.m. X X
III 11 April 2015 09:00 a.m.–01:00 p.m. X
02:30 p.m.–05:00 p.m. X
IV 2 July 2015 10:00 a.m.–01:00 p.m. X
7.2.2 Themes
The themes of the training programme were selected by the teachers: (i) rocks and
minerals and (ii) forces and motion. In this chapter, we will only present the module
concerning the exploration of the theme “Rocks and Minerals”.
7.2.3 Description of the Training Sessions
Throughout the training programme, sessions of different nature and in different

settings (formal, non-formal and informal) were developed. The sessions about
“Rocks and Minerals” are summarised in Table 7.2, which also explains the setting
(formal, non-formal and informal) where the sessions took place.
Next, we describe each one of the sessions of the in-service teacher training pro-
gramme concerning the subject study “Rocks and Minerals”.
Session I A brief introduction to the topic was made, stating the importance of sci-
ence education from the early years, comprising formal, non-formal and informal
dimensions. The main guidelines in science education for these levels of education
were also presented. The key topics discussed were:
1. Scientific literacy – conceptual framework and pathways towards its develop-
ment in formal, non-formal and informal contexts;
2. Science education in primary school – its importance and purposes;

3. Current perspectives on science education (e.g. STS approach, inquiry-based
science education);
4. Learning assessment in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
The starting point for the exploration of the theme “Rocks and Minerals” was
in-service teachers’ experiences, identified by the means of a questionnaire survey,
in which teachers were asked to describe the way they usually explored this theme
with their pupils in the classroom and in non-formal and informal contexts as well.
Thus, starting from the sharing of those experiences, new possibilities for the
approach of the theme were discussed.
Then, the researchers/teacher trainers provided the in-service teachers with some
background information on a study visit to an informal context (in this case, VNB
streets and the Almourol Contemporary Sculpture Park), a visit to be carried out
later on that day.
All the phases foreseen in a study visit (before, during and after) were explored
with the in-service teachers, opting for a strategy similar to the one that they were
expected to develop with their pupils.
In the afternoon, the study visit was carried out. It included a walk through the
streets of VNB and the exploration of the Almourol Contemporary Sculpture Park,
where sculptures (of different materials such as granite, concrete, iron, marble5) of
the most representative Portuguese contemporary sculptors are exhibited. Throughout
the visit (Fig. 7.1) practical applications and uses of rocks and minerals in the daily
life have been identified. It was aimed that the in-service teachers would experience
and explore themselves, in a different teacher training environment, activities that
they could develop with their pupils. In addressing the topics, particular attention
was given to the identification of previous ideas on the subject (e.g. “all the dark
rocks are basalt”, “limestone is always white”), to the simulation of experiences to
be carried out with the pupils and to the discussion of didactic strategies that would
enable the (re)construction of those ideas. Teachers were also asked to explore other
alternatives for future visits, such as museums, science centres and geoparks – places
to select depending on the issues teachers wanted to work with their pupils.
Fig. 7.1 Photographs of sites visited by the in-service teachers
5
All these works of art are located in the seven hectares of the Almourol Contemporary Sculpture
Park.
During this study visit, the in-service teachers made written and photographic
reports on what they observed, for subsequent discussion among peers and with the
researchers/teacher trainers.
Session II In this session, a reflection on the study visit was made, summarising
the direct and indirect practical applications of rocks and minerals. Photographs
taken during the study visit were analysed, in order to clarify some ideas, concepts
and processes, namely, through the exploration of a rock cycle (Fig. 7.2).
Fig. 7.2 Rock cycle

Table 7.3 List of the 19 hand samples of the rocks explored

Rocks
Granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, gabbro, basalt, sands, sandstone, mudstone, breccia,
conglomerate, coal, rock salt, limestone, slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble
Then, a set of 19 hand samples (Table 7.3) was explored and classified according
to the following categories: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic.
Sedimentary rocks were subdivided according to the sediment class: clastic
(sands, sandstone, mudstone, breccia and conglomerate), biogenic (coal) or chemi-
cal (rock salt and limestone); magmatic rocks were subdivided according to the
place of formation – intrusive or plutonic (granite, diorite, gabbro) and extrusive or
volcanic (rhyolite, andesite, basalt) – and features such as chemical composition,
colour and texture were also analysed; metamorphic rocks were subdivided by the
type of metamorphism, regional (slate, schist, gneiss) or contact (quartzite, marble),
classed as foliated and nonfoliated, respectively, by relating them to the temperature
and pressure at the time of their formation.
In this exploration, emphasis was given to the relationships between the intrusive
and extrusive magmatic rocks formed from the same magma, since during the
exploration of the set of rocks it became evident that teachers considered the basalt
and granite to be formed from the same magma. One of the factors that may be
contributing to this erroneous conception is that in school textbooks this pair of
rocks is often presented as an example of extrusive and intrusive magmatic rocks,
respectively. Thus, this concept was discussed, by presenting the following peer
examples of intrusive-extrusive magmatic rocks, formed from the same magma:
granite-rhyolite, gabbro-basalt and diorite-andesite.
Afterwards, the place of origin of these hand samples was discussed by looking
into the abovementioned rock cycle (Fig. 7.2) and by trying to put the samples in the
correct places.
Given that the purpose of this activity was to develop teachers’ knowledge of
disciplinary scientific content, it was not considered a didactic approach to be
implemented with primary school children.
In order to develop a didactic approach of the theme to be implemented with the
pupils, eight samples from that larger set were selected: granite, basalt, rock salt,
sand, limestone, marble, schist and slate.
Criteria underlying the selection of these rocks comprised the existence of rock
samples in the local area (e.g. granite in the Almourol Castle, sands in the banks of
the Tejo River) and pupils’ acquaintance with their practical applications in daily
life (e.g. rock salt of the salt fields of Rio Maior, limestone of the traditional
Portuguese pavement, marbles of kitchen countertops, schist in the schist villages).
The selection of limestone and marble was also due to the relationship between
them, taking into account that limestone is the protolith of marble. Basalt was
included for being a typical extrusive igneous rock of the archipelagos of Madeira
and the Azores. Schist and slate were included because, in spite of being both meta-
morphic, they present different degrees of metamorphism.
Fig. 7.3 Worksheet for the observation of the hand samples of rocks by in-service teachers
In-service teachers were then asked to carry out an activity, in small groups, in
which they had to explore this set of eight rocks according to typical features of
sedimentary, magmatic and metamorphic rocks (Fig. 7.3), namely:
– Metamorphic rocks (marble, schist and slate) – observation of texture (foliated
and nonfoliated), observable colour or colours and other observations
– Magmatic rocks (granite and basalt) – crystals visible to the naked eye or with
the aid of a magnifying lens, observable colour or colours and other
observations
– Sedimentary rocks (rock salt, sands, limestone) – consolidated or unconsoli-
dated, observable colour or colours and other observations
The relevance and adequacy of these sets of samples, as well as the significance
of addressing these types of features in primary school, were discussed with the in-
service teachers.
In the end, the in-service teachers organised six didactic kits, each one of them
comprising eight rock specimens (properly explored, numbered and catalogued)
and a proposal for the exploration and registration of the rocks’ features, to be
implemented with the pupils afterwards (Fig. 7.4).
In this didactic proposal, pupils were expected to explore the eight rock samples
with the aid of a magnifying lens, bearing in mind the observable features (as shown
in Fig. 7.3).
It was also proposed that pupils carried out some specific search (based on a
search guideline, with questions, and suggestions of sites and bibliography) in order
to find out information about the formation and practical applications of these rocks,
as well as to confirm if there were any of them in the region where they lived. At the
end, the teacher would explore the results obtained and help pupils summarise the
main conclusions.
Then, teachers visited the CIEC, more specifically the module entitled “Rocks in
which I stumble” (Fig. 7.5), in which they could see the main rocks of the munici-
pality and their location on a map, as well as observe some samples of these rocks.
Since this is a resource that is available within the school walls, teachers cannot
ignore it when exploring this theme with their pupils. In the same way, other mod-
ules at CIEC, such as “The tent of archaeology and palaeontology”, should also be
taken into consideration when exploring the theme of “Rocks and Minerals”.
Fig. 7.4 Kits of rocks

organised by in-service
teachers
Fig. 7.5 Photographs of the module “Rocks in which I stumble” and of the map at CIEC
Session III This session began with the establishment of a link between rocks and
minerals, i.e. by stating that all rocks are made of minerals. Then, a few hand sam-
ples of minerals were explored according to their features (colour, brightness and
streak), and the corresponding written reports were made in a table (Fig. 7.6).
Fig. 7.6 Worksheet for the observation of hand samples of minerals by in-service teachers
Some of the criteria used to select the minerals to be analysed were their useful-
ness in everyday life, their exploration in nearby locations or the fact that they had
a particular feature, such as hematite and magnetite, due to their magnetic proper-
ties; talc, because of its well-known use as talcum powder for baby care; calcite, for
its use in the manufacture of cement and also for its occurrence in the serra dos
Candeeiros, nearby VNB; graphite, because everybody uses it in pencils; fluorite,
because it is a source of fluorine; halite, for being a source of salt; pyrite, due to its
appearance similar to gold; quartz, for its abundance and practical uses, particularly
in glass manufacturing, optical fibbers and watches, being also used as ornamental
objects and jewellery; feldspar, for being also very abundant and for having numer-
ous applications in industry, particularly in glass and ceramics; and plaster, due to
its exploration in areas nearby VNB (Leiria) and to its uses in the construction
industry.
The Mohs scale was then presented and explored, by explaining its purpose, how
it should be used and how it could be replaced, by using, for the same purpose, a
fingernail and more affordable tools with similar hardness to some of the minerals
of the Mohs scale (fingernail, hardness 1/1,5; copper coin, hardness 3/3,5; iron nail,
hardness 4/4,5; and glass plate, hardness 6).
The relevance and adequacy of this set of samples, as well as the approach pro-
posed to analyse these features with primary school students, were discussed with
the in-service teachers.
Then, the TT organised six didactic kits, each one of them comprising 11 miner-
als (properly explored, numbered and catalogued) and a proposal for the exploration
and register of the minerals’ features, to be implemented with the pupils afterwards
(Fig. 7.7).
In this didactic proposal, pupils were expected to explore the minerals, bearing
in mind: (1) the observable features (colour, brightness), and others features, by car-
rying out small actions, such as (2) determining the streak (by drawing a line with
the mineral sample in the unglazed porcelain plate), (3) verifying if the minerals had
magnetic properties (by placing each mineral close to an iron object and verifying
if it was attracted by it or not) and (4) determining the minerals’ hardness (by using
the fingernail and the alternative tools previously presented). In order to accomplish
these actions, the following items were included in the kits: a magnifying glass, an
Fig. 7.7 Kits of minerals organised by in-service teachers
unglazed porcelain plate, a cooper coin, an iron nail and a glass plate. Pupils were
also expected to do some research on the formation and practical uses of the minerals
and to confirm the existence of these minerals in the region where they lived. At the
end, the teacher would explore these results with the class and help pupils sum-
marise the main conclusions.
After these contact sessions, in which all in-service teachers accomplished these
activities, five of them decided to do their final work on this theme, that is, they
planned and implemented activities with their pupils either in classroom context or
in the laboratory (formal setting) or in the context of study visit (CIEC – non-formal
context; and streets of VNB and Almourol Contemporary Sculpture Park – informal
context), having elaborated a communication poster where they explained the path-
way pursued. In Session IV, all teachers presented and discussed their communica-
tion posters.
7.3 Methodological Procedures Adopted
This qualitative descriptive-oriented study assumes the format of a case study (Stake
2007). The data collection procedures used were questionnaire survey, participant
observation and field notes produced by the researchers/teacher trainers and docu-
mentary collection (lesson plans, descriptions of sessions, records kept by the in-
service teachers during the sessions, communication posters, individual reflections
and grids of self- and hetero-assessment). Analysis of the data was conducted by
resorting to the content analysis technique (Bardin 2009).
Table 7.4 Research instrument “professional development of in-service teachers”

Analysis dimensions Analysis parameters
Science education guidelines He/she recognises and understands the importance of science
education for everyone from the earliest years of schooling
He/she is acquainted with the different perspectives of science
education and understands their implications on the teaching
of sciences in formal and non-formal contexts
He/she values the importance of an integrated science
education
Management of teaching and He/she masters the scientific contents inherent to the topics
learning processes in science covered in the training programme, adjusting them to the level
education of education in which he/she teaches
He/she knows and has expertise in different teaching
methodologies and strategies on the topics covered
He/she develops science activities in formal, non-formal and
informal settings
Assessment of pupils’ learning He/she assesses pupils’ learning progress
outcomes
7.3.1 Assessment of the Effects of the Teacher Training

Programme in the Professional Development
of the In-Service Teachers
In order to analyse the effects of the training programme in the professional devel-
opment of the in-service teachers, a content analysis of their individual reflections
was made, based on the research instrument presented in Table 7.4.
At the end of the training programme, in-service teachers were also asked to
assess their performance, bearing in mind each of the in-service teacher training
programme objectives (corresponding with the analysis parameters presented in
Table 7.4), on a scale of 1–5 (1, minimum, and 5, maximum).
7.3.2 Assessment of In-Service Teachers’ Practices (Before

and After the Teacher Training Programme)
Concerning the Theme “Rocks and Minerals”
The analysis of the in-service teachers’ practices concerning the theme “Rocks and
Minerals” in formal, non-formal and informal contexts was based on: (1) their
answers to the initial questionnaire, which allowed us to characterise their practices
before participating in the training programme, and (2) the activities developed by
five of the in-service teachers with their classes at the end of the training programme
(presented in a communication poster in the last training session). In order to ascer-
tain changes in their practices, we resorted to two research instruments used by
Rodrigues (2011), which focus on the main aspects to consider when developing a
study visit (Table 7.5) and an experimental activity (Table 7.6).
Table 7.5 Research instrument “study visit”

Study visit
Previsit
Teacher preparation Definition of the intention/purpose of the visit (stimulate or
motivate, introduce a topic, revise and consolidate)
Collection and organisation of information documents about the
visit
Visit to the site
Planning of the visit (definition of the duration of the visit,
research on the themes, selection of activities and modules,
decision on the route(s) to follow, etc.)
Pupils preparation Contextualisation of the study visit by addressing the themes
studied or to be studied
Providing basic information on the site
Engaging pupils in the preparation of the visit (research on the
themes and on the place to visit, elaboration of the visit guidelines,
etc.)
Identification of pupils’ preconceived ideas on the contents/
phenomena to be explored during the visit
Definition of the visit’s learning outcomes
Writing a list of questions to be asked during the visit, taking into
account the learning outcomes on the theme(s) concerned
Deciding and organising registration procedures to be applied
during the visit
During visit
Beginning of the visit – guiding the pupils
Exploration of activities/ Conducting the visit, teacher’s and monitor’s roles
modules Implementation of the planned activities (e.g. exploration of
modules, observation of animals or plants, conducting
experiments, etc.)
Looking for answers to the questions raised in the classroom
Data collection and registration (photographs, films, audio records,
worksheets, notes on the exploration of modules, conclusions,
doubts, etc.)
End of the visit – guiding the pupils in the time they have left
Post-visit
Reflection on the study visit (what they learned, what they liked most, what they did not like,
doubts, etc.)
Organisation of the information and elaboration of posters, group reports, etc.
Presentation of the assignments about the study visit (peers, educational community, etc.)
Relate what they saw and did to the approaches implemented or to be implemented in
subsequent classes
Planning of small projects, activities or experiences based on the study visit
Adapted from Rodrigues (2011)
Table 7.6 Analysis Experimental activity

instrument “experimental
Definition of pupils’ learning
activity”
outcomes
Contextualisation of the activity
Formulation of the problem question
Identification and register of pupils’
ideas
Planning of the experience
Selection and preparation of adequate
resources
Experimentation – observation,
measuring and systematised
registration of data
Analysis and discussion of the data
and systematisation of conclusions
Answer to the problem question
Assessment of pupils’ learning
outcomes
Adapted from Rodrigues (2011)
7.3.3 Assessment of the Proposed Didactic Approach

on “Rocks and Minerals” for the Primary School Level
In order to analyse the adequacy and relevance of the proposed didactic approach on
the theme “Rocks and Minerals” for the primary school level, we took into consid-
eration the comments of the 12 in-service teachers throughout the sessions, regis-
tered by the researchers/teacher trainers in their field notes, and the development of
proposals for the didactic approach of the theme “Rocks and Minerals” by five of
the in-service teachers, whose pathway was presented in a communication poster
and is also reflected in teachers’ individual reflections about these didactic experi-
ences and, in particular, about their effects on fostering pupils’ learning.
7.3.4 Assessment of the In-Service Teacher Training

Programme Strategy
To assess the in-service teacher training programme strategy, we analysed teachers’

answers to the final questionnaire, bearing in mind the analysis instrument
presented in Table 7.7, on a scale of 1–4 (1, insufficient; 2, sufficient; 3, good;
4, very good).
Table 7.7 Analysis instrument “assessment of the in-service teacher training programme strategy”
In-service teacher training programme
Analysis dimensions Analysis parameters
Objectives Clear, relevant and achieved
Contents Clear, relevant, fully explored and of practical application
Time management Adequate duration of the training programme in relation to the
objectives set and adequate time for both theory and practice
Organisation and Schedule
logistics Diversification of teaching resources
Teacher trainers’ Clarity in the presentation of the training programme’s goals and in
performance the oral presentations made
Successful motivation of the group, taking into account the
expectations and needs of the teachers
Appropriateness of the teaching methods to the target audience,
demonstrating the practical applications of the themes studied
7.4 Data Analysis and Presentation of Results
In this section, we present the analysis of data and some of the results, bearing in
mind the research objectives defined.
7.4.1 Assessment of the Effects of the Training Programme

on In-Service Teachers’ Professional Development
In order to assess the effects of the training programme on the professional develop-
ment of in-service teachers, we applied the analysis instrument “professional devel-
opment of in-service teachers” (Table 7.4) to their individual reflections. Besides,
we have also asked in-service teachers to self-assess their performance after the
programme, with reference to the expected learning outcomes, which match the
analysis parameters of the assessment instrument.
Thus, through the analysis of in-service teachers’ individual reflections and of
the self-assessment table (Table 7.8), we can observe that all of them consider the
training programme as having provided a positive contribution to their professional
development and having had direct implications on their teaching practices. In the
self-assessment table, all the in-service teachers positioned themselves at the upper
end of the scale; accordingly, individual reflections also seem to point to this result,
as illustrated in this excerpt of TT4’s individual reflection:
In relation to my professional development, I assume that participating in this training pro-
gramme has allowed me to open new horizons regarding the implementation of experimen-
tal activities with pupils and I will certainly readjust my teaching practice, improving some
of my teaching methodologies in this area. (our translation)
Table 7.8 In-service teachers’ self-assessment after the training programme

Positioning of in-service
teachers (%)
Minimum Maximum
Analysis dimensions Analysis parameters 1 2 3 4 5
Science education He/she recognises and understands the 17 % 83 %
guidelines importance of science education for
everyone from the earliest years of
schooling
He/she is acquainted with the different 25 % 68 % 17 %
perspectives of science education and
understands their implications on the
teaching of sciences in formal and
non-formal contexts
He/she values the importance of an 42 % 58 %
integrated science education
Management of He/she masters the scientific contents 17 % 33 % 50 %
teaching and learning inherent to the topics covered in the
processes in science training programme, adjusting them to
education the level of education in which he/she
teaches
He/she knows and has expertise in 25 % 75 %
different teaching methodologies and
strategies on the topics covered
He/she develops science activities in 33 % 67 %
formal, non-formal and informal
settings
Assessment of He/she assesses pupils’ learning 55 % 45 %
pupils’ learning progress
outcomes
Regarding the “Science education guidelines” dimension, we observed that in-

service teachers consider having had a good or very good performance (levels 4 and
5) in what concerns the analysis parameters “He/she recognises and understands the
importance of science education for everyone from the earliest years of schooling”
and “He/she values the importance of an integrated science education”, as the fol-
lowing excerpt of TT8 illustrates:
Fostering science education implies the recognition of the interaction between Science and
the improvement of the quality of life of individuals in general. In that sense, it is desirable
that the integrated teaching of sciences in the school curriculum begins from the early years
of schooling and that it is approached in non-formal and formal educational environments.
Given the impact of this dimension in pupils’ learning outcomes and civic education, it will
also be essential to provide teachers with training programmes that make them grow fond
of exploring didactic situations regarding the teaching of Sciences. (our translation)
In what concerns the analysis parameter “He/she is acquainted with the different
perspectives of science education and understands their implications on the teach-
ing of sciences in formal and non-formal contexts”, 25 % of the in-service teachers
position themselves at level 3 and 17 % at level 5; therefore, the remaining teachers

considered themselves as “good”. As an example, we present the excerpt from the
individual reflection of the TT8:
I decided (…) as a personal challenge, (…) to develop a research-oriented practical activity
with pupils of the 2nd grade that aimed at:
• Promote the experimental teaching [of Sciences] in context;
• Make pupils active participants and not mere spectators;
• Lead pupils to discover by themselves that, irrespective of being provided with some guid-
ance, they can be responsible for the development of knowledge and that this process
can be a delightful experience;
• Develop basic competences; research and communicative competences. (our translation)
As far as the analysis dimension “Management of teaching and learning pro-
cesses in science education” is concerned, the parameter “He/she knows and has
expertise in different teaching methodologies and strategies on the topics covered”
stands out for the absence of references to the level 5; however, 75 % of the in-
service teachers position themselves at level 4. In relation to the parameter “He/she
masters the scientific contents inherent to the topics covered in the training pro-
gramme, adjusting them to the level of the education in which he/she teaches”, 50 %
of the in-service teachers position themselves at level 5. We present below an
excerpt that evidences these results:
this [training] programme has exceed my initial expectations. In this way, I was able to
enhance some competences, by developing content and methodological knowledge; this
has allowed me to improve my teaching practice with regard to science education. (TT5)
(our translation)
Concerning the analysis parameter “He/she develops science activities in formal,

non-formal and informal settings”, all teachers position themselves at the upper end
of the scale (33 % at level 4 and 67 % at level 5). As an example, we highlight the
following extract from the individual reflection of TT8:
this (…) training programme (…) elucidated [me] about the best way to articulate non-
formal and informal environments” and “(…) it allowed me to develop a greater self-
confidence regarding the implementation of integrated practical activities in science
education. (our translation)
With reference to the dimension “Assessment of pupils’ learning outcomes” and

in relation to the parameter “He/she assesses pupils’ learning progress”, in-service
teachers position themselves at levels 4 and 5 (55 % at level 4 and 45 % at level 5).
This was, however, the parameter in which teachers claimed having made fewer
progresses. The following extracts from their individual reflections illustrate the
abovementioned:
personally, the item concerning the assessment of pupils’ learning outcomes was the most
significant and the one that led me to reflect on the learning process of students. (TT5)
increasingly aware of their [assessment instruments’] importance, the way in which
learning occurs as well as their effects on pupils’ lives are improved by the means of self
and hetero-assessment instruments, essential and indispensable tools for a conscious and
fair assessment. (TT3) (our translation)
It is worth highlighting that none of the in-service teachers involved in this train-
ing programme positions him-/herself at levels 1 or 2 in any of the analysis
dimensions.
Throughout the sessions, in-service teachers’ interest and commitment towards
the training programme was clear, evincing the need they felt to attend it and how
motivated they were to explore this theme with their pupils. The excerpt below,
withdrawn from the individual reflection of TT5, confirms the researchers/teacher
trainers’ aforementioned perception:
by participating in this (…) teacher training programme, I felt more motivated as well as
more confident in exploring the science themes addressed, being also able to motivate and
mobilise students to science learning. (our translation)
7.4.2 Assessment of In-Service Teachers’ Practices (Before

and After the Teacher Training Programme)
Concerning the Theme “Rocks and Minerals”
7.4.2.1 In-Service Teachers’ Practices Before the Training Programme
We present below the analysis of the 12 in-service teachers’ responses to the initial
questionnaire, concerning the description of what they say they usually do when
teaching the theme “Rocks and Minerals” to the pupils, in formal, non-formal and
informal context.
In the initial planning of the visit to a non-formal and/or informal context, six
teachers suggested visiting the Mira d’Aire Caves (limestone caves), five suggested
visiting sites and attractions of the VNB municipality, one proposed a visit to a
quarry and another recommended visiting a shale village.
As far as to the three fundamental stages to be considered in a study visit (pre-
visit, during the visit and post-visit), it can be observed in the study visit plans
elaborated that half of the in-service teachers make no reference to the “previsit”
stage, 17 % does not refer the “during the visit” stage and 25 % makes no mention
of the “post-visit” stage. However, 33 % of the teachers refer to at least one of the
parameters of each phase (previsit, during the visit and post-visit).
In planning the experimental activity for the exploration of “Rocks and Minerals”,
all the in-service teachers propose as activity the “exploration of the rock samples’
features”; however, none of them specifies how this activity will be carried out. The
exploration of the practical application and location of the rocks is mentioned by
25 % of the in-service teachers. Half of them explicit some of the features that he/
she would explore; however, they also evince theoretical weaknesses, such as point-
ing hardness as a feature to be explored in rocks.
Regarding the aspects to consider in the development of the practical activity,
and as can be observed in the checklist presented in Table 7.9, we can verify that
none of the in-service teachers made any reference in their plans to 50 % of those
aspects, namely, definition of pupils’ learning outcomes, planning of the experi-
Table 7.9 Checklist of the aspects to consider in a practical activity

Practical activity TT1 TT2 TT3 TT4 TT5 TT6 TT7 TT8 TT9 TT10 TT11 TT12
Definition of pupils’
learning outcomes
Contextualisation of X X X X
the activity
Formulation of the X
problem question
Identification and X X
registration of pupils’
ideas
Planning of the
experience
Selection and
preparation of
adequate resources
Experimentation: X X X X X X X X X X X
observation,
measuring and
systematised
Analysis and
discussion of the data
and systematisation of
conclusions
Answer to the X
problem question
Assessment of pupils’
learning outcomes
ence, selection and preparation of adequate resources, analysis and discussion of

results and systematisation of conclusions and assessment of pupils’ learning.
The formulation of or answer to the problem question was mentioned by only
one of the in-service teachers (TT7), and the identification and registration of pupils’
preconceived ideas was referred by two of the teachers (TT7 and TT8). The contex-
tualisation of the activity is mentioned by 33 % of the in-service teachers. The item
mentioned by almost all the in-service teachers (92 %) was experimentation (obser-
vation, measuring and systematised registration of data).
7.4.2.2 In-Service Teachers’ Practices After the Teacher Training

Programme
As already mentioned, five of the 12 in-service teachers (TT1, TT3, TT6, TT9 and
TT10) conceived and implemented an activity on “Rocks and Minerals” with their
classes, integrating formal, non-formal and informal educational contexts. In this
subsection, we aim to present and analyse these data and to compare teachers’
Table 7.10 Sequence of activities on “Rocks and Minerals” for each in-service teacher
TT Sequence of the integrated activity on “Rocks and Minerals”
TT1 Visit to the Almourol Castle | Follow-up activity about the visit | Formulating the
problem question | Research on the topic “rocks” on recommended websites |
Exploration of the module “Rocks in which I stumble” at the CIEC | Observation of
rocks and exploration of some of their features | Registration of the observations in a
table | Answer to the problem question | Presentation of the work developed to the
class | Systematisation of the learning outcome through the elaboration of a Venn
diagram (interdisciplinary relationships with mathematics)
TT3 Elaboration of a “vocabulary tree” (interdisciplinary relationships with the Portuguese
language subject) | Building of a prototype of the Almourol Castle (interdisciplinary
relationships with the artistic expression subject) | Exploration of the module “Rocks
in which I stumble” at the CIEC and of the map of the municipality of VNB with the
distribution of existing rocks | Observation of rocks and exploration of some of their
features in laboratory | Registration of the observations in a table | Presentation of the
work developed to the class
TT6 Exploration of the module “Rocks in which I stumble” at the CIEC and of the map of
the municipality of VNB with the distribution of existing rocks | Observation of rocks
and exploration of some of their features | Registration of the observations in a table
TT9 Walk through the streets of VNB and visit to the Sculpture Park | Exploration of a
cartoon in order to formulate the problem question | Exploration of the kits of rocks |
Registration of the observations in a table
TT10 Walk through the streets of VNB and visit to the Sculpture Park | Exploration of the
module “Rocks in which I stumble” at the CIEC and of the map of the municipality of
VNB with the distribution of existing rocks | Research and completion of a registration
table | Systematisation of the activity by resorting to a game
answers to the initial questionnaire to the final didactic proposal presented by the
five in-service teachers in their communication posters.
All the five in-service teachers taught the 3rd grade or the 2nd and 3rd grades of
primary education and had on average 26 pupils per class.
In their final proposals, TT1 and TT6 integrated formal and non-formal educa-
tional contexts, TT9 integrated formal and informal educational contexts, while
TT3 and TT10 integrated formal, non-formal and informal educational contexts
(Table 7.10).
All the in-service teachers also presented an instrument for the assessment of the
pupils’ learning outcomes (in terms of knowledge, competences, attitudes and
values).
When comparing the activities developed by the five in-service teachers after the
training programme to the didactic proposals they presented before the beginning of
the programme (initial questionnaire), an evolution in the quality of the thematic
exploration can be verified, both in terms of study visit and practical activity.
In what concerns the study visit, while in the initial questionnaire of the TT3,
TT6 and TT10 did not make any reference to the previsit stage and the TT6 did not
mention, in her initial planning, the post-visit stage, after the training programme,
all teachers refer, at least, one of the parameters of analysis established for the pre-
visit, during the visit and post-visit stages.
Table 7.11 Comparison between the aspects considered by the five in-service teachers in the
development of a practical activity on “Rocks and Minerals”, before and after the training
programme
Experimental TT1 TT3 TT6 TT9 TT10

activity Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
Definition of X X X X X
pupils’ learning
outcomes
Contextualisation X X X X X X X
of the activity
Formulation of the X X X X
problem question
Identification and X X X X X
registration of
pupils’ ideas
Planning of the X X X
experience
Selection and X X X X
preparation of
adequate resources
Experimentation: X X X X X X X X X
observation,
measuring and
systematised
Analysis and X X X X
discussion of the
data and
systematisation of
conclusions
Answer to the X X X X
problem question
Assessment of X X X X X
pupils’ learning
outcomes
Through the analysis of the checklist presented below (Table 7.11), comparing
the aspects which the five in-service teachers considered for the development of a
practical activity on “Rocks and Minerals” before and after the training programme,
we can verify that all the teachers evince considerable improvements.
Initially, three of the in-service teachers (TT1, TT9 and TT10) only referred to
one aspect of the development of the practical activity. However, after the training
programme, and when planning and implementing the activity with the pupils, they
covered all the foreseen aspects.
TT3, who at the beginning made reference to only two of the aspects (contextu-
alisation of the activity and experimentation: observation, measuring and systema-
tised registration of data), after the training programme, she came to include seven
more aspects; the only item neglected was planning the experience with the pupils.
Compared to other in-service teachers, TT6 was the one that revealed a more
modest change in her practice, given that, in spite of having indeed contemplated
more aspects after the training programme (at the beginning she only mentioned one
aspect and after the programme she referred five), at the end several items persisted
unmentioned: the formulation of or answer to the problem question, the planning of
the experience with the pupils, the selection and preparation of adequate resources
and the analysis and discussion of the data and systematisation of conclusions.
The planning of the experience with the pupils was the only aspect that was not
addressed by two of the in-service teachers (TT3 and TT6).
At the end of the teacher training programme, and notwithstanding the fact that
all the in-service teachers covered a greater number of aspects in the development
of the practical activity, this does not mean they did it with the same level of perfor-
mance. After the assessment made by the researchers/teacher trainers on the work
developed by the in-service teachers with their pupils, and based on the previously
established scale (Table 7.1), we can observe that TT9 and TT10 presented an excel-
lent level of performance, TT1 and TT3 a very good level of performance and TT6
a sufficient one.
7.4.3 Assessment of the Proposed Didactic Approach

on “Rocks and Minerals” for the Primary School Level
Throughout the sessions, the in-service teachers explored the didactic approach on
“Rocks and Minerals” for the primary school level presented by the researchers/
teacher trainers, both in terms of disciplinary and didactic content knowledge. At a
certain point of the training programme, the in-service teachers carried out the
activities as if they were the pupils, given that, according to the results of Rodrigues’
study (2011), this process facilitates the implementation of the strategy on their
teaching practices of sciences.
During the sessions, the researchers/teacher trainers registered the comments of
the 12 in-service teachers on the proposed didactic approach, namely, the adequacy
of the approach in relation to primary school curriculum and to pupils’ age, the rock
and mineral samples selected for the kits, the type of activities proposed and sites
suggested for implementing study visits to formal and non-formal contexts.
The analysis of in-service teachers’ comments indicates that they consider the
proposed didactic approach as well as the corresponding kits to be adequate to the
primary school level, being useful resources for them to teach this particular theme,
as we can see in the following excerpt of TT3:
all activities in this training programme as well as the strategies used were appropriate to
the progression of each pupil given the expected learning outcomes. (our translation)
Additionally, the implementation of the didactic approach regarding the theme

“Rocks and Minerals” by the five in-service teachers in their classes was also taken
into consideration. In their communication posters, they presented pupils’ learning
Table 7.12 In-service teachers’ perceptions on pupils’ learning outcomes as the result of the
development of the activity
Pupils’ learning outcomes
Knowledge He/she knows that the correct designation for the term “stone” is rock
He/she knows the main rocks that exist in his municipality, region and
country
He/she knows the uses and practical applications of some rocks
He/she recognises that rocks are not all alike
He/she knows that rocks are classified, as to their origin, as igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
Competences He/she makes predictions
He/she observes rock samples by using the naked eye or the with the aid
of a magnifying lens
He/she analyses some features of rocks
He/she compares rocks according to some of their features
He/she searches information on different sources
He/she registers data in a double entry table
He/she answers to the problem question
He/she reports the outcomes of his/her researches and learning process
orally
Attitudes and values He/she shows respect for other people’s ideas
He/she evinces accuracy and precision in carrying out experiments
He/she is fond of sciences and of science learning
outcomes, deriving from the development of the activity, as well as a reflection on

the whole process.
Table 7.12 presents the compilation of in-service teachers’ perceptions on pupils’
learning outcomes as the result of the development of the activity.
Thus, in-service teachers consider that the approach implemented made it pos-
sible to develop different learning in pupils, both in terms of content, skills, attitudes
and values. To illustrate, we present some excerpts from the reflections of the in-
service teachers:
– pupils’ interest and concern regarding the use of correct scientific vocabulary was evi-
dent, showing curiosity and fondness for learning about the theme studied (TT1)
– students present themselves always as highly motivated for the new learning, often
being them wanting to develop the theme further (TT3)
– students showed enthusiasm for learning and raised many questions, and they became
very motivated to learn more and more (TT6)
– they evinced curiosity and critical thinking as well as fondness for and interest in sci-
ence (TT9) (our translation)
Table 7.13 Assessment of the in-service teacher training programme by in-service teachers
In-service teacher training programme
Positioning of in-service teachers (%)
Analysis Very
dimensions Analysis parameters Insufficient Sufficient Good good
Objectives Clear, relevant and achieved 16 % 84 %
Contents Clear, relevant, fully explored and of 28 % 72 %
practical application
Time Adequate duration of the training 36 % 64 %
management programme in relation to the
objectives set and adequate time for
both theory and practice
Organisation Schedule 9% 27 % 64 %
and logistics Diversification of teaching resources 13 % 87 %
Teacher Clarity in the presentation of the 100 %
trainers’ training programme’s goals and in
performance the oral presentations made
Successful motivation of the group, 9% 91 %
taking into account the expectations
and needs of the teachers
Appropriateness of the teaching 100 %
methods to the target audience,
demonstrating the practical
applications of the themes studied
7.4.4 Assessment of the In-Service Teacher Training Strategy
Based on the analysis instrument “Assessment of the in-service teacher training

programme” (Table 7.7), applied to the answers of the in-service teachers in the
final questionnaire, it is evident that more than 64 % of the teachers evaluate all the
assessment parameters of the programme as “very good”. All the other in-service
teachers consider the analysis parameters as “good”, with the exception of a teacher
that assesses the “schedule” parameter as “sufficient” (Table 7.13). Thus, we can
conclude that the objectives, contents, time management and the organisation and
logistics of the training programme were adequate to the in-service teachers’ expec-
tations and needs.
Almost all the TT assessed the researchers/teacher trainers’ performance as very
good.
The good working atmosphere among the in-service teachers and with the
researchers/teacher trainers was also highlighted, as it can be seen in the following
excerpt, withdrawn from the individual reflection of the TT9:
Finally, I must point out the good working environment of the group sessions, as well as the
leading role played by the teacher trainers responsible for the training programme. (our
translation)
7.5 Conclusions
Results indicate that the in-service teacher training programme was a positive con-
tribution to the professional development of the in-service teachers, namely, by
improving their practices with regard to the integration of formal, non-formal and
informal science education contexts, particularly in approaching the theme “Rocks
and Minerals”.
The strategies implemented in this training programme can also be used in pre-
service teacher training, provided the necessary adjustments. For example, the
implementation of the activities with the students and the respective reflection
would have to be different, since pre-service teachers do not have their own class.
However, higher education institutions may promote the development of this type of
activities and invite schools to come to their science laboratories to participate in
these or other activities, such as field trips or study visits, organised, for example, at
the institutions’ open days or during the Science and Technology Open Week. Pre-
service teachers may also go to schools that have an agreement with the higher
education institutions and develop the activities with the pupils, under the supervi-
sion of classroom teachers with proven quality teaching practices.
In relation to the didactic approach of the theme with primary school children
that was presented and explored in this training programme and implemented by
some of the in-service teachers in their classes, results suggest an adequacy of the
proposal, either in terms of the current official curriculum or of the pupils’ age.
Moreover, the didactic approach is appropriate to the development of pupils’ learn-
ing, concerning the themes/contents explored, as well as to the development of sci-
entific technological skills, attitudes and values. The fact that this didactic approach
used local contexts as a starting point for the exploration of the theme “Rocks and
Minerals” was also considered an asset, which is in line with the study of Piranha
and Carneiro (2009), where “the use of geological information of local and regional
settings is considered to be a strong link to integrative learning. It invites the learn-
ers/participants to reflection, because it shows them the reality of the place where
they live (…)” (our translation) (p. 135).
In the words of Carneiro et al. (2004), “Geology provides minimal understanding
of how the planet works and it launches the bases of an effective exercise of citizen-
ship” (our translation) (p. 559), i.e. geological knowledge contributes towards the
education of conscious citizens, who are able to make informed decisions and to
solve problems, particularly those related to anthropic occupation, exploitation of
resources and certain natural disasters.
We therefore consider that a stronger focus on the exploration of themes of
Geology in the early years of schooling, by integrating formal, non-formal and
informal contexts, is crucial.
The study here presented also provides evidence of the role of research in: (i) the
conception and validation of didactic resources supporting the teaching and learn-
ing process and (ii) the development of in-service teacher training programmes that,
by fostering the consolidation of teachers’ disciplinary content and didactic knowl-
edge on a specific theme, may guarantee an adequate exploration of that theme by

teachers with their classes. Teachers’ professional development, in terms of didactic
knowledge, implies these being confronted not only with new guidelines but also
with the possibility of testing their operational viability. To accomplish this, an
atmosphere of trust and openness between in-service teachers and teacher trainers
is needed. The practices developed in this in-service teacher training programme
evince that it is an achievable goal. Teacher education will always be a central issue
in what concerns the quality of educational practices.
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Chapter 8
Fossils, Smartphones, Geodiversity, Internet,
and Outdoor Activities: A Technological
Geoeducational Bundle
Carlos Marques da Silva
8.1 Introduction: We Live in an Urban and Technological

World
Now that we are halfway into the second decade of the twenty-first century, saying
that technology is all around us has become a bit of a cliché. The use of technologi-
cal gadgets in everyday life is no longer science fiction wishful thinking; it is a “fait
accompli,” a done deal.
It is not the purpose of this work to accurately define the nature of the world we
currently live in. Therefore, it is probably an exaggeration – a figure of speech if you
will – rooted on the biased perception we have of the so-called Western world, to
state that today’s life is defined or even governed by technology. Nevertheless, it is
at least reasonable to say that we live in a world that is deeply influenced by it.
On the other hand, it is not a hyperbole to state that we – at least from a strictly
demographic point of view – already live in an urban world. According to United
Nations data, the urban population of the planet has grown swiftly since 1950, from
746 million to 3.9 billion in 2014. Today, globally, more people live in urban areas
than in the countryside, with 54 % of the world’s population (United Nations 2014),
and although world asymmetries are gigantic, the population living in cities pres-
ently generates in excess of 80 % of global GNP.
Therefore, with the majority of people living in metropolitan areas, there is a
strong case for using urban geodiversity, rocks, fossils, landforms, etc., in outdoor
geological educational and geoawareness activities (e.g., Prosser and Larwood
1994; Zinko 1994; Doyle and Bennett 1998; Silva and Cachão 1998; MacFadyen
and McMillan 2002; Gray 2004; Silva 2009a, b; Ventura et al. 2010; Mayoral et al.
C.M. da Silva (*)

Departamento de Geologia e Instituto Dom Luiz de geociências, Faculdade de Ciências,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: cmsilva@fc.ul.pt

134 C.M. da Silva
2012; Rodrigues and Agostinho 2016). This does not mean – not by a long shot! –
that field activities, in natural settings, should be discarded or even neglected.
Furthermore, a large portion of the world’s population has access to basic tech-
nological tools and resources that would seem utterly futuristic just some 35 years
ago. According to the Ericsson Mobility Report (2015), in 2014 there were 2600
million smartphone subscriptions worldwide, and forecasts predict that by 2020
advanced mobile technology will be globally ubiquitous with 70 % of people using
smartphones. The use of laptops, computer tablets, Internet access, and GPS-
capable devices of various kinds is commonplace these days, especially so when it
comes to the younger generations. Despite the fact that today, as a result of plum-
meting fertility rates and longer life expectancy, the share of global population
under age 20 has fallen to 35 % – from 48 % in 1970 (Population Reference Bureau
2014) – still an important slice of the planet’s population was born and grew up in a
world with personal computers, cell phones, GPS, and Internet. For an important
portion of these youngsters, these are not technological novelties, but everyday
commodities that they take for granted.
Therefore, why not combine the two facts described above – mostly urban popu-
lation with access to technology – and use them in outdoor geoeducational and geo-
awareness activities in urban areas and also in natural environments? The hardware
(smartphones, computers, GPS devices) and the software associated to it (mobile
apps, web application hybrids – mash-ups – such as Panoramio and Flickr, and digi-
tal publishing platforms the likes of Issuu, etc.) are increasingly accessible in urban
areas around the world, and even in rural ones, and may be used successfully to
create synergies capable of supporting such activities.
In this work, a series of activities and experiments in geoeducation and geo-
awareness actions using commonly available technology, set both in urban and
natural environments, will be presented and briefly discussed. These activities have
been tested and used in middle school, high school, and university teaching and in
science popularization activities for the broader public fostered, mainly, by under-
graduate (Bottino et al. 2014) and graduate students (Ventura et al. 2010) and teach-
ers and researchers (e.g., Silva and Cachão 1998; Silva 2007, 2009a, b) of the
Department of Geology of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon (Portugal).
8.2 QR Codes, Cobbled Pavements, and Urban Geodiversity
A Quick Response code, commonly designated by the acronym “QR code,” is a

special type of two-dimensional bar code installed to provide easy access to infor-
mation through the use of special software in a decoding equipment, more often a
mobile application (an app) designed to run on mobile devices such as smartphones
and tablet computers equipped with cameras (Shin et al. 2012). The process of read-
ing the code, known as mobile tagging, commonly works as follows: after opening
the QR code reader app which works in association with the device’s camera, the
user points it to the code; the app interprets the code, which typically triggers a call
8 Fossils, Smartphones, Geodiversity, Internet, and Outdoor Activities… 135
to action such as an invitation to download an app, a link to view a specific webpage

or a video, etc.
Today, these QR codes are very widespread in urban environments – both indoors
and outdoors – and may be found in a variety of situations, ranging from ads in
publications to consumer products (breakfast cereal and beverages, cosmetics, etc.),
publicity outdoors, public transportation sites, museum exhibits, etc.
8.2.1 Traditional Stone Pavements and QR Codes
The tradition of using artistic cobbled pavements in pedestrian areas in Lisbon,

locally known as “calçada portuguesa artística” or artistic Portuguese pavement, is
long and widespread (Fig. 8.1). The stone artisan that lays the pavement is known
as the “calceteiro.” White compact Jurassic limestone is used in conjunction with
Jurassic black compact limestone and/or Cretaceous basalt to produce an impres-
sive set of geometric pavement patterns and pavement pictures. It is a very vibrant
and artistic fusion of geological resources – the limestone used is quarried in the
Calcareous Massif of Estremadura, some 100 km north of Lisbon – and cultural
Fig. 8.1 Rosette and loop patterns in the pavement of the Duque da Terceira Square in downtown
Lisbon; two examples of the many different patterns used in the typical artistic Portuguese pave-
ment. White cobblestones, compact, fine-grained Jurassic limestone; black cobblestones,
Cretaceous basalt and/or compact, fine-grained black Jurassic limestone. Average dimension of the
cobblestones, circa 4–5 cm across. Note the star in the center of the rosette; it is the signature of
the “mestre calceteiro,” the master artisan that laid that stretch of pavement
136 C.M. da Silva
traditions in urban areas. This type of pavement is also used in other urban areas of
the country but, usually, not as elaborately nor as extensively as in Lisbon. Gray
(2004) mentions these pavements in Lisbon and Funchal (Portugal) when discuss-
ing the economic value of geodiversity (building materials), but they could also be
seen as examples of the aesthetical value of geodiversity in urban areas.
Using the slogan “Reprogramming the City: Unlocking the Potential of Existing
Urban Assets,” the QR Chiado initiative developed by Lisbon-based creative agency
MSTF Partners produced a series of cobbled QR codes fusing the tradition of
Portuguese artistic pavements and new technologies (see QR Chiado 2015 in the
References; “Chiado” is a popular barrio in downtown Lisbon; Fig. 8.2).
Using a biological metaphor, one could even say that the Portuguese pavement
was “preadapted” for QR codes since it is made of black and white typically square-
shaped cobblestones. Therefore, QR codes made of compact, fine-grained, black
and white Jurassic limestone cobblestones were built-in in the Portuguese pavement
of Lisbon for pedestrians to obtain information about historical landmarks or local
history or any other useful information. Just as the building stone of Lisbon used to
tell coded tales of seafaring sagas, geographical discoveries, and foreign cultures,
the very same stones were now recoded to convey present-day tales and information
via mobile digital devices (QR Chiado 2015).
Fig. 8.2 QR codes made of compact, fine-grained, black and white Jurassic limestone cobble-
stones built-in in the Portuguese pavement of Lisbon for pedestrians to obtain information about
historical landmarks or local history and useful city information. White cobblestones, compact,
fine-grained Jurassic limestone; black stones: compact, fine-grained black Jurassic limestone.
Average dimension of the cobblestones, circa 4–5 cm across
In the same way that street designs and paving techniques were exported from
Portugal to other countries around the world – France, Brazil, Catalonia (Esparza-
Lozano 2014), China (Macao), Mozambique, East Timor, etc. – during the twenti-
eth century, QR Chiado has been exported to Rio de Janeiro and Barcelona to be
used in their city’s paved surfaces.
The paved QR codes – using Portuguese pavement techniques or local tradi-
tions – may very well be used to convey information about the very same geological
materials they are made of. Ornamental rocks, fossils, landforms, and landscapes
seen in the city could be successfully deciphered using these codes, both in educa-
tional activities and in geoawareness ones.
8.2.2 Geodiversity, Fossils, and QR Codes
In a related experiment, using QR codes to decode geodiversity aspects, mainly fos-

sils, Bottino et al. (2014) developed a series of codes to be posted in popular city
locations associated with obvious fossil occurrences and designed to open a web-
page with basic information about them (Fig. 8.3). QR codes have been introduced
Fig. 8.3 Fossils and QR codes in downtown Lisbon. In an activity conducted by Bottino et al.
(2014), several QR codes where strategically placed next to urban fossil occurrences in popular
city locations. On top of the QR code, a short caption reads: “Que fóssil é este?” (What fossil is
this?). In this case, a few fossilized specimens of coiled caprinid rudist bivalves are visible. These
fossils are common in Upper Cretaceous limestone occurring in the Lisbon region. Note the
Portuguese pavement pattern on the sidewalk
138 C.M. da Silva
into field trips before, namely, for biology classes (the “scan and learn” teaching
method of Lee et al. 2011), but in those cases, the codes were used in previously
prepared QR code sheets that the students took with them into the field trip, instead
of a traditional illustrated guidebook to the natural fauna.
For this activity, the webpages and the QR codes were developed having in mind
rudist bivalve fossil occurrences (Fig. 8.4). The Rudista are an extinct molluskan
bivalve group. They arose in Late Jurassic, became very diverse during the
Cretaceous, and died out by the end of the Mesozoic Era (in the end of the
Cretaceous). Rudists lived in tropical shallow marine environments bordering the
Tethys Sea. This tropical sea existed during much of the Mesozoic Era, before the
opening of the Indian and the Atlantic Oceans in the end of the era, during the
Cretaceous Period. The Tethys had a general East-West distribution, separating the
northern Laurasia supercontinent from the southern Gondwana. Rudist fossils –
both radiolitid and caprinid rudists – are very common in the “liós” limestone quar-
ried some 25 km NW of Lisbon, in the Sintra region. The “liós” – a stone industry
designation – is a high-quality construction and ornamental stone widely used both
in historical and contemporaneous buildings all over the city, but especially in
downtown Lisbon.
The QR codes used in this activity were generated for free using open-access
software available in websites such as “QR Code Generator” (http://goqr.me).
Several other open-access generators are readily available online. The procedure is
straightforward. After creating and uploading the webpage with the required
Fig. 8.4 Example of a test webpage linked to a QR code placed in loco next to the urban fossil
occurrences and designed to provide compact and easy to understand information for the nonspe-
cialist about urban fossils – Cretaceous caprinid rudists – in Lisbon (Adapted from Bottino et al.
2014)
information (e.g., Fig. 8.4), enter the webpage’s URL in the online code generator,
and the QR code will be created automatically as you type. The code may then be
downloaded, printed, and used as many times and in as many locations as needed.
Test the URL by scanning the code with a QR reader app and you are ready to go!
For further information on how to create QR codes, refer to Lee et al. (2011).
8.2.3 QR Codes and Urban Geodiversity Go Both Ways
The above-described geodiversity activities using QR codes may be approached

from both ends:
(a) From the “final end,” working QR codes already in place may be used as bea-
cons to steer urban field trips (guided or autonomous), to serve as meeting
points or “treasures” to be discovered in urban “scavenger hunts,” or – if used
autonomously – to alert the general public to geodiversity occurrences in the
city, thus promoting geoawareness and, hopefully, leading to geoconservation
of urban and natural geodiversity.
(b) From the “starting end,” the activity could consist in the selection of urban
aspects that one wished to share and make available for the intended target audi-
ence (middle and high school students, the general public, etc.) and then create
the necessary webpages (selecting relevant information, obtaining the images,
designing the webpage) and generate working QR codes.
Furthermore, since most schools incorporate in their buildings some kind of
ornamental stone, often fossiliferous – e.g., liós limestone and rudist fossils are a
common feature in Portuguese schools in Lisbon and elsewhere – QR codes may
also be used inside the school itself in order to promote responsible and acceptable
use of smartphones during school social time, as suggested by Welsh and France
(2012).
8.3 Websites, Urban Trails, and Geodiversity
The fact that the majority of people are now living in city environments offers an
excellent opportunity for using urban geodiversity elements – landforms, rocks, fos-
sils, etc. – in outdoor geological educational and geoawareness activities (e.g., Silva
and Cachão 1998; Gray 2004; Silva 2009a, b; Ventura et al. 2010; Parra et al. 2012;
Mayoral et al. 2012; Rodrigues and Agostinho 2016).
A traditional Portuguese proverb states that “If the mountain will not come to
Mahomet, Mahomet will have to go to the mountain.” The expression means, of
course, that if one cannot get one’s own way, one must bow to the inevitable. In this
geological context, it could also mean that the world – especially the natural world –
should not be treated in a cavalier way, but respectfully. When it comes to
140 C.M. da Silva
geoawareness urban trails, the rationale behind them could metaphorically be stated
as follows: “If Mahomet will not go to the mountain, then we will bring the moun-
tain to Mahomet”; if the typical contemporaneous urban dweller – student or not –
is reluctant to leave the city and visit natural geological occurrences, then we will
show him the geology that may be seen, everywhere, in the city (Silva 2009a).
The vast majority of materials used in urban constructions, from the stone used
in the pavements to the tiles in the roofs, including the building and the ornamental
stones used in edifices, just to mention a few, are geological in nature. The city of
Lisbon is no exception. Several interesting paleontological aspects may be observed
there: e.g., somatofossils (body fossils) of Jurassic belemnites, Cretaceous rudist
bivalves and Miocene gastropods, as well as ichnofossils (trace fossils), burrows of
Cretaceous, and Miocene crustaceans, abound. The observation and interpretation
of geological and paleontological aspects that do not simply occur in the city but are
also part of it, merging together in its urban structures forming the very fabric of the
city, makes it easier for students and the general public alike to appreciate the
importance of geology and geodiversity and understand its intimate connection with
the local culture and everyday urban life (Silva 2009a, b).
8.3.1 Websites and the “Fossils Just Around the Corner” Trails
City people, young and old alike, are typically sedentary, highly dependent on their
urban environment, and easily lose touch with the natural world beyond city limits.
Hence, urban pedestrian trails aimed at the observation of paleontological and geo-
logical aspects are paramount for promoting public awareness about geological
issues and about the values of geodiversity. The “fossils just around the corner”
walking trails in downtown Lisbon organized by the Department of Geology of the
Faculty of Sciences of the Lisbon University is a perfect example of this. These city
tours started in 1998 (Silva and Cachão 1998; Silva 2009a) and continued to be held
to the present time under the auspices of the “Geologia no Verão” (Geology in the
summer) initiative of the “Agência Ciência Viva” (Live Science Agency), the
Portuguese Agency for Scientific and Technological Culture.
The trail may be guided by trained geologists – typically postgraduation students
from the geological department – or walked autonomously. For those who wish to
walk independently, a straightforward informative webpage was created. It features
the main aspects to be seen along the trail and provides a leaflet – downloadable in
pdf format – with a map of the trail and basic information about what may be seen
in it [see Silva (2011a) for the webpage and Silva (2011b) for the leaflet]. Since
1998, approximately 200 guided visits have been organized, for middle and high
school students, teachers, geological congresses, and the general public. In these 18
years since the inception of the “fossils just around the corner” experience, we esti-
mate that more than 2500 people participated in the guided visits alone, some of
them more than once.
The Lisbon “fossils just around the corner” successful experience was replicated
in other Portuguese cities and also in Spain, namely, in Almada (Portugal) and
Huelva (Spain). For these cities, the autonomous trail option was privileged, and,
therefore, more elaborate and informative websites were created to support it.
Almada is a satellite town of Lisbon, situated south of the capital, straight across
the river Tagus. The “Fósseis na cidade” (Fossils in the city) trail was especially
designed to show that even in suburban, mostly dormitory towns such as Almada, it
is possible to find interesting and challenging urban geological and paleontological
elements that may be easily used in educational activities related, e.g., to the middle
and high school curricula, namely, the themes “sedimentary rocks” and “fossils and
fossilization.” Seven urban geospots where identified in the Capitão Leitão street of
Almada (Fig. 8.5), the main street of the town’s older quarters. The geospots are
mostly related to the occurrence of fossils (Jurassic corals, Cretaceous caprinid and
Fig. 8.5 General composite aspect of the homepage of the “Fossils in the city” website of Almada
(Portugal). The homepage provides general information on the rationale of the activity and general
information on the location of the selected urban geospots and what may be seen in each one of
them. A map provides links and a visual index for the geospots tagged along the urban trail (See
Silva 2007)
142 C.M. da Silva
radiolitid rudists, Jurassic and Cretaceous gastropods, Cretaceous bivalves) in

ornamental stone, but one of them is devoted to the topic “Threats to Geodiversity.”
This latter spot is focused on the negative impact that urban mismanagement, per-
vading publicity, and extensive graffiti may have not only on the urban environment,
in general, but also on its geological and paleontological aspects. Further informa-
tion about the Portuguese Almada “Fósseis na cidade” (Fossils in the city) activity
and website and its Spanish Huelva counterpart “Fósiles en la ciudad” (idem) may
be found in Silva (2007) and Ventura et al. (2010), for Almada, and Mayoral et al.
(2011, 2012, 2013) and Parra et al. (2012), for Huelva.
Since these trails herein described and discussed are set in urban areas, a simple
street address is sufficient for the autonomous trailgoers to find the selected urban
geospots. Nevertheless, GPS coordinates may successfully be provided in websites
in the form of downloadable files intended to be installed and used in commonly
available GPS-capable devices, namely, smartphones and tablets.
8.3.2 Geodiversity in the Campus of the Faculty of Sciences,

Lisbon
Involving people in geodiversity is paramount, and the manner geotopics are pre-
sented to the public is crucial to the way geodiversity is perceived and valued
(Larwood and Durham 2005). There are many ways of involving people in these
activities, probably, as many as there are different people. A way of involving young
people is, for instance, using innovative updated means of communication. Books,
leaflets, and brochures are no longer appealing to the average youngster. On the
other hand, information conveyed in websites and social networks, accessible using
computers and mobile devices, is. A recent internal survey held by the Faculty of
Sciences of the Lisbon University showed that one of the three main factors attract-
ing students to the faculty was the usefulness and attractiveness of the faculty’s
website, the other two being the prestige of the institution (mostly based on their
parents’ opinions) and having participated in educational and science populariza-
tion activities in the faculty – promoted by the faculty – during their high school
years.
Therefore, inspired by Burek and Stilwell (2007) and following the plea of
Larwood and Durham (2005) and Silva (2009b) to involve students and staff in
geodiversity, a website was designed and initiated with the purpose of divulging
geological aspects present in the faculty campus that, otherwise, could easily be
missed (see Silva 2013): “Geodiversity in the Faculty campus.”
In the website, apart from a general geological characterization of the campus
area, describing the rocks, geological units, age, and geomorphological features in
that particular city region, a series of geodiversity aspects are focused, ranging from
fossils and diagenetic features to rock types, their use as ornamental stone, etc. In
conjunction with this geodiversity website, a series of foldable “microfield guides”
in A6 standard format – downloadable in pdf format – is being prepared. The guide

for Jurassic crinoid fossils (Silva 2014) is already available online (so far with an
average of 20 reads per month). Other guides related to the already available web-
site topics, focusing Turritella Miocene gastropods, Jurassic brachiopods and bel-
emnitid mollusks, ornamental stones, and stylolites, are currently being prepared.
8.3.3 Going One Step Further: The Cloud of Geospots
Going one step further in the use of urban geodiversity trails supported (or not) by
information available in websites for all those interested to use would be to create a
“cloud of geospots.” This so-called cloud of geospots would allow, in a predefined
and easily accessible urban area, to conduct diversified theme or mixed geoeduca-
tional or geoawareness trails and activities (Fig. 8.6). Instead of the traditional “one
trail fits all” philosophy, one would have the opportunity to customize the activities
by means of selecting specific geospots from the cloud that could be organized in
trails (or other actions, e.g., treasure hunts) with varied educational or even edutain-
ment objectives. This way, instead of, e.g., teachers having to adapt to existing fixed
theme trails, the trails could be fashioned by them – from a broad selection of
geospots – integrating their own resources, i.e., practice sets, observation protocols,
discussion questions, etc., to better suit their teaching goals.
The geospots in the cloud could be pre-organized in theme trails and activities
that would fit common curricular goals such as shown in Fig. 8.6 (A, B, and C), e.g.,
observation of different types of igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and fossils.
Alternatively, they could be used to fashion mixed, customized trails, fusing ele-
ments of the various other trails (Fig. 8.6, D), for instance, fossils, the sedimentary
rocks that contain them, and intrusive igneous rocks (to show that the latter do not
contain fossils).
As with other actions described and discussed in this work, the websites and
urban geotrail activities supported or not by GPS-capable devices may be approached
from different perspectives. In geoawareness, edutainment, or merely recreational
activities for the general public, it is more effective to provide the website and the
information on the stops selected for the trail (guided or autonomous). For the edu-
cational community, apart from using them as described above, an alternative
approach would be to build the trails and the websites from scratch – searching and
selecting the spots and gathering the information needed, etc. – as part of an outdoor
geoeducational activity or exercise.
As an educational bonus, selecting the geospots, generating the relevant informa-
tion for each one of them, and organizing it in order to design and build the websites
turn these actions into multidisciplinary activities, involving not only geologic skills
but also physical (it is an outdoor activity), linguistic, artistic, historical, and com-
putational skills, etc. In addition, urban young people are typically attracted to tech-
nology and the use of technological novelties and gadgets, and this will be a way
of – using that natural inclination – channeling their interest into geology.
144 C.M. da Silva
Fig. 8.6 Conceptual diagram of the “cloud of geospots” in an urban environment and of the way
of using it in outdoor geoeducational trails. Theme trails: (A) sedimentary rocks and depositional
environments, (B) igneous rocks, (C) fossils. Mixed trail: (D) customized trail, combining – e.g.,
for educational purposes – aspects of trails A, B, and C
8.4 GPS-Capable Devices, Field Trips, Geocaching,

and EarthCaching
Primates are a playful lot. Among them, much of the learning occurs during youth.
Immature offspring plays the most, and by playing with each other and with what
surrounds them, primates explore the world they live in, and by doing so they learn.
Humans – as primates – are no exception. In addition, we are a neotenic species,
whose prolonged immaturity is key to extended learning, which eventually led to
the emergence of elaborate communicative and cultural practices (Edgley 2013).
And with new gadgets and technological novelties, new ways of playing games are
made possible.
Geocaching fits this scenario like a glove; it is an outdoor recreational activity, in

which participants use technological gadgets – Global Positioning System capable
mobile devices – to, with the help of preposted geographical coordinates called
waypoints, seek objects or containers designated “geocaches” hidden both in natu-
ral and urban settings worldwide. In other words, it is a technologically assisted
glorified treasure hunt.
Geocaching was born on May 2000, when the accuracy of GPS technology avail-
able to the public (i.e., to civilians) was improved tenfold. Immediately the idea
arose to use this new opportunity to organize a worldwide treasure hunt. The con-
cept spread rapidly in the Internet and was readily embraced by hundreds of people
excited by the prospect of hiding and seeking stashes. However, for Internet geeks
all over the world, this time the new game had a twist: it implied leaving the com-
puter and going outdoors to participate. As a simple measure of the success of
geocaching worldwide, it is enough to say that currently there are more than 2.8
million geocaches hidden all over the globe.
The usefulness and application of geocaching in teaching and learning is well
known and has been broadly discussed and documented (e.g., Matherson et al.
2008; Vitale et al. 2012; Zecha and Hilger 2015). Although originally oriented
toward outdoor and nature enthusiasts, geocaching for some time now has crossed
over into the urban educational space, even into social studies: “Social studies
teachers use geocaching to encourage students to research and visit important local
historical landmarks, learn longitude and latitude, and connect content learned in
the classroom to actual places and people” (Matherson et al. 2008: 81).
EarthCaching is an adaptation of the geocaching concept, featuring geological
aspects – landforms, fossil occurrences, rock formations, etc. – as the cache to be
found. EarthCaches may be created and registered in the proper site (www.earth-
cache.org), or they may be designed and made available independently with the
purpose of generating a specific geoawareness or geoeducational activity.
EarthCaching, as geocaching, is an autonomous activity. The geographic coordi-
nates of the “treasure” to be hunted are made available – traditionally posted online
in a website – by the person or organization fostering the activity, and the partici-
pants, after downloading the waypoints and installing them in a GPS-capable
device, find the cache on their own.
In order to assure some kind of feedback from the independent participants,
some sort of validation of the discoveries is required. Validation has its own rules.
In geocaching, the discoverer should register the serial number of the cache (if it is
an “official” one) in the website providing the waypoints (e.g., www.geocaching.
com). In EarthCaching, more often, the validation is made by means of a photo of
the participant and its GPS device next to the geological feature designated as the
treasure. On how to submit an “official” EarthCache, and the guidelines for submit-
tal, please refer to The Geological Society of America (2013).
146 C.M. da Silva
8.4.1 Geoawareness and EarthCaching in the Cape Espichel

Area (Portugal)
Within the scope of the “Geology in the summer” initiative sponsored by the
Portuguese Agência Ciência Viva (Live Science Agency), in 2007 and 2008, the
action “GPS – Geologia por Satélite” (Geology via Satellite, loosely translated from
the Portuguese) was created. In Portuguese, the designation of the action is a double
entendre – intended to entice people’s attention to it – using the well-known GPS
acronym, standing for Global Positioning System, and the name of the action
“Geologia por Satélite.”
The logistics of organizing guided geodiversity trails in natural settings is intri-
cate, especially when human and financial resources are scarce. Therefore, this
action was designed to promote independent geodiversity walks using the basic
rationale of EarthCaches, making it appealing to the growing geocacher’s commu-
nity and at the same time adapting it to the geoeducation and edutainment purposes
of the action (Silva and Cachão 2007).
The action was anchored on two strong points: (a) a website attracting people
looking (browsing) for geocache and EarthCache activities in the Lisbon-Setúbal
area of west Central Portugal and providing appealing information on the geosites
(Fig. 8.7) and (b) an attractive outdoor activity directed to geocache and EarthCaching
enthusiasts giving them the chance to seek paleontological occurrences of dinosaur
tracks and trails (Fig. 8.8) that – back then – were not easily found by
nonspecialists.
In the homepage of the activity’s website, special attention was given to explain-
ing the rationale of the activity – getting to know local nature and learning to value
it – and to providing information about geodiversity and its values, as well as about
the need for respecting and preserving natural sites. The five sites selected for this
outdoor activity were appealing – mainly dealing with dinosaur tracks – well known,
from a scientific, cultural, and educational perspective alike (e.g., Antunes 1976;
Santos et al. 1992, 2008); Lockley and Santos 1993; Santos 2008; easily to moder-
ately accessible; and evaluated as not particularly vulnerable to independent public
visitation.
The sites selected for this activity mingle strictly geological and paleontological
aspects with educational and cultural ones. For instance, the “Pedra da Mua” (Cliff
of the Mule) sauropod dinosaur track site in Cape Espichel is famous for having
generated the medieval legend of “Nossa Senhora da Mua” (Our Lady of the Mule).
As the thirteenth-century story goes, an astounded local fisherman once observed a
gigantic mule carrying Our Lady and Baby Jesus climbing the sea cliff and leaving
behind enormous footprints: sauropod dinosaur-fossilized tracks! To this day, on the
top of the cliff, there is a small chapel adorned with a charming eighteenth-century
tile paneling with a series of images depicting the story.
Furthermore, activities like the ones herein described may successfully mingle
biotic and abiotic natural aspects. After all, as stated, e.g., in Silva (2008), our world
is a unity, and it is geobiological in nature! For instance, the Cape Espichel coastal
Fig. 8.7 General composite aspect of a webpage of the “Geology via Satellite” website,
EarthCache-like activities in the Cape Espichel area (Setúbal region, Portugal). This webpage,
named “Up there, there are dinosaur tracks,” provides general information on the dinosaur tracks
in that spot of the Cape Espichel area, as well as the necessary GPS waypoints to find them (See
Silva and Cachão 2007)
area with lime-rich soils (Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone substrate, geodiversity,
and biodiversity interaction!) is well known for its orchid diversity and bird-
watching potential. However, the majority of orchids flower during spring and some
birds migrate in winter. Geological aspects, e.g., rock formations, dinosaurs tracks,
and landforms, on the other hand, are always there, no matter what the climate con-
ditions may be or the season of the year.
Since these activities are autonomous, it is advisable to find a way of getting
some sort of feedback from the participants. In this case, the participants were asked
to fill in a short questionnaire on the activity (available online) and send a photo of
148 C.M. da Silva
Fig. 8.8 One of the caches in the “Geology via Satellite” EarthCaching-type activity in the Cape
Espichel area (Portugal) is the Lagosteiros track site. In this location, apart from a beautiful
Atlantic landscape, a long bipedal ornithopod dinosaur trail (seen in the picture as an alignment of
rounded dots; for the interpretation of the tracks, see Santos et al. 1992 and Santos 2008) and a
short theropod track may be observed. Length of the individual footprints: 40–50 cm
themselves – a selfie would be fine – next to the “EarthCache” in exchange for a

booklet on the paleontology of the area.
8.4.2 Geoeducational EarthCaching in the Lepe Region

(Spain)
If in the Cape Espichel action described above the main target audience was the
general public, in a later activity conducted by Mayoral et al. (2009a, b), the target
were university students.
Most of the activities described in this chapter fall under the category of “nonfor-
mal learning”: “Non-formal learning consists of learning embedded in planned
activities that are not explicitly designated as learning, but which contain an impor-
tant learning element” (Colardyn and Bjornavold 2004: 71). When it comes to
EarthCaching, if we see them from a “nonformal learning” point of view, this means
that each cache should be related to some kind of lesson to be learned in the field of
earth sciences, such as general geospatial skills, earth literacy, and learning-related
skills (The Geological Society 2013). The “geoeducational EarthCaching in Lepe”
may be, of all these activities, the most “formal” one when it comes to learning
since it was designed as part of the paleontology course of the Geodynamics and
Palaeontology Department, Huelva University.
This activity was the result of an Iberian experience of geoteaching cooperation

between the University of Huelva and the University of Lisbon. This cooperation
may in the future be extended to other aspects of the paleontological courses taught
in both geological departments.
As in any other geological discipline, fieldwork is paramount in paleontology.
The information needed for paleontological research comes from fossil assem-
blages. These occur originally in natural geological settings. Hence, the main goal
of these GPS-assisted paleontological outdoor activities is to stimulate students to
actively and passionately engage in fieldwork, giving them the tools they need to
perform field tasks autonomously, providing them with the necessary skills for their
future professional career (Mayoral et al. 2009a). Outdoor activities such as the one
presented herein – taking place in a relaxed environment and basically following a
“treasure hunt” EarthCache mode, appealing to the “adventurous” side of field-
work – also have a high potential to attract students from other scientific areas or
disciplines to geoawareness activities.
This GPS-assisted activity follows the general protocols of EarthCaching. The
waypoints of the geological outcrops may be easily downloaded by the students
from a specially designed website (Mayoral et al. 2009b). The website, apart from
the waypoints, includes geological and paleontological information on the geologi-
cal outcrops and the description of tasks to be performed by the participants on the
spot. The coordinates may be manually inserted into the GPS device or directly
downloaded to a smartphone with GPS capability or, after processing it with any
GPS software, uploaded directly to a GPS device. The waypoints provided corre-
spond to a set of geological outcrops of special paleontological interest where the
students are required to perform a number of fieldwork tasks.
An important element of these activities resides in its focus on the learning fea-
tures, especially the methodological aspects of EarthCaches, like explanatory texts,
illustrations, and tasks to be fulfilled by the student. In this activity, the tasks are
described in a document in pdf format that the participants download from the web-
site supporting the activity: e.g., measuring the stratigraphic section, identifying the
most abundant fossils present, taking photos of relevant paleontological aspects of
the fossil assemblage, geotagging the photos and adding a descriptive geological
caption, etc. (see Mayoral et al. 2009c). As a corollary of the activity, in order to
validate their findings and observations, the students must send a message to the
coordinators of the activity, mentioning their name, date of discovery, and a digital
photo of the participant holding a GPS-capable device close to the discovered pale-
ontological object or post-geotagged photos of the visited sites, with their findings
(Fig. 8.9). The results of this EarthCaching activity using GPS-capable devices such
as smartphones converge with the expectations expressed by Downward et al.
(2008) who predicted that mobile technologies that integrate GPS devices and live
streaming of data will further enrich the integration of very different learning spaces
by promoting real-time feedback of observations and queries between those spaces.
As in all the autonomous activities herein described, all participants will be
alerted to the compliance of a fieldwork code of conduct. The commitment to natu-
ral diversity preservation (bio- and geodiversity) is paramount in these activities.
150 C.M. da Silva
Fig. 8.9 Los Barrancos outcrop in Lepe (Andalucía, Spain). One of the geotagged photos used to
support the EarthCaching activity in Lepe. This photo was tagged in the category “geodiversity”
among the geological photos of the author and since February 2009 was viewed 3091 times. As a
reminder of the exposure these geotagged photos may receive, some of the “geodiversity” pictures
in this account were viewed more than 34,000 times in 6 years
The information provided and the tasks to be performed are based on accurate and
updated geological information and aimed at developing autonomous fieldwork
skills. For detailed information on the sites available for this activity in the Lepe
region of Andalucía (Spain), please refer to Mayoral et al. (2009a).
8.5 Share Geodiversity, Share Nature, with Geotagging!
Humans are social animals, and, therefore, most people have an irrepressible urge
to share their thoughts and experiences, from the most meaningful life-changing
events of their existences, “Fatherhood changed me! Do you want to see pictures of
my kids?”, to the utmost trivial ones, “You will not believe what I had for breakfast
today! Here, look at this photo!”
Therefore, small wonder that the central idea of social networks, such as
Facebook and Twitter, and web application hybrids (also known as mash-ups), such
as Panoramio and Flickr, capitalizing on this basic human trait, is to share thoughts
and experiences, but more often photos and videos. After all, apart from being social
primates, we humans are also visual animals. When we want to express an opinion,
we frequently say “As I see it,” not “As I smell it” (e.g., Silva 2010), and it is a well-
known fact that “a picture is worth a thousand words.”
For geological and educational purposes, posting photos of aspects of geodiver-
sity in social networks may be useful – for geoawareness and science popularization
proposes – but does not really reach the potential of geotagging. Geotagging is a
form of georeferencing that consists in adding geospatial information (commonly
geographical information, latitude, and longitude) to digital media (photos, videos,
SMS messages, QR codes, webpages, etc.) in the form of metadata for effective
location, visualization, and analysis.
Photos are by far the most commonly geotagged items. There are two main
methods for geotagging photos: (a) the low-tech manual way, uploading the photo
to a geotagging web mash-up such as Panoramio (Fig. 8.9) or Flickr and manually
dragging and dropping a location pin onto the mash-up digital map in the location
where the photograph was taken, and (b) the high-tech automatic mode. The photo
is positioned on a digital map by the software which makes use of the metadata
automatically added to it by the digital device that captured the picture (digital cam-
era or smartphone). The manual mode described above may be enhanced by getting
geographical coordinates from a conventional GPS receiver having its clock syn-
chronized with that of the camera or by using the information from GPS waypoints
marked in the spot where the picture was obtained. For a general review of basic
geotagging techniques, software, and popular geotagging web mash-ups, please
refer to Welsh et al. (2012).
8.5.1 Geotagging in Educational and Recreational Settings
Geotagged photos may be used in a variety of educational, edutainment, and recre-

ational situations. In education, it is an innovative method that brings together sev-
eral traditional fieldwork practices. It is not meant to replace field notes; instead it
may successfully complement them. If students annotate their geotagged pictures
and add further considerations on them post-fieldwork, then geotagging could act as
a complement to traditional fieldwork notebooks, promoting critical reflection and
boosting learning. Therefore, geotagged photographs have the potential to encour-
age post-fieldwork reflection (Welsh et al. 2012). Geotagged photos have been used
by Mayoral et al. (2009a, b) to guide students on the autonomous field trips in the
Lepe EarthCaching activity described above (Fig. 8.9). The photos were manually
geotagged in Panoramio and could be accessed both in Panoramio and Google Earth
on laptops and PCs at home, preparing the fieldwork, or in smartphones – using 3G
coverage – directly in the field.
In edutainment and recreational settings, both in urban and natural areas, it is an
excellent way of documenting the sites to visit in geodiversity trails. Geotagged
photos posted in mash-ups such as Panoramio, Flicker, etc., will be seen by thou-
152 C.M. da Silva
sands of people all over the world every year, fetching an audience hard to match by
any other means. This type of exposure is paramount in geodiversity popularization
and a major enticement for students of all learning levels to adhere to activities
involving geotagged photos.
8.5.2 Cities and Technology: Geotagging Urban Fossils
An interesting web application hybrid specifically designed for geotagging photos

of urban fossils was recently created: Paleourbana (www.paleourbana.com) (Fig.
8.10). This mash-up combines the two elements that have been the Ariadne’s thread
of this work: linking urban outdoor geodiversity activities with new technologies.
Since its inception in 2015, Paleourbana’s digital map was updated with more than
250 sites of urban fossils in 54 cities around the world. And it may be reached via
Twitter and Facebook.
Photos geotagged in this type of fossil-oriented web application hybrids may be
used with success to support city trails (as discussed above). They could be used to
Fig. 8.10 Homepage of Paleourbana. This mash-up combines the two elements that constitute the
Ariadne’s thread of this work: linking urban outdoor geodiversity activities with new technologies.
Since its inception in 2015, Paleourbana’s map was updated with more than 250 sites of urban
fossils occurring in 54 different cities around the world
provide visual information about the geodiversity aspects – in this case paleonto-
logical – that may be seen on the trail and help the participants to select the walks
with the fossils they find more appealing. For teachers, students, and the general
public alike, such web application hybrids as Paleourbana could help characterize
the cloud of urban geospots (as described above) available for urban geodiversity
activities and become a key tool to help select the spots to customize mixed themed
urban geodiversity trails.
From a teaching point of view, this mash-up is an excellent tool for educators to
provide the ultimate reward to their students for geodiversity activities in urban
areas, even in the school itself: the possibility of sharing with others their findings
and, by doing so, to contribute to a better knowledge of urban geodiversity in the
city and to make formal school exercises useful for the larger community of urban
paleontology enthusiasts.
8.6 Conclusion: The “Geoeducational Bundle”
In our present-day urban and technological world, we commonly have access to

resources that a few decades ago would be seen as pure science fiction. Smartphones,
computer tablets, GPS devices, Internet, mobile apps, web application hybrids, etc.,
are increasingly accessible in urban areas around the world. Soon, novel technolo-
gies will be added to this already long list: virtual reality, drones, 360° photography
and videos, enhanced reality, new gadgets, and technologies yet to be developed!
Who knows what the future will bring us!
Several independent international studies have shown that nonformal learning
practices provide 60–80 % of the total learning (Zecha and Hilger 2015, based on
OECD 2012 data). Much of the activities described and briefly discussed in this
work fall into this learning category, but could easily be adapted to formal learning
contexts. The importance of these activities resides in its focus on the learning
aspects, especially their methodological content, such as explanatory texts, illustra-
tions, and tasks to be fulfilled by the participants, assisted by the use of technology
in order to create new learning activities and entice students to participate and to
acquire skills (such as GPS orientation and geotagging) these days increasingly
commonplace in geology but unheard off a few decades ago.
The core idea here is not in as much to create new technologies especially
designed to be used in outdoor teaching and popularization geological activities, but
rather to use the existing ones – the ones that are today so widespread that we now
take them for granted – in novel and imaginative ways. Moreover, many of these
resources – once you have the hardware – are available online for free. Used col-
lectively they may be fused together into an integrated and interactive technological
geoeducational bundle (Fig. 8.11), contributing to the attractiveness and the success
of outdoor geological activities. Nowadays people can go outdoors – even into the
countryside! – with their GPS-capable devices, get information from websites on
their smartphones using QR codes, take notes and pictures of interesting geological
154 C.M. da Silva
Fig. 8.11 Conceptual diagram of the integration and possible interactions among the elements of
the technological “geoeducational bundle” for outdoor activities. Emerging technologies such as
drones, virtual reality, and 360° photography and videos may be incorporated, as well as future
yet-to-be-developed technologies
aspects, integrate them, and post them immediately on social networks or as geo-
tagged commented photos in mash-ups such as Panoramio or Paleourbana.
As a final note, one must have in mind that the integration of the elements of the
technological “geoeducational bundle” is a dynamic and interactive process (Fig.
8.11): on the one hand, new technologies are being used in geoeducation, changing
the traditional way of dealing with it, but, on the other hand, the usage these tech-
nologies were originally designed for is also being modified and adapted in novel
ways as a result of the know-how ensuing from their educational use.
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Part III
Chapter 9
An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teach
Geoscience
Arlino Camargo Livério Jr., Eduardo M. Santos, Adriana P.B. Tufaile,

Alberto Tufaile, Carlos Molina Mendes,
and Rosely Aparecida Liguori Imbernon
9.1 Introduction
In the past 20 years, the education has advanced through the use of new teaching
models focused on the building of significant knowledge. The application of infor-
mation technologies (computers, multimedia equipment) are having an increasing
influence on education through the development of new teaching materials which
encourage students to develop interactive learning habits.
The nature of geoscientific thinking requires collaboration among those who
study geosciences and those who study thinking and learning geosciences (Kastens
et al. 2009). This proposal shows that we could use a broad range of tools to study
a diversity of problems and to share a distinctive set of approaches and perspectives
that are particularly well suited to studying the complexity of the Earth system.
Earth systems are “complex” in the technical sense: exhibiting nonlinear interac-
tions, multiple stable states, fractal and chaotic behavior, self-organized criticality,
and non-Gaussian distributions of outputs (Kastens et al. 2009).
Thus, an interdisciplinary approach to geoscience learning requires, in addition
to the systemic vision inherent in geoscientific content, elements that are meaning-
ful to students, such as sound and music.
A.C. Livério Jr. • E.M. Santos • A.P.B. Tufaile • A. Tufaile • C.M. Mendes
Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades – EACH – Universidade de São Paulo – USP,
Av. Arlindo Bettio, Ermelino Matarazzo, 1000 São Paulo, Brazil
e-mail: arlino.liverio@usp.br; eduardomelo@usp.br; atufaile@usp.br; tufaile@usp.br;
cmolina@usp.br
R.A.L. Imbernon (*)
Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades – EACH – Universidade de São Paulo – USP,
Av. Arlindo Bettio, Ermelino Matarazzo, 1000 São Paulo, Brazil
Programa de Pós-graduação em Ensino e História das Ciências da Terra – IGe – UNICAMP,
Campinas, Brazil
e-mail: imbernon@usp.br

162 A.C. Livério et al.
The importance of sound and its abstract organization in human development is

a scientific fact; sound is one of the major forces in nature. Long before the use of
materials of plant and animal origin in the production of instruments that reproduce
the sounds of nature, humans must have used the rocks found in the environment for
this purpose.
Probably, our ancestors realized that the sound produced when they beat rock
fragments against each other had different types of notes and tones, depending on
the size of these fragments and on the different types of rocks used in their produc-
tion. This, perhaps, was the first human experience of producing a sound and con-
trolling pace, tone, and frequency, although the elements comprising the sound were
still perceived only by the sense of hearing.
Rocks have been used as percussion instruments for many centuries, and in
England, lithophones, percussion instruments made with rock sheets (hornfels),
date from the eighteenth century (Bastos 2010). The word lithophone is of Greek
origin (lithos = stone), and it is a percussion instrument, in which, normally, the
fragments of the same lithotype are cut into different sizes so as to produce melody
and harmony (Ng and Ong 2010).
In a documentary aired by BBC London, titled “Lost Kingdoms of Africa,” sev-
eral examples of instruments that use rocks and that were found in different parts of
the world were presented.
Rocks have been used as building and facing materials for many centuries and,
in different parts of the world, for floors, columns, vaults, and other structural ele-
ments. The choice of a rock as “ornamental rock” mainly involves its mineralogical
composition and the lack of minerals that are easily weathered in the environment,
which may compromise their use and durability.
World production of ornamental rocks and rock facings is approximately 55 mil-
lion tons annually, having increased from 1.5 million tons a year in the 1920s. The
use of different lithotypes depends on various characteristics but, currently, marbles
represent 45 % of world production, 40 % are attributed to granite, 5 % to quartzite
and similar, and 5 % to slates (MEC-Brasil 2007).
The increase in the use of granite from a level of 15 % in the early 1950s to 22 %
in the 1970s and 38 % in the mid-1980s to the current 40 % shows increasing global
demand without restricting the use of marbles. About 70 % of world production is
transformed into sheets and tiles for facings, while 15 % goes to make funeral art
pieces, 10 % for structural construction work, and 5 % for other applications; a pro-
jection for 2025 estimates that world consumption and international transactions
will be five times greater by then and will reach 2.1 billion m2 per year (Chiodi Filho
et al. 2004).
In the educational area, an international survey of school-level geoscience educa-
tion across 34 countries (Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil,
Canada, Czech Republic, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, India,
Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malawi, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka,
Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, and the United States) found that the com-
pulsory earth science content of national curricula was very variable (King 2015).
9 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teach Geoscience 163
Thus, studying the sound produced by rocks compared with other materials
offers several classroom possibilities allowing an interdisciplinary approach to the
teaching of geosciences and physics and other subject areas too.
9.2 Constructing and Analyzing the Lithophone
The design used two lithotypes commonly used as ornamental rocks across the
world, because they are common and of low cost: slate and granite.
The samples were cut in the form of plates, all with the same height (h) of
approximately 22 mm and the width (w) of about 103 mm. We choose six values of
the length (L) of the plates ranged from 174 mm to 437 mm; see Fig. 9.1. The
lengths were set so as not to be multiples of each other, in order to avoid the coinci-
dence of overtone frequencies produced by different the plates, as will be discussed
later. The samples were cut in duplicate, resulting in 12 granite samples and 12 slate
samples, with six different lengths, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
To record the sound produced, we used a standard microphone, common in com-
puter multimedia packs. The sampling range of the recorded sound was from 8 to 42
kHz, depending on the sound frequency. In order to reduce damping, the plates were
supported on wood, at 22.4 and 77.6 % of the length of the plate, corresponding to
two of the transverse modes of vibrations in the plates.
The transverse mode is pictured in Fig. 9.3. We made this type of vibration mode
more important by using the plate geometry, with h << w << L, and by striking the
plates vertically with a mallet in the center.
The slate samples were cut in parallel to the foliation planes, i.e., the foliation
planes are horizontal in Fig. 9.2.
To compare the sounds produced by the rock plates, we also used two other
sound instruments: an aluminum cylinder, known as “meditation bell” or “inner
sound,” and a metallophone (metal xylophone for children). The diameter (a) of the
cylindrical plate is 12.5 mm and its length is 133 mm. A metallophone is any musi-
cal instrument consisting of tuned metal plates that are struck with a mallet to make
Fig. 9.1 Schematic of the w

geometry of the rock plates
h
y
x
0.224L
L
Fig. 9.2 Samples of granite plates (G) and slate plates (S) and a mallet. The tip of the mallet is
made of nylon and the samples have been placed on two wooden supports
Fig. 9.3 An example of

transverse mode of
vibration for the plates.
The displacement is in the
vertical direction (y)
a musical sound. The metallophone plate used has L = 107 mm, w = 28 mm, and h = 2
mm, although the shapes of the plates are not exactly rectangular; see Fig. 9.4.
The recorded signal in wave-type file (.wav) is presented as a time function, in
Figs. 9.5, 9.6, and 9.7. On the left-hand side of these figures, the wave form is
emphasized, and on the right-hand side, the signal is shown over a longer time inter-
val. The decay of the sound amplitude is faster in the case of rocks than in the case
of metal instruments. The wave form of the sound of the aluminum cylinder is sinu-
soidal, and the wave form of the rocks and of the metallophone is richer (more vari-
able) than the wave of the aluminum rod. The shape of the sound wave depends on
Fig. 9.4 Left: solid aluminum rod used as meditation chime and its wooden hammer. Right: metal-
lophone, a metal xylophone for children, we analyzed the sound of the longer plate (C)
which frequencies are present and on the ratio between the amplitudes of the sound
wave frequencies. The wave form is described as the timbre of the musical instru-
ment. Sounds produced in this way can be heard on an online video (Tufaile 2013).
The transverse vibrations in a plate placed horizontally (Fig. 9.1) are regulated
by the wave equation (Fletcher and Thomas 1991):
¶2 y EK 2 ¶ 4 y
= - (9.1)
¶t 2 r ¶x 4
in which t is time, the y direction is vertical and the x direction is horizontal, E is

Young’s modulus, ρ is the density of the material, and K is the radius of gyration of
the cross section of the plate. In the case of rectangular plates, K = h/(√12) and the
cylindrical plate (rod) K = a/4. Young’s modulus, E, also known as the elastic modu-
lus, measures the stiffness of the material of the plates. In this way, the smaller the
value of the Young’s modulus is, the more elastic is the material.
The boundary conditions for plates that can vibrate with free ends generate the
frequencies given by Fletcher and Thomas (1991):
pK E é
3.0112 , 52 , 72 , ¼, ( 2 n + 1) ù
2
fn = (9.2)
8 L2 r ë û

These frequencies are the natural oscillations, or resonances, of the system. The first
frequency, f1, (n = 1), is called the fundamental frequency, and the modes with n > 1
are the higher overtones. Therefore, since the lengths were set so as not to be mul-
tiples of each other, Eq. 9.2 assures that the overtone frequencies do not coincide.
The fundamental frequency, f1, can be written as
in which
pK E k
f1 = 2 éë3.0112 ùû or f1 = 2 , pK E (9.3)
8L r L k= é3.0112 ùû
8 r ë
Oscillations of the plates generate mechanical waves of pressure and displacement
in the surrounding air, that is, sound. The resonance frequencies of the plates are
Fig. 9.5 Wave signal recorded for a granite plate, as a time function, for two different time
intervals
Fig. 9.6 Wave signal recorded for the aluminum rod as a function of time, for two different time
intervals
Fig. 9.7 Wave signal recorded for a C plate of a metallophone as a function of time, for two dif-
ferent time intervals
present in the notes generated by the musical instrument. The analysis of the sound
produced by the lithophone therefore gives us information about the characteristics
of the instrument and its components.
9.3 Spectral Analysis of the Sound
In 1822, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, a French physicist and mathematician, devel-

oped a process now known as spectral analysis. He showed that any “well-behaved”
periodic function can be expressed as a sum of simpler functions, namely, the well-
known sine and cosine trigonometric functions. Through this approach, the physical
phenomenon, that is, the sound produced by the rocks, can be presented as a math-
ematical function. In this way, the recorded signal is expressed as a Fourier series, a
sum of pure notes (sinusoidal oscillations) with frequencies fn.
From a practical standpoint, instead of focusing directly on the Fourier series, it
is more convenient to use a procedure known as fast Fourier transform (FFT). A
Fourier transform is a method that transforms a function of time in a function of
frequency, and the FFT is a powerful computational technique that executes this
transformation. In the graphs generated by the FFT, the peaks are the pure note
frequencies fn that compose the sound.
In Santos et al. (2013), the authors applied Fourier spectral analysis using the
technique of fast Fourier transform to find the resonance frequencies of sound pro-
duced by guitars. Here, the method is used to study the sound generated by litho-
phones, as reported in 2014 (Tufaile et al. 2014).
The frequency spectrum of the sound produced by an object with a well-defined
and simple geometry can be a tool to study the mechanical properties of the material
from which the object is made. This is known as “impulse excitation technique”
(Roebben et al. 1997). Nunn (Nunn 2015) and Santos (Santos et al. 2013), among
others, have shown that this technique can be an educational tool in some areas of
physics, such as the study of vibrations, waves, and elasticity. Here we have used
this method to study the sound and the elasticity of rocks, as used to make a musical
instrument. This interdisciplinary project therefore involves geology, physics,
music, and more.
Using the FFT method, we analyzed the sound produced by the 12 slate plates
and 12 granite plates and made the comparison with the sound produced by the
aluminum chime and by the C note on the metallophone scale. The spectrum of the
granite plate is shown in Fig. 9.8, and the spectra presented in Figs. 9.9 and 9.10
were produced by the “meditation bell” and by C note at the metallophone scale,
respectively.
The ratios of the first three frequencies of the three systems are close to the val-
ues predicted by Eq. 9.2, as shown in Table 9.1.
In Figs. 9.11 and 9.12, we show the logarithm of the fundamental frequency, f1,
of two rock plates against the length of the plate. The experimental data agree with
those predicted by theory (Eq. 9.3), that is, the frequency is inversely proportional
Fig. 9.8 Power spectra of the granite plate sound
Fig. 9.9 Power spectra of the bell meditation sound
to the square of the length of the plates. The function described in Eq. 9.3 is well
fitted to the experimental data.
The measurements of length, width, and height (respectively, L, w, h) and mass
(m) of rock plates were used to calculate the density (ρ = mass/volume) of the sam-
ples. The average height of the sample is 21.1 mm for granite plates and 22.1 mm
Fig. 9.10 Power spectra of the C plate sound of the metallophone
Table 9.1 The ratios of the first three frequencies predicted by the theoretic model and obtained
for the experimental systems.
Theory Granite Chime Metallophone
f2/f1 2.756 2.8 2.7 2.6
f3/f1 5.404 5.5 4.8 5.0
for slate plates. Using the values of ρ, L, and h and the linear coefficient, k, of the
functions fitted to experimental data shown in Figs. 9.11 and 9.12, we calculated the
Young’s modulus (E) of the rocks. The values of density and of Young’s modulus
are shown in Table 9.2.
Young’s modulus is a critical parameter for describing the behavior of rocks
under stress (Santi et al. 2000). For rock plates, we used the linear coefficient, k, of
the adjusted functions, and for the aluminum baton, we used only the fundamental
frequency (f1), density (ρ), height (L), and diameter (a) of the baton in Eq. 9.3.
Our experimental values in Table 9.2 are in agreement with the results presented
by Kochkin (Kochkin and Chirkevitch 1986) and Rodrígues-Sastre (Rodrígues-
Sastre and Calleja 2006). The density of the aluminum in Table 9.2 is the one
reported by Kochkin.
Even though the density of granite and of slate is very close to each other, granite
is more elastic than slate, because its Young’s modulus (E) is smaller than that of
slate. By comparing the Young’s modulus of these three materials, we can conclude
that slate is stiffer, granite is the more elastic, and aluminum has elasticity interme-
diate between the two types of rocks.
Fig. 9.11 The fundamental frequency (f1) as a function of the length (L) of the twelve granite
plates, both in logarithm scales
Fig. 9.12 The fundamental frequency (f1) as a function of the length (L) of the twelve slate plates,
both in logarithm scales
Table 9.2 The values of density and of Young’s modulus

Density, ρ (103 kg/m3) Young’s modulus, E (GPa)
Granite 2.85 48
Slate 2.90 78
Aluminum 2.70 (Kochkin and Chirkevitch 1986) 69
By using the equation of the fundamental frequencies related to the function of

the length of the rock plates, we can choose the frequencies of musical notes we
want and can cut the plates in such a way that the lengths correspond to the musical
frequencies. Small tuning adjustments are necessary.
9.4 Conclusions
The main educational use of the approaches proposed is that they provide simula-
tions and offer experiments allowing students to modify the independent variables
(e.g., lithotypes) or the initial conditions, in order to analyze the changes occurring
in the systems.
By using a personal computer with commonly available microphone and soft-
ware to perform the spectral analysis, the sound of musical instruments made from
rock plates can be studied, allowing construction of the lithophone.
A simple physical model predicts the observed data, and when we make the
comparison between the data obtained for different lithotypes, we can develop a
discussion on the mineralogical composition, structures, foliations, and other
mechanical properties of the rocks used.
Understanding how humans hear is a complex subject involving the fields of
physiology, psychology, and acoustics. However, the human ability to listen allows
us to perceive the pitch of sounds through detection of the wave frequencies, the
loudness of sound by detection of the wave amplitude, and the timbre of the sound
through detecting the various frequencies that make up a complex sound wave.
The potential of this approach, involving the appeal of music and musical instru-
ments, can transform a lithophone-building project into an educational tool for the
teaching of geology, and other school subjects, in an interdisciplinary way. The
interdisciplinary approach allows teachers (or group of teachers) to carry out col-
laborative work in constructing a lithophone, where different skills and abilities are
required of students. This approach could also be applied to special needs
education.
References
Bastos, P. L. (2010). Small holes of wonder. Proceedings of the Second Vienna Talk, Austria, 158,
9–12.
Chiodi Filho, C., Rodrigues, E. P., & Artur, A. C. (2004). Panorama Técnico – Econômico do Setor
de Rochas Ornamentais no Brasil. Revista Geociências, 23(1–2), 5–20.
Fletcher, N. H., & Thomas, D. R. (1991). The physics of musical instruments. New York: Springer.
Kastens, K. A., Manduca, C. A., Cervato, C., Frodeman, R., Goodwin, C., Liben, L. S., Mogk,
D. W., Spangler, T. C., Stillings, N. A., & Titus, S. (2009). How geoscientists think and learn.
Eos, 90(31), 265–272.
King, C. (2015). The international geoscience school syllabus and its development. Episodes,
38(1), 57–74.
Kochkin, N. I., & Chirkevitch, M. G. (1986). Prontuário de Física Elementar. Moscow: Mir.
MEC-Brasil – Ministério da Educação e Cultura. (2007). Rochas Ornamentais. Brasília: Ministério
da Educação/Secretaria de Educação Profissional e Tecnológica.
Ng, K., & Ong, B. (2010). Interactive multimedia rocks for geology. International Conference of
Electronic Visualisation and the Arts.
Nunn, J. (2015). Measuring Young’s modulus the easy way, and tracing the effects of measurement
uncertainties. Physics Education, 50(5), 538.
Rodrígues-Sastre, M. A., & Calleja, L. (2006). The determination of elastic modulus of slates from
ultrasonic velocity measurements. The Geological Society of London. IAEG 775, 1–11.
Roebben, G., Bollen, B., Brebels, A., Van Humbeech, J., & Van der Biest, O. (1997). Impulse
excitation apparatus to measure resonant frequencies, elastic moduli, and internal friction at
room and high temperature. Review of Scientific Instruments, 68(12), 4511–4515.
Santi, P. M., Holschen, J. E., & Stephenson, R. W. (2000). Improving elastic modulus measure-
ments for rock based geology. Environmental & Engineering Geosciences, VI(4), 333.
Santos, E. M., Molina, C., & Tufaile, A. P. B. (2013). Violão e guitarra como ferramentas para o
ensino de física [Acoustic and electric guitars as tools for the physics teaching]. Revista
Brasileira de Ensino de Física, 35(2), 2507.
Tufaile, A. P. B. (2013, june 21). An interdisciplinary approach using a lithophone (video file).
Retrieved from https://youtu.be/VLUqsEbiR3M
Tufaile, A. P. B., Tufaile, A., Molina, C.; Liverio Jr., A. C., Ssantos, E. M., & Imbernon, R. A. L.
(2014). Paleolithic rock and roll: Making Music with Granite and Slate. ITT In The Trenches –
National Association of Geosciences Teachers, 4, 15.
Chapter 10
Textbooks: A Tool to Support Geosciences
Learning
David Brusi, Amelia Calonge, and Edson Souza
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Textbooks for Earth Science Education
Textbooks are used mainly by students; therefore, ideas should be crystal clear.
According to Hedley and John (2000), scientific contents included in textbooks
should take into account the following points:
• What are science textbooks publishers doing to choose contents and make
teaching easier?
• Is there a single text that can be considered as a standard textbook? If so, when
was it published?
• Do students need help when learning or do textbooks attract students?
• Are textbooks different depending on the country where they are published?
• What makes a textbook a success and what role does it play in the dissemination
of science?
In this chapter we didn’t aim at answering these questions. However, based on
Hedley and John (2000), we wonder to what extent the authors are aware of the
D. Brusi (*)
Faculty of Sciences, University of Girona, Girona, Spain
e-mail: david.brusi@udg.edu
A. Calonge
Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
e-mail: a.calonge@uah.es
E. Souza
Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São-Paulo, Brazil
e-mail: fisedsonson@gmail.com

174 D. Brusi et al.
students’ needs. Is there any pedagogical intention in those textbooks that provide
information in a more systematic way?
Beyond the curricular guidelines defined by the educational policies of each
country, the geological content of textbooks can be analyzed from the point of view
of a set of key ideas structuring the basic concepts that students and any citizen
should be aware of.
We highlight proposals such as the project Earth Science Literacy Principles
(2009) (http://www.earthscienceliteracy.org) sponsored by the National Science
Foundation and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as well
as the document “Alfabetización en Ciencias de la Tierra” (Pedrinaci et al. 2013)
developed by the joint effort of almost all Spanish scientific societies related to
geology and teaching.
We can see that the main aim in these textbooks is to promote the knowledge of
geosciences, that is, knowledge that allows students to understand the world around
them and to take responsible and informed decisions allowing them to act indepen-
dently and responsibly.
But the truth is that the knowledge of geosciences is clearly of minor interest
compared with other natural sciences, although this knowledge is a fundamental
part of the scientific culture of citizens and, therefore, of their general knowledge.
The lack of references or explicit contents on geosciences does not mean that these
are not implicitly present in textbooks.
10.1.2 A Tool to Support Learning, Its Role in the School

Environment
Regarding teaching resources, Earth Science together with other sciences has been
dominated by textbooks which, according to several studies (Valentin and Lopez-
Guerra-Ramos 2013), have been considered the most widely used resources in
teaching practices (this is why they are so important in the teaching/learning
process).
Based on the activities proposed in textbooks, Occeli and Valeiras (2013) point
out an important lack of scientific research, selection and organization of informa-
tion, and interpretation of results. The small number of experimental activities, lack
of group activities, or activities appropriate to students’ diversity is also evident in
textbooks.
In our particular case, the relevance of these materials is especially significant, as
it entails knowledge in compulsory education as well as in teacher training.
10 Textbooks: A Tool to Support Geosciences Learning 175
10.1.3 Common and Specific Features
In secondary schools, specialist teachers usually teach the different curriculum sub-
jects. In the case of Science, a single science teacher normally teaches the whole
science curriculum to 11–14-year-old students (including Biology, Chemistry, and
Physics with some elements of Earth Science, Environmental science, and
Astronomy). This means these students are normally taught Science by specialists
in Biology, Chemistry, and Physics. There is a shortage of science teachers, particu-
larly of Geology teachers; in fact in some schools in Spain, almost all Science is
taught by Biology specialists.
As discussed above, it is well known that teachers use textbooks as the most
important teaching resource in nonuniversity educational levels, so the manner in
which the books present geoscientific contents is a determining factor of subsequent
geoscientific education in this educational level.
Textbooks, through their thematic units, present an organized set of contents and
establish a sequencing thereof. Modern textbooks provide definitions, descriptions,
applications, illustrations, examples, activities, and exercises with the dual function
of guiding the action of teachers and constituting a source of reference for
students.
In addition to the themes developed in the texts of Geology, it is essential to ana-
lyze: the editorial design, illustrations, educational activities, type of exemplifica-
tion, additional readings, analog models, or experiments.
A textbook is a product arising from the joint work of the authors of the texts,
illustrators, photographers, designers, publishers, etc. Its effectiveness in the learn-
ing process depends on its quality, rigor, and attractiveness, but also on the method-
ology to be employed by the teacher.
Textbooks can be an extraordinary vehicle for significant learning of Earth
Sciences, but also a source of conceptual or procedural errors to be studied. In prac-
tice, the authors, according to their training and experience, propose, summarize, or
expand geological contents targeting them to the specific situation of the course. On
the other hand, geology contents in geological textbooks for compulsory education
is not regularly updated, so new paradigms are included belatedly (as happened,
e.g., with plate tectonics), and this is one of the reasons why younger students lag
behind in Geosciences.
But these reflections are worthless if we fail to understand that changing the way
Geology is taught must have an impact on the methods applied to its teaching
(Fermeli et al. 2011, 2012). It is obvious that we must commit to a teaching change
aimed toward more active and efficient teaching formulas that involve geology stu-
dents and teachers in a new learning approach. In this scenario, textbooks have and
will have a key role.
176 D. Brusi et al.
10.1.4 Natural Sciences or Biology and Geology: An Usual

Marriage of Convenience
Although the knowledge of geosciences is important in all citizens’ everyday life, in

most countries, Geology does not exist as a separate subject in compulsory educa-
tion. So there are few specific textbooks of Earth Sciences. Their content is often
part of Natural Science or Biology and Geology textbooks. In a context in which
geology has a very limited curricular presence and is very often taught by teachers
with little geological training, textbooks acquire an even more important role.
Previous investigations show that, at the lower levels, Geology is studied as a
discipline included in a generic sciences subject, and a single teacher normally
teaches all subjects to one class.
At the intermediate levels, there are two possibilities:
• “Horizontal approach”: in countries like Spain and Portugal, the approach is the
typical of Natural Sciences, where a subject includes several scientific disci-
plines: Biology (the most relevant), Geology or Earth Sciences, Chemistry, and
Physics.
• “Vertical approach”: the case of Greece, where Geology is combined with
Geography, which it is closely related to.
Finally, in the higher educational levels of some countries, such as Portugal,
there is an important presence of Geology in school curricula of secondary school.
But in most countries, the geological concepts are spread over other disciplines they
are vaguely related to.
Therefore, Geology is included, indirectly, in other subjects and educational
activities such as environmental education. The result is that the reduction of geo-
logical subjects in secondary schools plus the significant gaps in the training of
teachers who deliver these subjects has a negative effect on education.
In summary, we recommend modifying and updating the contents that make up
the current geological textbooks of, at least, secondary schools and the way in which
these contents are taught in order to make them more attractive to students.
Geosciences should become a separate subject in secondary schools. We are certain
that Geology answers questions from the scientific point of view and is not superfi-
cial at all. The planet Earth and the changes that have occurred on it over time do not
constitute isolated specific facts but instead make up a body of scientific knowledge
that should be spread throughout society.
10.2 Overview of the Textbooks from Brazil, Spain, Italy,

and Portugal
Recently, we concluded a doctoral research project (Souza 2015) that resulted in the
proposal of benchmark procedures related to the processes of production and use of
scientific illustrations in textbooks discussing themes related to Earth Sciences. This
Fig. 10.1 Exhibition of textbook collections studied
proposal was supported by the analysis of 119 textbooks (Fig. 10.1) from Brazil,
Spain, Italy, and Portugal that included an investigation of the editorial process of
these books, based on the analysis of questionnaires completed by 54 editors,
authors, and illustrators from the aforementioned countries. The data thus obtained
provided us with a general understanding of: (1) the complex editorial process of
preparing textbooks, (2) the didactic structure of the works, and (3) the role played
by illustrations in educational contexts for Earth Sciences.
The production of a textbook is subject to several factors that, to a large extent,
ultimately define the didactic function. One broad factor is the educational struc-
ture, including the institutional curriculum grid, established in the country for which
the book was created. The presence of certain courses in the curriculum grid can be
indicative of how much the system and therefore the government value certain areas
of knowledge. Thus, we believe that the presence or absence of specific courses in
the study of Earth Sciences reveals the political and strategic decisions taken by dif-
ferent countries regarding the teaching of topics related to this area of knowledge.
Table 10.1 shows the courses that address Geosciences in secondary schools in
Brazil, Spain, Italy, and Portugal.
In Italy, the Natural Science course includes the scientific areas of Biology,
Chemistry, and Earth Sciences. However, each of these areas has specific books, a
method that influences the content distribution strategy and the way in which pic-
tures are used. In Portugal’s curriculum grid, Geology is offered in conjunction with
178 D. Brusi et al.
Table 10.1 Content-bearing disciplines of Earth Sciences in the countries studied

Secondary education system Courses
Brazil Biology
Physics
Geography
Chemistry
Spain Natural Sciences (ESOa)
Biology and Geology (ESO)
Natural Sciences (ESO)
Biology and Geology (bachillerato)
Science for the contemporary world (bachillerato)
Italy Natural Sciencesb (science high school).
Portugal Biology and Geology
Geology
a
ESO: Compulsory Secondary Education
b
Biology, Chemistry, and Earth Sciences
Biology during the first 2 years and separately during the third year. In Brazil,
Geoscience topics are studied within nonspecific courses such as Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, and Geography. Of the four countries surveyed, Spain is most devoted to
teaching Earth Science courses directly, with two courses being taught in compul-
sory secondary school and three in “bachillerato” for students who choose that
course of study.
10.2.1 The Publishing Process: Factors, Phases, and Agents
One finding from the study of Geoscience training in the countries previously men-
tioned was the predominance of printed textbooks over other tools available for
knowledge transfer. This reality is highlighted by a dynamic and competitive market
shared by different publishers. While some of the publishers have a long history in
textbook publishing, others have appeared in recent decades. In the specific case of
Brazil, one factor is the increasing penetration of multinational publishing
companies.
Despite the supremacy of printed textbooks over other educational tools, another
finding was that the educational environment in these countries requires constant
change in textbooks to the extent that a publication only remains commercially
attractive for a short time, 3–4 years on average. The legal factors that encourage
publishers to make frequent changes in textbooks are regular law changes leading to
changes in the educational system, particularly changes in the curriculum grid; the
need to add scientific and technological innovations to the content and production
processes of some textbooks; the possibility of including new pedagogical theories
into the content development process; the requirement to introduce new basic skills;
the will to promote linguistic adjustments; the opportunity to perform aesthetic
improvements; and the frequent changes in national university entrance examina-

tions, particularly in Brazil. It is obvious that these circumstances determine the
publishing process and materially affect the qualitative characteristics of the text-
books produced.
The study of the conditions of textbook production showed that these publica-
tions are the result of a complex process involving many professionals focused on
specific tasks. The production of Earth Science books was a good example of this
process, as Earth Sciences is clearly one of the areas in which most professionals
interact. Another finding was that, in most cases, the various professionals involved
in the different steps of textbook production do not have the opportunity to com-
municate, do not participate in the changes made to their work, and do not even have
control over those changes.
The textbook editor is responsible for designing the book based on existing law
as well as educational, pedagogical, technological, and market requirements. Thus,
the editorial management team and the marketing department design the general
features of the work without ever losing sight of other textbooks in circulation that
show characteristics similar to those defined for the project in question.
Once the design is complete, the guidelines of the educational product are com-
municated to the editors of each specific area of knowledge. These individuals,
together with the graphic designers, are tasked to turn the project design into reality.
At this stage, the content of the final work is defined; the textbook’s graphical
parameters, the project implementation schedule, and a sample chapter are
created.
The next step consists in choosing the author or authors responsible for drafting
the textual content. This choice, according to some editors, is a very delicate part of
the process and is based on essential requirements for those authors: (1) they should
be experts in the field of knowledge about which they write, to ensure that the writ-
ing is done with all due rigor; (2) they should know how to use a didactic approach
appropriate to the target readers’ age(s); and (3) they should have the ability to write
content that is clear and consistent with current orthographic rules.
Based on the project content and editorial design guidelines, the authors develop
the textual content that will be the textbook’s backbone. Some editors see the
authors’ understanding of the editorial guidelines as one of the most complicated
parts of the process and report that sometimes multiple meetings are required before
the content produced by the author approaches what the editors have in mind.
Once written, the draft is sent to the area editor for correction. At this point, the
editor may count on the help of a professional “style corrector,” whose job is to
detect and correct any grammatical errors and problems in textual organization. One
interesting finding of the study was that the editors interviewed mentioned that they
frequently do not return the draft to the author after this step. Instead, the editors
themselves make the changes they deem necessary, whether those are ensuring that
the vocabulary is appropriate for the target audience, simply substituting words to
make the text more understandable, or even deeper changes such as including new
data or removing data due to the lack of reliable sources demonstrating the data’s
veracity or adequacy. The editor is also responsible for commissioning illustrations,
180 D. Brusi et al.
photographs, charts, graphs, and any other graphic representation required for the
work. Such graphical elements are an integral part of Earth Science textbooks. No
consensus exists on how to request graphic representations (such requests may
occur in written or verbal form), but there is consensus regarding the images pro-
duced by the illustrator or photographer – all the image features, such as size, type
of illustration, colors used, and image enhancements, are decided and defined by the
project executive editor and team.
After receiving the textual content and graphic representations, the executive
editor begins the complicated task of making the material submitted fit within the
layout prepared for the book, page by page. Once again, the textual content is lim-
ited by the number of characters available on the pages allotted to each specific
subject, and the space for each image is also predefined by the project’s
parameters.
Before the volumes are printed, the textual content and related images go through
a review process that may be internal or external to the editing company. Thus,
unlike academic publications, didactic publications are not subject to strict external
reviews. We found this fact puzzling, as didactic publications reach an audience
immensely greater than that of academic and scientific articles. After review the
volumes are printed. After printing, the textbooks are stored and then distributed to
bookstores. At the same time, the sales team works on marketing the books so that
they may reach their final destination, the classroom.
The production process described above shows that despite small innovations in
each new book, textbooks are generally not designed to be very different from prod-
ucts currently available on the market. The editors interviewed stated that they use
existing books as parameters when drafting new projects. This choice explains to
some extent the similarity that exists in the aesthetics of textbooks, the uniformity
in the geoscientific themes developed, and, quite often, the use of the same or very
similar illustrations to represent a conceptual idea.
The European Earth Science textbooks we reviewed have essentially the same
didactic structure, which is well balanced in terms of conceptual development, vali-
dation of learning exercises, and activities related to theoretical research and prac-
tice (i.e., simulations and experiments). Brazilian textbooks, on the other hand,
emphasize conceptual development and preparation for university admission exam-
inations (the latter emphasis being indicative of access to higher education). In
Brazilian textbooks, practical activities are limited to online surveys. Table 10.2
below provides an overview of the educational structure of the European and
Brazilian textbooks examined.
10.2.2 Analysis of Earth Science Textbook Content
The textbook analysis revealed the existence of six types of graphic representations
used for the development of geoscientific themes: (1) traditional illustrations (figu-
rative drawings created by an illustrator), (2) maps (cartographic representations),
Table 10.2 Overview of the didactic structure of textbooks in Brazil, Spain, Italy, and Portugal
Structure of the textbook
Country Concept Exercises Practical activity
Spain Texts Diagnostic Issues Theoretical research activities
involving texts, tables, charts, maps,
photographs, schematics, internet,
traditional illustrations
Italy Schemes Content comprehension Field activities (observation and
exercises (essay questions practice)
and multiple choice)
Portugal Tables Interdisciplinary Issues Computer simulations
that demand associate
knowledge of other areas
of knowledge
Maps Self-assessment Practical activities in the laboratory
Summaries Questions in English and/or home that require use of
Illustrations different instruments and materials:
books, book, computer, rocks,
Abstracts
guides, loader-, maps, internet,
Glossaries calculator and easy access materials
Texts in English (bottles, wood, clay(…))
Brazil Texts Content comprehension Theoretical research activities
exercises (essay questions involving texts, tables, charts, maps,
and multiple choice) photographs, schematics, internet,
traditional illustrations
Schemes Issues of preparation for Research and group discussion
Tables University (prevalence)
Maps
Summaries
Illustrations
Abstracts
(3) photographs, (4) schematic representations (schematic models, cycles, pro-

cesses, phenomena, etc.), (5) reproductions of works of art, and (6) graphics (repre-
sentation of data, generally numeric, or interrelated variables through lines, vectors,
surfaces, etc.).
With that information, we examined a sample of five books to determine the
percentage distribution of the use of each type of representation in the development
of the ten geoscientific themes (e.g., key ideas) listed by the Spanish geological
community in “Alfabetización en Ciencias de La Tierra” (Pedrinaci et al. 2013).
These key ideas were described as indispensable to the training of a citizen who is
“literate” in Earth Sciences when finishing secondary education. Below we show
the content (key ideas) considered essential to secondary education by the geologi-
cal community of Spain:
• Key Idea 1: the Earth is a complex system where rocks, water, air, and life
interact.
• Key Idea 2: the origin of the Earth is linked to the solar system’s origin, and the
Earth’s long history is recorded in the materials it is made up of.
182 D. Brusi et al.
• Key Idea 3: the materials of the Earth originate and change continuously.
• Key Idea 4: water and air make the Earth a special planet.
• Key Idea 5: life evolves and interacts with the Earth, resulting in mutual
modifications.
• Key Idea 6: plate tectonics is a global theory and an integral part of the Earth.
• Key Idea 7: external geological processes modify the Earth’s surface.
• Key Idea 8: mankind depends on planet the Earth for its resources and must
handle them in a sustainable way.
• Key Idea 9: some natural processes represent risks to mankind.
• Key Idea 10: scientists interpret and explain the workings of the Earth based on
repeated observations and verifiable ideas.
Figure 10.2 presents the distribution of the key ideas for the textbook sample
examined. Despite the differences in structure of the educational systems of Spain,
Italy, and Portugal, the three systems had one fact in common: they use specific
disciplines and books to teach Earth Science topics. The analysis of the distribution
of content in each individual collection revealed that each country’s collection con-
tained almost all of the key ideas and sub-ideas. This fact indicated a practically
homogeneous distribution pattern and use of content that allowed for the analysis of
European textbooks as one large group in addition to the analysis by country.
Taking into account the fact that speech analysis allows for multiple ways to read
a text/image, analyses must be based on a specific reference. Thus, when faced with
a certain form of materiality, whatever its nature, we are actually faced with the
reality that this materiality uses as a reference (Ducrot 1984). This concept was
significant for the investigation of our subject, since the illustrations in the context
of plate tectonics were analyzed according to established concepts from the afore-
mentioned document “Alfabetización en Ciencias de La Tierra.”
Percentage distribution of key ideas in books
100%
80%
Percentage
of books
60%
40%
20%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Key Ideas
Fig. 10.2 Presence of the key ideas in the sample of books investigated
10.2.3 Illustrations in Geoscience Textbooks in Brazil, Spain,

Italy, and Portugal
Contextualizing the phenomena, materials, and complex processes related to the

dynamics of the Earth is an arduous task for researchers and professionals involved
in developing geoscience textbooks. This process is determined by the specificities
of geological phenomena and methods established in an area of study. The wide
temporal span (ranging from seconds to millennia) over which events and natural
processes are analyzed and the wide spatial spectrum (from micrometric spaces to
astronomical scales) over which certain processes are studied are particular features
of the study of geosciences that can make contextualization challenging.
How can a textbook represent time, space, and other dimensions in a way appro-
priate to the epistemology of Earth Sciences? This dilemma is one of the major
challenges in this area of knowledge since it requires the use of written content and
a significant number of graphic representations. Studies have shown the vital role
played by illustrations for the acquisition of scientific concepts (Cassiano 2002) and
for the extension of knowledge in certain topics of this kind (Kress and Ogborn
1998; Lemke 1998; Jiménez 1997). On the other hand, a fair amount of research
exists that discusses the obstacles associated with using graphic representations in
teaching to depict general scientific concepts (Mayer 2001).
The previous discussion highlights the importance of illustrations, both to the
structuring of geoscience models and the learning process associated with each of
these models. However, we must consider that the creation of textbooks requires
formulating and choosing forms of graphic representations that, when associated
with textual content, should work according to the epistemology of geosciences.
Therefore, we can speculate that the function of such illustrations is strongly related
to their conditions of production, which, as already discussed, involve a complex
editorial process divided into distinct productive steps, each of which includes the
participation of several professionals of different specialties.
Are there any criteria that underpin the choice of the type of graphic representa-
tion best suited to the development of a certain theme? Do scientific language and
its representation criteria serve as a parameter when preparing illustrations? Which
procedures ensure harmony between illustrations and textual content? These are
some questions related to the conditions of production of graphic representations
that certainly influence its discursive behavior.
10.2.4 Analysis of Illustrations in the Context of Planet

Earth’s Internal Dynamics
Plate tectonics, considered as a global theory and a central theme in geological stud-
ies, has many aspects linked to processes that occur inside planet Earth. How can we
describe and represent processes that are not and never will be observable? This
184 D. Brusi et al.
question helps us understand why most of the current knowledge about the planet
Earth’s internal dynamics is bound to the interpretation of graphic representations
of various types (including graphics, maps, schematic representations, etc.), all of
which require deliberate editorial procedures capable of producing illustrations
whose interpretation, in educational contexts, approximates the epistemological ref-
erences of Earth Sciences.
Thus, using the concepts described in the aforementioned document
“Alfabetización en Ciencias de La Tierra” as a reference, we investigated the discur-
sive function of different types of illustrations representing plate tectonics. This
analysis revealed a number of inconsistencies, presented in Table 10.3, which were
grouped into three main categories: (1) technical/aesthetic issues, (2) problems gen-
erated by the use of scientific language, and (3) problems of conceptual misconcep-
tion inducers.
Based on the discursive analysis of the illustrations, three questionnaires were
prepared and made available online that included specific questions for publishers,
authors, and illustrators from the countries surveyed.
The main objective of this stage of the study was to study the editorial process of
the illustrations through the experience and vision of each of the three major profes-
sions involved in the process. Table 10.4 summarizes the three categories of prob-
lems identified in the analysis of the questionnaires.
The analysis of how illustrations operate in the context of plate tectonics and the
analysis of the questionnaires submitted to publishers, authors, and illustrators pro-
vided input that we were able to use to link many of the epistemological distortions,
found in the functioning of illustrations, to the problems identified in researching
their production conditions, i.e., problems that arise from the complex editorial pro-
cess for including illustrations. Based on these links and the suggestions provided
by the professionals who completed the questionnaires, we created a “best prac-
tices” proposal to improve the editorial process of selecting illustrations for use in
the educational context of Earth Sciences.
Table 10.5 summarizes the compilation of “best practices” suggestions specifi-
cally for the steps of the editorial process. In turn, Table 10.6 categorizes our sug-
gestions on the didactic use of each type of illustration in textbooks that discuss
issues related to Earth Sciences.
We believe that if these “best practices” suggestions are implemented, they can
contribute to a more precise editorial process and result in illustrations that, when
used in educational contexts, may lead to readings (interpretations) that are closer to
the epistemology of geosciences. This improvement is essential to ensure that the
set of actions that comprise the teaching/learning process is capable of producing,
by the end of upper secondary school, students who are literate in Earth Sciences as
defined in “Alfabetización en Ciencias de la Tierra.”
Table 10.3 Categorization of problems concerning the discursive functioning of the illustrations
Problem Overview
1. Technical/aesthetic 1.1. The brightness, contrast, and sharpness make it difficult
to view what is intended
1.2. The dimensions of the image do not allow the perception
of essential details of illustration
1.3. The quality of the stroke, color, and shading make it
difficult to understand the phenomenon/process
1.4. Some satellite images or images taken from the web lack
good visual definition
1.5. The lack of 3D perspective makes it difficult for the
student to understand the illustration
1.6. Inadequate choice of type of illustration to represent a
phenomenon and/or process
2. Use of the language 2.1. Lack of title
scientific 2.2. Footer with inaccurate data
2.3. Lack of scale
2.4. Lack of or incomplete caption
2.5. Inaccurate dimensions
2.6. Lack of quote of the illustration in the text
2.7. Lack of identification of physical quantities related to
orthogonal graphics
2.8. Lack of identification of the units of measurement
associated with physical quantities in orthogonal graphics
2.9. Confusion between physical quantity and unit of measure
2.10. Lack of resources that enable accurate reading of data in
orthogonal graphics
2.11. Lack of technical information of the work reproduced
2.12. Scientific conventions in the construction of line graphs
are not respected
3. Inducing conceptual 3.1. The position and/or angle at which the illustration was
misconceptions generated does not meet
expectations generated by the text and/or footer
3.2. Lack of reference to the illustration in the text
3.3. Stand-alone illustrations, without any kind of wording
(comments, questions, or explanations), that help reading
3.4. Lack of tools (text box, arrow, magnifying glasses, etc.)
that make it easier to read the illustration
3.5. Text boxes positioned imprecisely
3.6. Too much information in a single illustration
3.7. Mix of graphic and image
3.8. No representation of relative motions
3.9. Lack of proportionality between parts of the illustration
3.10. Misuse of iconic symbols
3.11. Lack of temporal events organization
3.12. Lack of consistency in the standard illustrations of a
single work
3.13. Illustration that by itself is not able to convey the
intended meaning
186 D. Brusi et al.
Table 10.4 Categorization of problems related to the editorial process

Steps Deficient processes
1. Planning 1.1. Lack of clarity concerning the project objectives
1.2. Time schedule for project implementation inadequate
1.3. Insufficient budget for the development of the project
1.4. The review process of the work is insufficient
2. Implementation 2.1. Limitations due to the layout
2.2. Technical limitations and insufficient illustrator training
2.3. Lack of good references and originality for the preparation of
illustrations
2.4. Workflow truncated due to the lack of standardization in the
process of producing the illustrations
3. Review 3.1. Deficient communication between the professionals involved in the
development of the project
3.2. Problems related to commissioning the illustrations
Table 10.5 Suggestions of “good practice” for the steps in the publishing process
Steps Suggestions for “best practice”
1. Planning 1.1. Definition of didactic-pedagogical features of the project
1.2. Definition of the professional profile of the illustrators from the
characteristics of the project
1.3. Proposed schedule compatible with the needs and proposals of the
project
2. Implementation 2.1. Improvement of existing communication channels
2.2. Improving working conditions and the flow to carry out the project
3. Review 3.1. Considering the crucial role of the author in the process of revision
of the work
3.2. Ensuring that the work is reviewed internally and externally
outside the publishing house
10.2.5 New Formats
Progress in information and communications technology made in recent decades

has led us to the digital age. Textbooks have not been oblivious to this revolution.
Besides the traditional formats of printed textbooks, new electronic formats have
broken into the publishing industry in the last 10 years.
The first attempts to use new technologies led to the publication of educational
materials in CD format (added as supplements to books or sold separately). These
products quickly gave way to digital resources compatible with a wide variety of
devices (computers, tablets, smartphones, etc.) that today are offered by most of the
publishers.
To simplify the analysis, we can distinguish between two types of formats:
• Electronic textbooks. They are downloadable electronic files designed to be read
on a screen. They do not usually provide much more than paper printed versions.
Table 10.6 Suggestions of “good practices” for the use of geoscientific illustrations in textbooks
Illustration type Suggestions of “good practices” for the use of illustrations
Photos 1.1. Direct image reading through textual commands
1.2. Ensure that the photograph meets the expectations generated
by the text
1.3. Use of photographs as a complement to other type of graphics
1.4. Add tools that facilitate reading to photograph
Schematic representations 2.1. Be precise when using additional reading resources (text
boxes, dimensions, caption, etc.)
2.2. Care of aesthetic aspects (brightness, contrast, stroke, color,
3D perspective, etc.)
2.3. Keep illustrations consistent throughout the work
2.4. In specific cases, use a scheme as a complement of other types
of graphic representation
Graphs 3.1. Direct reading the chart from textual commands
3.2. Use scientific language standards in the preparation of charts
3.3. Avoid merging traditional illustration with graphical
representations
Maps 4.1. Direct reading the map from textual commands
4.2. Use language standards in the preparation of cartographic
maps
4.3. Keep maps consistent throughout the work
4.4. Take care of the conditions of viewing the map, especially in
the case of images copied from the web
Traditional illustrations 5.1. Produce illustrations that are easily associated with situations
and concrete phenomena
5.2. Use tools that facilitate the reading of the illustration
5.3. Avoid illustrations that make fun of natural disasters and risks
associated
5.4. In specific situations, use the traditional illustration as a
complement of other graphical representation
Reproduction of works of 6.1. Use works of art in contexts in which they can be easily
art associated with situations and concrete phenomena
6.2. Always provide technical information about the work of art
reproduced
However, they offer some advantages over classic textbooks: lower price, imme-
diate availability from any device, and some additional utilities. Among the most
common ones, we can cite the search of words, the enlargement of some details,
or the existence of web links.
• Multimedia textbooks. They are published products enriched with interactive
and multimedia resources. These kinds of support differ from simple electronic
versions of textbooks, as they can provide audio, video, activities, exercises, and
self-evaluation tests. Multimedia textbooks are based on hypermedia approaches
offering links to information that is not necessarily sequential. These products
are often not simple textbooks. Many are actually educational platforms or
courseware that teachers can customize and modulate at will. Thus, a teacher can
188 D. Brusi et al.
change the order of the learning units, create assessment tests, produce his or her
own resources, create and assign work for groups of students, etc.
Over the past 5 years, almost all publishers of the countries analyzed (Spain,
Italy, Portugal, and Brazil) have included electronic textbooks and multimedia
e-books on subjects in geosciences into their catalogue.
It must be admitted that static PDF content from simple e-books provides no
advantages, but no one can deny the great flexibility and accessibility of multimedia
textbooks over paper-based texts. And yet, some researchers (Woody et al. 2010)
argued that e-books were no more appealing to students. However, this perception
has probably evolved quickly, and the native digital generation has already changed
habits, and multimedia books have improved their attractiveness. Nevertheless,
recent studies (Bagarukayo et al. 2012) in undergraduate students claim that no
significant differences are observed regarding the interest in the subjects or the abil-
ity of solving problems and other skills while using multimedia e-books versus
traditional textbooks.
The present reality is that printed textbooks still dominate the educational pub-
lishing market in Europe and the USA. Nowadays, digital textbooks represent a
small percentage of educational book sales. However, all the studies predict a sig-
nificant increase in this offer.
It may be that the medium does matter to students. Perhaps what is relevant is that
the use of the resources provided by new technologies is a change in the approach of
teaching and learning. Teachers have in digital textbooks a much more powerful
tool. The educational activities in digital learning environments lead to the figure
called “2.0 teacher.” Following Manuel Area (2012), it is clear that this new teacher
must become, among other things, a manager of digital environments in a “content
filter” and a developer of materials using all the resources that the Internet offers us.
Either way, multimedia textbooks are particularly interesting for some aspects of
the teaching of Earth Sciences. Even though these new formats are not specific for
Geology, not many disciplines can benefit so strongly from the possibility of provid-
ing to textbooks real images and videos or display graphics and animations that
illustrate materials, morphologies, and processes over time. Apart from digital text-
books, we cannot forget to mention the vast panorama of resources offered by the
Internet that are now essential for teaching Earth Sciences: blogs, wikis, news, insti-
tutional websites, repositories of videos, movies, podcasts, multimedia presenta-
tions, animations, text documents, digital libraries, maps, satellite imagery, aerial
photography, apps, etc.
10.3 Solving FAQ on Geoscience Textbooks
FAQs (frequently asked questions) compile the questions and answers of those
assumptions that can generate the most common doubts in some contexts. This is
probably a good way to summarize some conclusions on textbooks and their use by
teachers and students. This approach allows some general considerations and also
others that are specific to the Earth Sciences.
10.3.1 How Important Is the Textbook?
90 % of science teachers use the textbook, and its use accounts for 95 % of class
time; it is often the textbook that determines the curriculum (Dall’alba et al. 1993).
Whatever the format, textbooks are a tool for curricular mediation. Therefore, either
developing or choosing a textbook carries a great responsibility.
10.3.2 How Do I Make or Choose the Best Geology Textbook?
Beyond aesthetics, the list of quality indicators for a textbook is very wide. Caldeira
(2005) gives us “ten commandments” criteria for evaluating science textbooks.
Taking his idea and applying it to the books of Earth Sciences, a good book should:
1. Adapt content and curriculum guidelines concerning content and skills corre-
sponding to the level of education that is necessary with sufficient depth and
conceptual breadth.
2. Introduce a treatment in accordance with current knowledge and contain no
scientific nor text or illustrations impropriety.
3. Have a logical narrative structure and language that is clear and appropriate for
students.
4. Reflect the evolution of scientific knowledge through the use of the history of
research in Earth Sciences.
5. Clarify the connections science-technology-society with a strong emphasis on
relations with the geological hazards, natural and energetic resources and envi-
ronmental problems.
6. Promote the removal of alternative conceptions, with special attention to the
most common misconceptions regarding the origin of rocks or fossils, the
immutability of the relief, the catastrophism, the geological time, the water
cycle, the evolution of the species, etc.
7. Contain illustrations (photographs, diagrams, maps, charts, drawings, etc.) con-
sistent with the wording that are properly referenced, clear, and well sized, with
adequate figure captions and legends.
8. Integrate diversified activities of experimentation and observation in both class-
room and laboratory, as well as in the field, to facilitate a practical approach to
concepts and procedural aspects of geology.
9. Include exercises, questions, glossary, related or extension texts, and informa-
tion of websites or links to multimedia content.
10. Promote students’ interest in learning geosciences.
In any case, the most important aspect is to check that the textbook chosen best
suits our goals and teaching methodologies.
190 D. Brusi et al.
10.3.3 Why Do Textbooks Change so Often?
Advances in Earth Sciences research are not so fast as to justify a frequent change
in textbooks. However, it is clear that the textbooks for the preuniversity levels
change from time to time in all subjects. Obviously, the publishing market adapts its
offer to curriculum changes that the experts define and are approved by the govern-
ment. Also, of course, it promotes the publication of new works that collect the most
current treatments, new teaching approaches, or design changes. But what is the
shelf life of a textbook? It is usually very short. Some have come to speak of
“planned obsolescence” of textbooks. In order to correct in part the limited life span
of textbooks, some countries have regulated that textbooks and other instructional
materials adopted by an institution cannot be replaced by others for a minimum
period of 4 years.
Digital books probably have lower production costs and allow introducing
changes in an easier way, thus ensuring a longer shelf life.
10.3.4 Should We Study the Book or Study with the Book?
Many teachers use the textbook as the main reference to plan and conduct their
classes, select activities or exercises, etc. The usefulness of a textbook, however
good it is, will always depend on the use made of it. Del Carmen (2001) points out
that the book is “the key element in the educational process and, in most cases, the
only reference and working material for teachers and students.”
Studying the book, page by page, is of course the simplest way to use it. Studying
“with the book” is giving it the role of mere learning counselor. In classes of Earth
Sciences, it is essential to go beyond the theoretical treatment and traditional rote.
We should aim at a more research-based teaching method that gives a greater weight
to posing questions, looking up of textual or multimedia information, experimenta-
tion, observation, and description of the materials and processes.
Some authors suggest that the best indicator of how we teach is how we evaluate.
“Tell me how you evaluate and I will tell you how you teach and therefore (…) how
your students learn.” Whether “studying the book” with “studying with the book,”
we must ask ourselves how we assess our students’ knowledge, skills, and abilities
in geosciences.
10.3.5 And What if I Have not Studied Geology?
A great number of teachers who teach subjects of Earth Sciences are not geologists
and, having been trained in related disciplines (Biology, Chemistry, Geography,
Environmental Sciences, etc.) have received scant geological training. As explained
above, in many countries, the geological contents are associated with other disci-
plines. Although textbooks that reflect the curriculum guidelines develop balanced
geoscientist aspects, it is quite common for teachers who do not master them to tend
to minimize some of them or even fail to teach them.
We must lose the fear of Geology. Surprisingly, when non-geologists discover
the Earth Sciences they can transmit their knowledge to students with extraordinary
passion. Beyond the textbook (paper or digital), it is necessary to complement the
training through courses, workshops, and field trips and find learning resources to
improve our classes. Among them, we highlight the collaborative website
Earthlearningidea (www.earthlearningidea.com) where we find ideas (translated
into ten languages) designed to become practical resources for teachers and trainers
of Science published the Earth.
10.3.6 Books on Paper or Digital Books?
Clearly, one of the advantages of digital textbooks over the paper formats is that
they bring us the full potential of multimedia. What we mean by digital textbooks is
digital learning environments that go beyond simple PDF versions of their printed
counterparts. A good digital textbook should include resources in different digital
languages: text, audio, video, pictures or animations, links to websites, self-
correcting exercises, etc. For the teaching of Earth Sciences, books with interactive
digital resources can be very attractive.
The disadvantages of digital books are as follows:
• It is a product that is still being developed; therefore, there is not much to choose
from yet.
• Although this option may appear to have a smaller cost than the printed book, it
may require the purchase of reading devices (hardware), software, access and
network maintenance, virus control, etc. available to all students in the classroom
at home cost.
• It is not clear that students prefer them.
The choice of a digital learning platform necessarily implies that we have to
teach how to adapt to new tools and means that ICT offer us.
10.3.7 Can You Study Without a Book?
The book is a working tool but not the only one. Schools and teachers can choose
not to follow this path, creating their own training materials to suit the curricular
guidelines.
192 D. Brusi et al.
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Chapter 11
Promoting Science-Technology-Society/
Critical Thinking Orientation in Basic
Education
Rui Marques Vieira, L.F. Moreira, and Celina Tenreiro-Vieira
11.1 Introduction
Resulting from curriculum development in many Western countries in recent

decades, science education has pursued the ideals of scientific and technological
culture as promoters of an overall development of students as it enables them to
reach an informed, critical, and rational participation in a democratic society. A
high number of references, widely mentioned by authors, institutions, and science
academies, have stressed the need to promote a new science education, aiming to
develop scientifically literate citizens. Science literacy implies the ability to use and
mobilize concepts, properly and effectively, scientific procedures, and thinking abil-
ities in decision making processes at personal, professional, and social level as well
as in the interaction with others and with the environment (Vieira and Tenreiro-
Vieira 2014). This requires an emphasis on understanding the relationship of
Science-Technology-Society (STS) and the development of critical thinking (CT),
as purposes of science education since the earliest years.
The STS/CT perspective among science education has been investigated in
Portugal in different studies, such as Vieira (2003), Magalhães and Tenreiro-Vieira
(2006), and Moreira (2008), highlighting two major conclusions: (i) the problem-
solving or decision making referenced in STS education requires CT and (ii) when
students are confronted with STS themes, it intends to develop its CT, which are
purposes of scientific literacy.
R.M. Vieira (*) • C. Tenreiro-Vieira

Department of Education, Research Centre for Didactics and Technology in Teacher
Education, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: rvieira@ua.pt; cvieira@ua.pt
L.F. Moreira
Colégio Casa-Mãe, Baltar, Portugal
e-mail: moreiraluis14@yahoo.com

196 R.M. Vieira et al.
Despite these studies, it has not been common to connect both STS and CT pur-
poses in science education. Likewise, the nonformal education contexts have not
been used as a science education promoter within an STS/CT perspective. It is nec-
essary to have adequate, grounded, and well-prepared teaching resources, with clear
methodological STS/CT guidelines for the teacher. In this context, the study aimed
to develop, implement, and evaluate a proposal of didactic and pedagogical
resources, focused among the continental drift, within a nonformal education con-
text. It intended to explore and develop young students’ CT abilities among an STS
perspective. Thus, the science education requires an STS/CT orientation, which can
take advantage on the nonformal contexts of education.
11.2 Theoretical Framework
Over these first two decades of the twenty-first century, it has been reinforced the
need to promote, effectively, a science education for all from a scientific literacy
perspective, able to help each student to achieve a progressive and rational partici-
pation within a democratic society, regarding a sustainable development at local,
national, and international levels (Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira 2014). From the litera-
ture review, including the frameworks of the OECD/PISA (2006; 2009), scientific
literacy is conceptualized as the capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify
questions, and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help
make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human
activity. In this context, scientific literacy incorporates various aspects or interre-
lated dimensions, including:
(i) Knowledge of science, especially ideas and concepts with broad application in
different areas and knowledge about science as a socially contextualized
human endeavor, which must be shaped by an STS orientation.
(ii) Processes and scientific practices in conjunction with scientific ways of think-
ing to address problems, find answers, and report them, which involves critical
thinking abilities, problem-solving, and decision making.
(iii) A more emotional dimension that covers values, attitudes, dispositions, inter-
est, and science appreciation.
Accordingly to this perspective, in international papers, two of the objectives that
have been identified as prominent to achieve scientific literacy for all students are
the STS guidance and CT science education models (Aikenhead 2009; Freire 2007;
Magalhães and Tenreiro-Vieira 2006; Vieira 2003; Vieira et al. 2011). The STS ori-
entation in science education supports the (re)construction of scientific knowledge
and the development of thinking abilities and attitudes regarding the socially rele-
vant issues and problem approaches, as components of science and technology. As
a result, it creates conditions for such learning to become useful in day to day, not
as a purely instrumental perspective, but an active one, making into account current
11 Promoting Science-Technology-Society/Critical Thinking Orientation in Basic… 197
concerns of sustainable development (Vieira 2003; Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira

2014).
In this context, the call for critical thinking is closely linked to the efficient and
effective use of scientific knowledge in different situations in personal, professional,
and social contexts. Within the framework of democratic practices, concerning sci-
entific issues that affects humanity, people should have an active voice, for example,
to question arguments for different positions, with particular regard to the validity
of the scientific evidence and the credibility of the sources used in its construction
(Vieira et al. 2010).
In line with curriculum guidelines and recommendations, both national and
international, the development and validation of teaching strategies, learning activi-
ties, and didactic resources and the support of science teaching and learning prac-
tices based upon an STS/CT perspective have been recognized as crucial to scientific
literacy promotion.
Among these perspectives, STS curriculum projects (such as the SATIS and
STEPWISE projects) as well as STS/CT projects and programs as exemplified by
LoRST were developed and implemented in different countries. Also investigations
such as those conducted by Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira (2005, 2014) developed
strategies, activities, and teaching resources, shaped among an STS orientation and
middle school students CT promoters.
The last mentioned authors, as others, have used Ennis’s critical thinking con-
ceptual framework to promote CT. Ennis (1987, 1996) suggested that CT is a rea-
sonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do; it
involves dispositions and abilities. CT dispositions reflect a critical spirit consisting
of a trend, commitment, or inclination to act critically and then applying CT abili-
ties attending to CT criteria and standards. Examples of dispositions are using and
mentioning credible sources, searching for reasons and alternatives, and having an
open mind. The critical thinking abilities include asking and answering clarification
and/or challenging questions, analyzing arguments, making and assessing observa-
tions, making and assessing inferences (deductions, inductions, and value judg-
ments), and deciding a course of action. The use of standards as criteria (e.g., clarity,
accuracy, consistency, and valid evidence) for judging the quality of thought is
required in order to ensure the effective use of such abilities (Tenreiro-Vieira and
Vieira 2001; Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira 2014).
CT in the words of Ford and Yore (2012) can be considered the deliberate pro-
cess of determining what to believe or do about a worthy challenge. “This means
that the critical thinker needs to examine the text contents or arguments in mass
media reports and then evaluate the evidence behind a claim, belief, or action that
will allow them to determine the validity, reliability, and authenticity of the informa-
tion and how well it supports the claim” (Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira 2014).
In educational contexts, promoting CT requires strategies and didactic resources
that have proved to be favorable to the development of this type of thinking
(Tenreiro-Vieira and Vieira 2001). A teaching strategy refers to a set of actions of
the teacher, oriented to achieve certain learning objectives (Vieira and Tenreiro-
Vieira 2005). Strategies such as questioning, graphic organizers, problem-based
learning (PBL), and debates have been proved to be promoters of critical thinking
abilities (Gonçalves and Vieira 2015; Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira 2014).
Research studies showed that science teaching practices have changed little in
recent decades, promoting the disregard of the children and young people for sci-
ence and for its learning. So it is necessary to promote teachers’ abilities and the
renewal of their science teaching practices (Osborne and Dillon 2008; Rocard et al.
2007). It is also necessary to develop educational resources to operationalize STS/
CT science education purposes and combine them with nonformal settings and con-
texts, which require even more of such resources and teaching/learning strategies.
Since the first contacts with scientific and technological advances, often through
nonformal settings and contexts (Earwicker 2008), are relevant, they can also pro-
mote an STS/CT orientation. The interest in these contexts has driven the develop-
ment of teaching resources, whenever possible, which are integrated into the formal
curriculum guidelines. The implementation of such resources, within the frame-
work of study visits, has revealed the development of cognitive and affective learn-
ing of children (DeWitt 2007; Moreira 2008).
11.3 Methodology
The study followed an action-research, which was considered to be the most feasi-
ble and coherent approach to focus on the curriculum innovation issues that were
central to the design, production, implementation, and assessment of the didactic
resources developed. Coutinho (2011) described action-research as a multi- or
mixed-methodological research plan that is considered as being situational, inter-
ventional, participatory, and self-assessing with a primary goal focused on innova-
tion and change. The aim of this study’s intervention was to understand and then
transform the articulation between formal and nonformal contexts with the third
(grades 7, 8, and 9) cycle of Portuguese basic education.
The study sample involved a total of 105 students from the middle school – 7th
grade: 50 male and 55 female. These students came from two schools located in
Northern Portugal. It involved three teachers which were accompanying these
students.
The study developed, tested, and evaluated didactic resources containing four
activities concerning the “continental drift and plate tectonics” issues. These activi-
ties were part of the “Litomóvel Project.” These activities differ in terms of thematic
content and desired goals. Didactic resources and materials were directed to 7th
grade students, the Portuguese third basic education cycle, aged between 12 and
14 years. This project [Litomóvel Project] can be found in the studies of Moreira
(2008) and Moreira and Henriques-Coelho (2015).
The starting point of these activities is a study visit to the Visionarium (science
center in Northern Portugal – http://www.visionarium.pt) where such activities
were explored during a session, with 1 h as approximate duration. The four activi-
ties are described briefly in the next paragraph.
Activity A, designated “objects and forces,” focuses on testing process of

different materials on a lathe, as shown in Table 11.1 below. Its design intended to
have an activity where students proceed to:
(i) Test different objects when exposed to a force.
(ii) Manipulate, measure, and explicitly control variables, dependent and
independent.
(iii) Delineate an investigation.
(iv) Formulate problem issues.
(v) Predict events.
(vi) Analyze and compare various materials regarding their properties when sub-
jected to a force.
(vii) Justify statements and all procedures.
This is an activity that requires constant interaction between elements of each
group, where each group member can handle, experience, or record the
observations.
The need of possible explanations, for example, the shape complementarity of
some continents (Africa and South America), was on the basis of the output of
Activity B – “magic mosaic.” It pursued an interactive component which was also
present and where students could handle the material described in Table 11.2.
Activity C’s, “rolling carpet,” main goals, during and after its development, were
to (i) research, illustrate, or exemplify the upper mantle convection cells; (ii) address
the evidence for continental drift found by the study of the seabed, such as alter-
nated magnetic polarity reverses; and (iii) insert the notion of time into geological
processes (Table 11.3).
Finally, activity D “STS/environment – tectonic” explores different concepts of
previous material resources. It implies the text excerpts reading to choose the most
Table 11.1 Description of the material resources, Activity A

Activity Material resources (with photo)
Objects and forces
Lathe
Chalk, plasticine (circular and rectangular), and rubber
Containers for materials and pencils
Table 11.2 Description of the material resources, Activity B

Magic
mosaic
Solid foam boards, colored, representing the continents

Information indicators cards – paleontological (fossils), geological (rock
formations and deposits)
Table 11.3 Description of the material resources, Activity C

Rolling
carpet
“Rolling carpet” box

Plates in wood, colored in green, attached to a listed fabric, black and white,
representing the magnetic polarity of seafloor
Dynamic circular portions, representative of convection cells
important and relevant information. The focus of this activity is to determine rela-
tionships between science, technology and society, with explicit call for critical
thinking abilities. It studies social issues and concerns, attending to possible conse-
quences for human being of some geological processes such as earthquakes. The
student must compare figures, identifying relationships, similarities, differences,
and correlating several natural phenomena. The major scientific goal of activity D is
to study the geographical location of Portugal in the panorama of plate tectonics
theory, for example, “What are the odds of happening an earthquake in Portugal?,”
“Is Portugal tectonically active?,” “Are there dangers to the major cities?,” “Which
are the major risk Portuguese locations?.”
These activities and all their teaching resources were organized in (i) teacher
didactic guide, focused on four activities, with guidelines and curriculum frame-
works for teachers and (ii) student observation notebook, with suggestions, tasks,
and challenges, recording template for students. Two experts validated all these
materials in its final form: (i) a senior PhD geology teacher in the area of didactics
and (ii) a senior PhD teacher, of the Department of Earth Sciences at the University
of Aveiro, in the area of specific geology contents.
The development of these four activities, integrated into the didactic teacher
guide, arises from three fundamental key assumptions, previously validated in
research studies as Tenreiro-Vieira (2004), Vieira and Tenreiro-Vieira (2014) which
are:
1. Students’ involvement. Each one of the four activities would have to be able to
involve cognitive and affective students so that, without teachers’ or monitors’
guidance, they could allow them, for their own, to find answers and formulate
solutions for the several scientific problems.
2. Science education, by and about. Develop science education, by science and
about science, with activities regarding objects manipulation and exploration,
variable reflection, result prediction and observation, hypothesis statement, and
conclusion presentation.
3. STS/CT perspective. To incorporate the STS dimensions and CT abilities explic-
itly on the tasks and questions, within each one of the four activities, in the stu-
dent observation notebook.
During the implementation process, with strategy-oriented abilities to promote
students’ critical thinking abilities, like questioning, small group activity, role-play,
and debate, and based on several sources, several information were collected. The
data collection techniques employed (i.e., inquiry and observations) allowed the
information obtained to be triangulated and their validity to be explored. Similarly,
the students’ written works, done in the context of the activities developed, were
collected.
Documents resulting from observation records and students’ written production
were analyzed using content analysis based on exploratory procedures. This
involved organizing the documents and reading them several times; constructing
indicators and defining units, which allowed descriptions of pertinent characteris-
tics of the content; and searching for patterns and regularities in the data and inter-
preting them in light of the theoretical framework (Coutinho 2011).
11.4 Results
First, the results obtained from the analysis of the student’s records, during and after
each activity of the “Litomóvel Project,” were summarized in the student observa-
tion notebook. After the overall analysis, it was observed that the students were
able, for the most part, to perform properly what was required of them, providing
answers to the questions within each of the four activities as well as by filling prop-
erly the different tables.
This is consistent with observations obtained by one of the authors (the second)
of this chapter, which points that students could often carry out various tasks such
as:
(i) Easily identify the problem situation pointing readily mechanism resolution.
(ii) Partially use prior knowledge, correct and necessary in the resolution of an
activity
(iii) Engage into the task resolution and raise questions.
(iv) Perform the activities but with some monitoring of teacher.
(v) Easily interpret the questions.
(vi) Take over and present its views to group colleagues.
(vii) Argue and contextualize their answers.
(viii) Exchange ideas and communicate and create empathy with colleagues within
the group.
(ix) Understand the S and T concepts, relating them with society – STS.
Several of the students were able to identify variables, dependent and indepen-
dent, to identify the key factors that determine the behavior of the clay before the
application of a force. The student’s involvement was obvious in solving different
tasks, with high rates of participation and question raising. Most students interacted
regularly with group colleagues, mobilizing CT abilities such as reasoning.
Effectively throughout the four activities, a majority of students were making their
positions and presenting or discussing the main reasons to support those positions
and statements. However, in oral presentation, inside and outside work group, they
were showing difficulties such as those relating to the clarity of their arguments.
The understanding of S and T concepts and their relationship with the society
factor was most evident in activity D (STS/environment – tectonic), which, as a
major discussion activity, generated large argument trade and argument justifica-
tion, the use of prior knowledge given by the three previous activities (e.g., relating
plate tectonics with the worldwide occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes). In
addition, the interpretation of texts and statements, establishment of image and data
comparisons, classification as true and false, endorsing or discarding them, clearly
and objectively, among others, were more evident in activity D.
Nevertheless, some difficulties that stand out are those related to students’ auton-
omy in the implementation of activities and the use of prior knowledge in the reso-
lution of the first activities. The students request for assistance and support in the
interpretation of some issues, particularly those that involved the use of critical
thinking abilities, such as those relating to interaction with other group members.
Despite these difficulties, highest ratings – meets well and meets very well –
were encountered, in all the items, in students’ replies to the questionnaire applied
at the end of the “Litomóvel Project” intervention, noting that (i) the activities were
easy to interpret, 74.2 %, and realize, 70.4 %; (ii) the physical space was adequate
for carrying out activities, 91.3 %; (iii) activities aroused his interest, 62.8 %; (iv)
the time taken to carry out the activities was adequate, 86.6 %; and (v) students
heard and actively enjoyed arguing colleagues, 68.5 %. Students also remarked that
they:
(i) Set contrasts and comparisons on the information collected – 57.1 %.
(ii) Considered solving STS issues – 60.9 %.
(iii) Learned S and T concepts – 63.7 %.
(iv) Found implications and consequences of the issues addressed in their day to
day – 61.8 %;
(v) Expressed their thoughts and formulated questions – 55.1 %.
(vi) Reflect on the problems during oriented questioning strategies – 52.3 %.
(vii) Claim to have modified and restated their prior knowledge with the fulfillment
of four activities – 51.3 %.
The emerging results of teacher’s oral statements analysis, expressed after a
recorded interview context, show that they consider that the resources, both didactic
and material, used allow students “to be familiarized with content in a much more
practical and interactive way, which often is more difficult in the classroom, being
that the teachers choose to explore the contents in an expository mode. This project
[Litomóvel Project] makes the lessons much more interesting (…) The students
understood the concepts, participated, and were involved in the discussions, for
example, they realized the effect of earthquakes on the populations” (teacher A).
They also considered that “(…) they [students] read the texts, interpreted them,
formulated problems, indicated assumptions, and presented their arguments; they
actually were involved in the activities. They shared doubts and were interested and
motivated to participate” (teacher B).
11.5 Conclusions
The results presented above show that the activities developed within this research
have wide acceptance among the participating students and teachers. The results
show students’ learning, particularly related to STS/CT education, and there is evi-
dence that teachers revalued the potential of these resources, didactic and material,
when combined with nonformal educational contexts. Thus, from the observation
occurred during the project implementation, students have been able to take a stand
and to build arguments in formulating questions; identifying cause and effect
relationships; comparing, interpreting, and evaluating data; and (re)formulating

hypotheses.
The impact of the resources, within the Litomóvel Project, on students’ learning
and also among teachers’ point of views, is very positive, since occurred (i) learning
with the use of STS/CT abilities in the different activities, stimulated by problem-
solving tasks, which required students to actively be involved in the resolution of
challenges, raising questions, and suggesting mechanisms or procedures of solving
them, and (ii) resolution of issues that require the relation between concepts of S
and T and identification of its possible applications to new situations day to day.
Finally, it is necessary to continue the efforts on studying and developing mecha-
nisms, resources, didactic, and materials, based and built upon a science education
approach focused on STS/CT perspective. The presented research is a contribution
that meets the need for a more clear, interactive, and attractive education strategies
of science teaching and learning focused on new STS/CT tools and resources, com-
bined within nonformal contexts of science education or outdoor learning
laboratories.
These nonformal contexts should offer properly and correctly justified activities,
with a previous plan and predefined goals, using appealing resources to students,
enabling connections with the curriculum guidelines, and complementing them
with strategies within the formal context of the classroom. The importance to open
the classroom to outdoor learning spaces is assumed. This study also contributes to
the diffusion and appreciation of these settings as high potential on local learning
and greater scientific literacy promoters. This study may also help to provide a basis
for the development of other STS/CT resources for all stakeholders in education,
particularly those who have greater responsibilities in formal institutions and non-
formal education in science.
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Chapter 12
Geomedicine and History of Science:
A Contribution to Scientific Culture
Isilda Rodrigues, Joana Torres, and Paulo Favas
12.1 Introduction
Låg (1990) defined geomedicine as the science that deals with the influence of envi-
ronmental factors on the geographic distribution of health problems, highlighting
the need for the contribution of knowledge from different scientific fields to solve
problems. Geomedicine is generally more associated with geographic factors
(Davenhall 2012) while medical geology with environment and geological factors.
However, medical geology and geomedicine are scientific areas that cover collab-
orative research between geosciences and health sciences and focus in the geologi-
cal materials and environmental processes that have impact on human health
(Skinner 2007), dealing both with the same problems (Steinnes 2010). Given the
subtle differences between medical geology and geomedicine (Dissanayake and
Chandrajith 2009), these terms are frequently considered to be synonyms, for exam-
ple, in the Encyclopedia of Public Health (Kirch 2008). In this way, Orgaz (2013)
I. Rodrigues (*)
Departamento de Educação e Psicologia, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro,
Vila Real, Portugal
CIIE – Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: isilda@utad.pt
J. Torres
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências da Terra,
Porto, Portugal
e-mail: joana.torres@fc.up.pt
P. Favas
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro,
Vila Real, Portugal
MARE – Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: pjcf@utad.pt

208 I. Rodrigues et al.
also argues that geomedicine stresses the effects of the environment (independent
variable) on health (dependent variable), considering that our health is a conse-
quence of our lifestyle, genetic inheritance, and environmental impact.
Likewise, in our work, we are not concerned with the distinction between geo-
medicine and medical geology, as we want to dwell on the broad relations between
geological processes and human and animal health.
Considering this association, Bunnell, Finkelman, Centeno, and Selinus (2007)
presented the five main goals of the researchers that work in this area: (1) to identify
geochemical anomalies that may have a negative impact on human and animal
health, (2) to associate environmental causes with health problems and to search for
solutions to prevent or minimize these problems, (3) to analyze and evaluate the
positive effects of geological materials and processes on health, (4) to reassure citi-
zens in case of unjustified health concerns associated with geological materials and
processes, and (5) to establish links between developed and developing countries so
as to find solutions for health problems associated with geological environment.
Bearing in mind the third objective and despite the common lack of attention
provided on research to the beneficial aspects of geological materials and processes
on health (Finkelman 2012), our work also covers and gives relevance to this posi-
tive interaction. In fact, geological materials and processes are, as well, beneficial to
our health, as a source of essential nutrients and therapeutic products and given the
curative properties associated to some crystals which are attributed by some mem-
bers of our society (crystal therapy).
As a result, geomedicine may deal with causes, prevention, and treatments of
health problems associated with a variety of geological aspects (that may be linked
to the exposure to natural dust, radioactivity, and toxic levels of elements and miner-
als, such as arsenic and asbestos, or to the lack of some essential elements, such as
iodine, in water and soils). On the other hand, geomedicine may also deal with the
beneficial aspects of our geological environment (Bunnell et al. 2007; Orgaz 2013),
for example, the indirect or direct (which includes the ingestion of soil – geopha-
gea) acquisition of essential nutrients; the use of minerals in healthcare products,
such as clays which are extensively used with therapeutic or aesthetical purposes;
the reliance on hot springs and thermal baths; and the use of crystals as talismans
and amulets, given their beauty and organized structure (Finkelman 2012).
In spite of the different environmental risks associated to inhabitants of devel-
oped and of developing countries (as in the former, it is the anthropogenic factors
that dominate and in latter the natural factors) (WHO 2006), Steinnes (2010) stresses
for the need to deepen the study of this scientific area, whether in developing or in
developed countries. Furthermore, Finkelman (2012) also highlights the relevance
of developing the study of the positive aspects of geology on health, considering the
possible diversity of unexplored new health benefits of geological materials and
processes.
In view of the fundamental role of geological factors on human health and the
lack of its general understanding among the general public, the biomedical health
community and the geoscience community (Selinus 2007), it becomes relevant to
prompt the knowledge concerning this interaction.
12 Geomedicine and History of Science: A Contribution to Scientific Culture 209
For example, Bunnell et al. (2007) recommend the inclusion of medical geology
in higher education curricula in order to make students aware of the association
between geology and health and also to encourage them to pursue a career in this
scientific area. There are many authors that advocate that the study of geomedicine
will benefit society, as it will provide us with more detailed knowledge regarding
the interaction between environment and health and with more ways to intervene in
more efficient ways, thus contributing, in general terms, to the improvement of the
quality of life (Bunnell et al. 2007; Davenhall 2012; Finkelman et al. 2005; Selinus
2007).
Despite the growing level of interest in geomedicine which is mostly instigated
by the recognition of many local and regional medical geology issues (Hasan et al.
2013), many efforts are still needed to prompt the development of this scientific
area. As a result, some important requirements are suggested, for example, the need
of a robust geoscience community, a reasonably sound economy (Hasan et al. 2013),
the creation of more degrees or certificate programs at colleges and universities, the
communication between researchers, and its recognition and acceptance by politi-
cians and also the public (Finkelman et al. 2005). In fact, a conscientious commu-
nity on this interaction is important due to its contribution as an auxiliary aid to
make conscious and informed decisions.
In a study conducted in Portugal (Torres et al. 2015), it was possible to verify that
high school science students possess some lack of knowledge concerning geomedi-
cine, presenting a very narrow view about the variety of relations established
between geology and human health. Having this in mind and the relevance of under-
standing the undeniable influence of geology on health (whether positive or nega-
tive), we consider it fundamental to deepen geomedicine contents in science classes.
Moreover, we also consider the resort to history of geomedicine an effective way to
learn these contents, as well as to study history of science, while promoting stu-
dents’ scientific culture and health literacy.
As a result, we will make some brief references to important historical aspects of
geomedicine, focusing on the work of Amato Lusitano, an important Portuguese
physician, considered one of the first sexologists. Some examples to teach geomedi-
cine relying on history of science are also provided.
12.2 Historical Aspects of Geomedicine
In spite of its emerging character and the currently growing relevance attributed to
this (recently labeled) field, the recognition of the health benefits from rocks and
minerals may have occurred more than two million years ago (Finkelman et al.
2005; Hasan et al. 2013). According to Lev (2010, p. 701), “evidence of medicinal
use of inorganic materials appeared soon after the invention of writing and the
beginning of history,” being the first allusions of their uses for medicinal purposes
related to ancient civilizations such as Egypt and Mesopotamia.
However, Hippocrates (460–377 BC) is considered by many authors to be the

founder of medical geology (Bowman et al. 2003; Selinus et al. 2010), recognizing
that the quality of waters and environmental factors affected the distribution of
disease.
Iodine deficiency was also recognized and registered in China in 221 BC, being
revealed that this condition was already treated with seaweed in ancient civilizations
(Baoshan et al. 2010).
Also, the negative impact of mining on human health was recognized by Vitruvius
in the last century BC and reaffirmed by the Greek physician Galen, in the first
century AD (Bowman et al. 2003; Selinus et al. 2010).
Marco Polo (1254–1324) as well described a situation in his journey from Italy
to China, where horses were poisoned by eating Suchau mountain herbs that we
now recognize as a pathology that results from the selenium toxicity (selenium
accumulates in plants that were then consumed) (Davies et al. 2013).
Moreover, it is also possible to relate the use of metals in ancient societies with
some health problems described (Davies et al. 2013; Selinus et al. 2010). For exam-
ple, lead has been used by humans for 6000 years, being the Egyptian papyrus
scrolls the earliest written evidences that addressed lead toxicity (Hernberg 2000).
It was also suggested that the use of a great amount of lead during the Roman
Empire led to a significant negative impact on the health of the Romans, including
the high incidence of sterility and stillbirths, mental incompetence, and epidemics
of plumbism and saturnine gout. Lead was heavily used for plumbing, architecture,
and shipbuilding, as well as to preserve fruits, vegetables, and wine (Bowman et al.
2003; Davies et al. 2013; Selinus et al. 2010). Patricians were thus most affected by
lead poisoning, given their privileged access to those goods and facilities. In fact, it
is believed that these high lead concentrations had contributed to the fall of the
Roman Empire in 476 BC (Bowman et al. 2003; Hernberg 2000).
Mercury was also used in Roman and pre-Roman times, for example, to ease the
pain of teething infants (Bowman et al. 2003; Selinus et al. 2010). This element was
also used to treat dermatosis and syphilis from the sixteenth century, being diverse
the descriptions found in the literature concerning its side effects (Lopes 2014).
Long-term exposure to mercury may lead to mental and neurological disorders,
which explain the expression mad as a hatter. In fact, during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, mercury was used in the felting process, and felt was used in
the manufacture of hats, causing mental disorders to hatters, due to the long-term
exposure to this element (Bowman et al. 2003; Selinus et al. 2010).
Arsenic was used by the ancient Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Peruvians with
therapeutic purposes; however it has also long been used as a poison (Davies et al.
2013). Arsenic was used, for example, in ancient Chinese medicine, as it was a com-
mon thought in traditional Chinese medicines that the use of a poison is effective to
attack another poison or to fight against malignant diseases. In Indian Ayurvedic
medicines, some elixirs containing arsenic were used in order to give humans per-
petual life (Liu et al. 2008).
Asbestos was also extracted and used by the Romans, being extensively used
after the industrial revolution. Currently, industry has been replacing this compound
by healthier alternatives, due to its implications in human health, such as asbestosis

and lung cancer, among others (Selinus et al. 2010).
The history of science also provides us with some examples of the beneficial
aspects of the interaction between geology and human health. Carretero (2002)
referred that humans resorted to minerals for therapeutic purposes since prehistory.
In an empirical manner, clay, mud, and clay soil were early used for medicinal pur-
poses, either by its ingestion or by its topical application (Gomes and Silva 2007).
It was considered, for example, that Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis
already used ochres mixed with water and different types of muds to cure wounds
and to protect and clean the skin (Carretero 2002).
Hippocrates had made a list of 400 medicinal substances, of which nine were
minerals and six metals (Lev 2010). Galen (131–201 AC), a Greek physician, also
described medicinal muds and used clays to deal with some diseases like malaria
and stomach and intestinal disorders. Aristotle (384–322 BC) was considered to be
the first to mention the ingestion of earth, soil, or clays for therapeutic purposes
(Carretero et al. 2006). Likewise, Marco Polo, due to his travels, provided a descrip-
tion of Muslim pilgrims ingesting clays to cure fevers (Carretero 2002).
Also, Cleopatra (69–30 BC) used muds for cosmetic purposes, Gaius Plinius
Secundus (Pliny the Elder, 23–79 AC) described the use of clays for stomach and
intestinal disorders, and Avicena and Averroes (eleventh and twelfth centuries) clas-
sified and encouraged the use of medicinal muds (Carretero 2002; Carretero et al.
2006).
Dioscorides (40–90 AC) was the author of the first written document that
described the use of stones and their curative powers, entitled De Materia Medica.
This book also made some references to minerals and chemical substances used in
pharmacy, in its final section (Carretero 2002; Carretero et al. 2006).
Pharmacopoeia appeared in the Renaissance and contained texts that classify the
different minerals used with medical purposes, as well as other substances, and
present regulations concerning medicine production (Carretero 2002).
Currently, we continue to benefit from mineral materials (in part due to the devel-
opment of crystallography and mineralogy), being the clay minerals extensively
used for therapeutic purposes, such as in pharmaceutical formulations, spas, and
aesthetic medicine (Carretero 2002; Rocha and Ferreira da Silva 2014; Quintela
et al. 2015).
12.3 Amato Lusitano and the Mineral World
João Rodrigues, known as Amato Lusitano, was born in 1511 in Castelo Branco, a
city in the interior of Portugal. After he finished his degree in medical school in
Salamanca, he began a long pilgrimage first to the North and then to the South of
Europe, and he died in 1568 in Thessaloniki, Greece. He was a reference of
Renaissance medicine. He was a physician of Pope Julius III and of the Ottoman
Turkish leader and established contacts with numerous important personalities of
the time, among others, the Belgian doctor André Vesalius (1514–1564) and the
Italian anatomist Gabriele Falloppio (1523–1562) (Rodrigues and Fiolhais 2015).
Amato Lusitano published three works: the Index Dioscorides Ioanne Roderico
Albi Lusitano author, In Dioscoridis Anazarbei De materia medica libros quinque
ennarrationes eruditissimae Doctoris Amatis Lusitani Medici ac philosophi cele-
berrimi (known as Enarrationes), and Curationum Medicinalium centuriae septem
(Centuries). The first work was published in Antwerp in 1536. It is the only work
that comes with his birth name. The second book was published in Venice in 1553
and was recently translated to Portuguese by a group of researchers at the University
of Aveiro, Portugal (Fig. 12.1). In these first two works, primarily on medical mat-
ters, the starting point is the work of Dioscorides considering translations, com-
ments, and later additions. In Enarrationes we are particularly interested in book V
(consisting of comments), which deals with metals, stones, and earths.
His third work, the Seven Centuries of Medicinal Cures, is a collection of valu-
able observations of surgery and medicine (Fig. 12.2). The Centuries was published
in one volume after Amato’s death. The first edition of the complete works was
published in 1580 in Leon, and we know that it has been reprinted 59 times so far
(Rodrigues 2015). The Centuries was translated into Portuguese by Firmino Crespo
and published in 1980 (Lusitano 1980), in an edition of four volumes, by the Faculty
of Medical Sciences, of Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Recently, in 2010, a new
version of the Centuries was published (Lusitano 2010), in two volumes, by the
Medical Association. The Centuries, published in 1620 in Bordeaux (Lusitano
1620), was the source document that was used for these translations. Each century,
as its name implies, includes one hundred clinical cases designated as cures.
12.3.1 Description of Some Mineral Substances and Their Use
In his works Amato uses different names for minerals, stones, and metals. At that
time, the knowledge of the mineralogical characteristics was very limited, and the
substances were generally classified according to their usefulness and specifically in
this case according to their therapeutic utility. In order to use identical terminology
and in an attempt to reconcile what was written by Amato and the current terms, we
grouped the substances in metals, which include mercury,1 lead, copper, antimony,2
and arsenic; salts, which include nitro,3 salt,4 lime,5 potassium sulfate, etching,6
1
Mercury – also known as living silver.
2
Antimony – a metalloid used as cosmetics and as a drug (antimony sulfate).
3
Nitro – natron or natrum,, which corresponds to sodium carbonate.
4
Salt is sodium chloride.
5
Burnt lime (or quicklime) is calcium oxide.
6
Etching – nitric acid diluted with water.
Fig. 12.1 Frontispiece of the book In Dioscoridis Anazarbei De medica materia libros quinque(…),
by Amato Lusitano, 1558 (Digital Library Alma Mater, University of Coimbra)
Fig. 12.2 Frontispiece of the book Curationum medicinalium centuriae septem(…) quibus prae-
missa est commentatio de introitu medici ad aegrotantem, deque crisi & diebus decretorijs.
Bordéus: Gilberti Vernoy (Digital Library Alma Mater, University of Coimbra)
alum,7 and vitriol8; minerals and rocks, which includes ultramarine blue,9 sulfur,
precious stones10, and gold; and plant and animal elements, which we allocated to
this group coal and bezoar.11
Despite the fact that these substances had a minor role in the healing practice at
the time, there was a great diversity of the substances that were used.
Below are some examples of these substances and their properties, using for this
purpose the records found in the works Centuries and Enarrationes.
Amato describes the characteristics of mercury in the fifth century, Cure XXII,
and he advises his less-attentive colleagues to read more about mercury in his
Dioscorides. In fact, his Comment 70 of book V in Dioscorides (Enarrationes) is
dedicated to mercury. He advises it to be administered with moderation because it
can “blow the guts” (Malaquias and Pereira 2015). Mercury was used for the treat-
ment of various kinds of skin diseases, especially infectious ones. From the tenth
century, Rhazes and Arab physicians knew about the action of the mercurial oint-
ment in certain skin diseases and parasitic skin affections. Incidentally, mercury had
been mentioned in the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus (372–287 BC), dating
from several centuries before the Christian era. It was not strange to the Romans, as
mentioned earlier, under the name of “living silver,” whose properties were also
recognized by Pliny (23–75). Tremendous poisoning caused by mercury was also
known. Mercury eroded mucous membranes of the mouth, caused teeth loose, and
turned the mouth and throat into a huge stinking ulcer. Patients salivated profusely
(Lindemann 2002).
Amato prescribes it for treatment of Gallic morbo12 (syphilis) and other venereal
diseases. Mercury was applied externally in the form of cream, ointment, plaster,
and massage, and it also had domestic usage later on. The saying “a night with
Venus, Mercury forever” described the sad reality for patients with syphilis
(Rodrigues 2005).
Amato acknowledges the side symptoms of these treatments, as we see in Cure
I, sixth century, which reads as follows:
(…) At that time he also began to spit and released much viscous substance and mucosa
through the mouth, for fourteen days. This action is known to be attributed to mercury (…)
Thus, being aware of the harmful effects of its use, he systematically left the
mercury as the last resource in therapy. As far as lead is concerned, its usage is
7
Alum corresponds to potassium aluminum sulfate.
8
Vitriol – or maybe blue vitriol or copper sulfate, chalcanthite, white vitriol or zinc sulfate, and
other sulfates.
9
Ultramarine blue – pigment made from lapis lazuli.
10
Precious stones – at which is assigned a therapeutic value generally connected to the magical and
religious, the most used were the emerald and ruby.
11
Bezoar – calcareous concretions developed in the stomach of some animals. The word derives
from the Persian padzahr, which means antidote against poisons.
12
Syphilis – also known as morbus Gallicus, sarna Gallica, enemy of disease, or Spanish scabies.
Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) gave the disease its final name in Syphilis, sive morbus gallicus,
in 1530.
mentioned in several cures. In Cure X of the fifth century, referring to the treatment
of hemorrhoids, Amato engendered an innovative method, which he has used vari-
ous times and which we present:
With an iron instrument (…) were burned with etching of goldsmiths or vitriol oil,13 or
mercury or antimony. (…). Sometimes, however, the rods are prepared (…) that we pre-
pared with grease ointment-of-lead.14
In this cure the treatment includes, in addition to lead, oil of vitriol and
mercury.
He adds in the Cure XXXVIII of the sixth century the usage of, among other
remedies, the alum to help in clearing the urinary tract. He says the following:
(…) We prepare a plaster with gold pigment, vitriol, of alum stone, boiling it, until it
becomes stiff, so as to adhere to a wax candle or a lead rod.15
According to Seabra (1985) there are several types of alum, being potassium
alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) the most common. At the time, several other
names including “alum rock” were used in commerce. This derived from the place
where it was prepared, in the city of Edessa, formerly called Roccha (rock).
In his Enarrationes, Amato dedicates Comment 83 to the alum. He mentions that
this has astringent properties and can be used as caustic as well. It was also used,
among others, in the clarification of certain waters, preservation of hides, and hard-
ening of gypsum (Malaquias and Pereira 2015).
As we can see in the previous Cure, vitriol is also mentioned in the treatment,
which Amato describes in detail in his Comment 74, naming it caparrosa. It is used
to treat ulcers, hemorrhages, and ophthalmias.
The knowledge of plants and their properties was a constant concern both for the
Renaissance medicine in general and for Amato in particular. He refers, as had pre-
viously happened in Salamanca, also in Italy, several products with therapeutic
potential. In his Centuries Amato mentions that for this purpose, he gathered infor-
mation on the drugs provided by trustworthy apothecaries who prepared some of the
remedies themselves, which were used in the treatments, including ultramarine blue
(Rodrigues 2005). He informs that this was much appreciated and it was used to
make pills to treat “black bile” – melancholy, currently known as depression. In his
Comment 66, he states that this is achieved through the lapis lazuli (Malaquias and
Pereira 2015).
In his therapeutics Amato uses some medicines composed by several substances,
some of which were minerals. For example, we can mention tablet of Andron, con-
sisting, among others, in citrus, myrrh, and ammonia salt; the tablet of Polydes,
made with pomegranate bark, myrrh, alum, incense, and others; or the Asclepiades
13
For vitriol oil means the sulfuric acid.
14
Fifth century, Cure X, p. 190.
15
Sixth century, Cure XXXVIII, p. 58.
remedy comprising nitro and arsenic,16 for example. These tablets were used to treat
various diseases including wounds at various body parts.
Amato also stresses in his Cure XXXIII of the seventh century the important
toxicological consequences that coal exhalation produces. He not only mentions the
deaths of three men who slept in a cellar,17 but he also notes that a woman who used
to carry burning coals from a glass factory on her head eventually got epilepsy.
Consequently, he states that, in conditions where there is no ventilation, coal exhala-
tion is dangerous to human life. He also acknowledged borax18 as stimulating sexual
organs, similar to what was common among South American Indians19 (Rodrigues
2005).
The usage of fossils and other paleontological materials for therapeutic purposes
dates back to the Neolithic and is part of traditional medicine. Some of these fossils
were used as amulets and as antidotes against bites from poisonous animals; among
these, we highlight bezoar. The first reference to bezoar in European medical litera-
ture appears in the work of the Arab physician of Seville, called Avenzoar (Ibn
Zuhr, 1094–1162) published around the year 1140. There are several records that
bezoar was used for therapeutic purposes for many centuries. Maimonides (1138–
1204) also mentioned the existence of bezoars of mineral origin, from Egypt. But,
according to his experience, they have proven to be ineffective in the treatment of
scorpion bites. On the other hand, bezoars of animal origin had proved to be effec-
tive. King Alfonso X (1221–1284) mentions the bezoar as an antidote and useful for
the treatment of melancholy. This may be the first reference to the bezoar in
Galician-Portuguese works (Barroso 2013). With the discoveries and the trade of
products brought from India by the Portuguese, the use of bezoar increased. The use
of the porcupine bezoar, much appreciated in the East, started being used in
European medicine too (Barroso 2013).
Garcia de Orta (1490–1568), a Portuguese physician of the Renaissance, in his
work Colóquios dos simples e drogas he cousas medicinais da Índia, published in
Goa in 1563, dedicated the Colloquium 45 to bezoar.
Amato Lusitano refers its usage in Cure LXIV of first century as an antidote in
the case of the poisoning of a family. He says the following:
Seeing them all distressed and vomiting, he said the cause was only one and common to all
and he was sure it was poison. So, without any delay we went to vomitive remedies. Among
them is to quote the bezoar stone (pencil bezarticum). Extracted from the stomach of a
certain goat of India, about which I spoke a lot in our Comments to Dioscorides (…). But
after they had vomited a lot, we moved on to (…) the preparation of cider, emerald, sigilatta
earth, the Armenian cake that ancients called Lemnia earth, among others.20
The induction of vomiting, as recommended by Amato, is an appropriate proce-

dure when poisoning situations by noncorrosive substances happen. The bezoar is
16
Fourth century, Cure IX, p. 29–31.
17
Seventh century, Cure XXXIII, p. 255.
18
Borax can be sodium borate.
19
Second century, Cure XVIII, p. 43.
20
First century, Cure LXIV, p. 191.
used as the agent that causes vomiting. In his therapy we note the use of emerald,
sigillata earth, and Lemnian earth possibly as absorbents after vomiting.
As it is reported in Centuries, we found in Comment 39 of Enarrationes the
description of bezoar brought from India, from which we present an excerpt:
Moreover, today there is a stone, first imported from India to Portugal, often found in the
size and shape of a gray glans, commonly dark blue, made up of a lot of blades, referred to
by other people as bezoar-stone, and approved as an antidote, as effective as divine, against
every kind of poison.
In short, the Centuries and book V of the Comments (Enarrationes) by Amato

Lusitano come with the designations used at the time, several descriptions of the
mineral substances that allow us to identify, for the most part, with metals (and
metalloids), minerals, and rocks known today. These works are a valuable source of
information, which may interest, among others, the history of medicine, pharmacol-
ogy, mineralogy, botany, and geomedicine.
Next we present an example of a work sheet for basic education students, in
which we can see the implementation of history of science, in particular geomedi-
cine in science education.
Example of Activities
Work Sheet
Read the following text carefully:
In the sixteenth century, the theory of American origin of syphilis found in the
Portuguese doctor, Amato Lusitano (1511–1568), an early advocate. At the
time the nomenclature used for this disease was very diverse. In Portuguese,
it is called Castilian scabies; in Spanish, bad coil, bubas, and boubas; and in
French, Neapolitan morbo. And there were still several other designations.
Bearing this diversity, it should be noted that in many cures, Amato calls
syphilis Gallic morbo or Gallic mange or Gallic leprosy or serpentine ulcer,
among other names. With the results of his research and experiments on the
new disease, Amato helped to question the ancient conceptions, which attrib-
uted the origin of venereal diseases to the stars, especially blaming the planet
Venus. In addition to the stars, venereal disease could also depend on weather
conditions, flooding, and the punishment of the gods. Amato refutes these
conceptions and draws attention to the real causes of the disease on its conta-
gious nature and contributes to the discovery of the treatment. In some cures,
as in the one we are going to refer, Amato associates, to the usual remedies for
the treatment of ulcers of Gallic morbo, an additional ingredient consisting
(continued)
essentially of mercury. Mercury was used for the treatment of various kinds of
skin diseases, especially the infectious ones. Amato acknowledged its proper-
ties and also knew the tremendous poisoning caused by it. Mercury eroded
mucous membranes of the mouth, made teeth loose, and turned the mouth and
throat a huge stinking ulcer. Patients salivated profusely (Rodrigues 2005). In
the sixteenth century, mercury was applied externally in the form of cream,
ointment, plaster, and massage, and later it also had internal use. The saying a
night with Venus, Mercury forever described the sad reality of patients with
syphilis.
SARNA OF SOME INFECTED by Gallican (scabies Gallicana) “The case of

an individual who was attacked by Gallic morbo, and, after application of
many drugs, he felt healed. A few years later, he married and his wife gave
birth to two healthy boys. In the seventh year of marriage, another boy was
born but this one had Gallic leprosy. The mother had always been in good
health, but had two little wounds near the nose. Meanwhile, the child was
placed in a nanny’s home, and the woman was infected with Gallic morbo
from the baby in a few days. After that, she had sex with her husband and
infected him, and even two children in the neighborhood were infected
because she had breastfed them. Those children’s mothers contracted the
same disease. Thus, in a month, nine people were infected. The boy died
within a month after childbirth, and his father, who infected his wife ‘via the
hidden germ of ancient evil,’ was attacked by a fever and died within 6 days.
The mother survived because she was given decoction of guaiac for 50 days,
and so did the nanny, her husband, the neighbors and their children.” (Amato
Lusitano, first century, Cure XLIX, p. 168)
A. Answer the Following Questions According to the Text

1. Who was Amato Lusitano?
2. Identify the disease mentioned in the text and the several names given to it.
3. What were the first explanations for the emergence of this disease?
4. Identify the forms of infection mentioned in the text.
5. What was Amato Lusitano’s contribution to the discovery of syphilis?
6. Make a comment on the following statement:
a night with Venus, mercury forever.
B. Do Some Research and Establish a Relation
1. In the text, some adverse effects of mercury that are recognized by Amato
Lusitano are presented. The character “mad hatter” of the novel Alice in
Wonderland also possesses a scientific foundation, as a result of mercury

intoxication.
1.1 Search for data that enables us to relate mercury with mental disorder
diseases that can explain the behavior of “mad hatter.”
1.2 What other adverse effects of mercury can you find?
2. Bearing in mind the text you have read and the information you have
researched, do you think geology influences human health? In what way?
3. In your opinion, do you think history of science is important for the improve-
ment of the scientific culture? Account for your answer.
C. Explore
1. Find out if there is any practical application of geomedicine in your region.
2. If any, what impact does it have on people’s lives?
3. What advantages or disadvantages of its usage can you identify?
12.4 Conclusions
The number of studies of geomedicine has increased considerably among the scien-
tific community as a consequence of the growing importance of topics concerning
public health, epidemiology, and occupational medicine to society. This concern
related to the interactions between health and the environment emphasizes the
resurgence of this interesting area of knowledge denominated as geomedicine or
medical geology (among other designations that are more or less equivalent). The
increasing interest and preference in many areas of human healthcare for treatments
that involve natural therapies, rather than treatments that solely involve conven-
tional medicine therapies, have also contributed to this “rebirth.” Therefore, this
“renewed” discipline dedicated to the study of the association between earth materi-
als and adverse/beneficial human/animal health requires the expertise and collabo-
ration of the communities of three main areas: geology, geography, and medicine.
These associations are evident when we analyze case studies, such as the cases
described in this chapter, for example, on the relationship between mineralogical,
geochemical, hydrochemical, and geological data and the etiology of chronic dis-
eases in certain regions.
However, the recognition that the quality of environmental factors (namely,
water, rocks, and minerals) affects human health dates at least to the time of
Hippocrates (460–377 BC) or to the time of ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian
civilizations. Therefore, in addition to the three primary areas noted above, it is
crucial to consider another area of study, the history of science, for a full compre-
hension of geomedicine. Considering the historical perspective allows us to analyze
geomedicine as a dynamic and evolving discipline and simultaneously realize its
importance in the scientific and humanistic culture. In this chapter, we presented, as
an example, the contribution of Amato Lusitano (1511–1568), a Renaissance
Portuguese physician who described the therapeutic applications of several natural

substances, including metals, minerals, and rocks. This example and many others
provided by the history of geomedicine can be used to promote the understanding
of geomedicine in particular and the scientific culture and health literacy in
general.
Therefore, we consider it relevant to address certain geomedicine/history of geo-
medicine aspects in science classrooms. Historical examples of the relation between
the environment, geology, and human health can be motivating factors for teaching
and learning science. Thus, the emblematic case studies of history of geomedicine,
combined with the creativity of teachers, can lead to the establishment of an archive
of examples of activities that are suited to teaching and learning objectives. This
type of strategy can also be a means of overcoming the material and physical limita-
tions that often affect the practices in the classroom. Thus, as an example, in this
chapter, we presented a proposal for a work sheet for basic education students in
which the history of geomedicine is applied in science education. Similarly, this
teaching approach can also contribute to achieving one of the five primary objec-
tives of the researchers that work in this area (refer to Introduction): “to reassure
citizens in case of unjustified health concerns associated with geological materials
and processes.”
Although rapid growth in the field of geomedicine is predicted, it will be impor-
tant to maintain and improve a dialogue among geologists, geographers, clinicians,
and teachers/trainers/educators. This multidisciplinary and holistic approach is
required for the continued advancement of scientific and medical knowledge. This
approach is also required for the implementation of prediction and prevention
actions and for the improvement of science education and scientific literacy regard-
ing epidemiology and public health.
Acknowledgments We especially thank the Digital Library Alma Mater, University of Coimbra,
for providing the figures.
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Chapter 13
Education and Geoethics: Three Fictional
Life Stories
Clara Vasconcelos, Maria Luísa Vasconcelos, and Joana Torres
It is undisputable that geology influences the economic growth and development of

each country and thereby its cultural framework. Education is a reflection of all of
these aspects and decisively influences the life opportunities citizens have. If one
acknowledges that geology influences these results, then one has also to recognise
that fostering geoscience education may help to reduce regional disparities deter-
mined by geological specificities and with impacts on economic growth and social
development. Geoethics may help to re-evaluate behaviours, to increase awareness
for alternative human activities or even to redirect economic models of growth and
development. Under this framework, three fictional stories were developed, describ-
ing different life experiences, educational discrepancies and modus faciendi of citi-
zens from different fictional countries, with specific cultural frameworks that are
significantly related to their geological specificity. In a fictionalised format, a con-
trast is established between the behaviours, experiences and expectations of three
citizens, coming from different geological, economic and social environments,
thereby describing the relevance of geoethics as a disciplinary area that may pro-
mote more balanced growth, development and globalisation.
C. Vasconcelos (*) J. Torres

Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências da Terra (Pólo do Porto),
Porto, Portugal
e-mail: csvascon@fc.up.pt; joana.torres@fc.up.pt
M.L. Vasconcelos
Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais da Universidade Fernando Pessoa,
Porto, Portugal
e-mail: lvasc@ufp.edu.pt

226 C. Vasconcelos et al.
13.1 Geoethics: Meaning, Significance and Scope
Geoscience education is putting its first steps forward by establishing a closely tied
alignment with the international discussion on sustainable development. This rela-
tionship has grown in scale and relevance following the definition of sustainability
included in the Brundtland Report as a necessary condition to guarantee “develop-
ment that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and
Development 1987, p. 43). After so many efforts to promote an education for sus-
tainable development, the decade elected to the implementation of its major objec-
tives ended in 2015, with a set of millennium objectives (related to social, economic
and environmental issues) being monitored. Results regarding several of the goals
were clearly positive, but in several situations, the improvements were rather minor,
and in others there was even a downgrade vis-à -vis the initial situation. As such,
on September 25–27, 2015, the General Assembly of the United Nations formally
adopted a universal, integrated and transformative Agenda for Sustainable
Development encompassing even more comprehensive and detailed goals.
This 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is widely recognised as a plan
of action for the people and the planet. It represents an ambitious global framework
to end extreme poverty, eliminate inequality and injustice, improve health outcomes
and preserve our planet’s resources over the next 15 years. Along with a set of 17
sustainable development goals, the 2030 Agenda presents 169 associated targets
that should be pursued and achieved by contracting parties during the next 15 years
(United Nations 2016). The success of this commitment will depend on how a new
set of attitudes and values will be embraced at a collective and individual level.
Therefore, schools, educators and teachers face an increased challenge in their duty
to make young generations aware of the need to act as informed, responsible and
accountable citizens under this crucial paradigm of Sustainable Development.
There is no consensus regarding a precise date or work that clearly marks the
beginning of the field of geoethics. This is a subject and research field that has been
developed and gradually renewed in the last decades. In recent years, there has been
an increased interest in geoethics, especially related to discussions regarding those
values that sustain appropriate behaviours and practices wherever human activities
interact with the geosphere (Peppoloni and Di Capua 2015). Despite its infancy as
a scientific and disciplinary field, it took less than two decades to redevelop this
concept, which initially only focused on natural resources (Vasconcelos et al. 2016).
However, some overlaps regarding ethics are not excluded (environmental ethics,
economic ethics or social ethics). These overlaps converge in the concept of
Sustainable Development and are made evident not only in the 2030 Agenda but
also since the 2000 “Millennium Development Goals” through which a set of objec-
tives was established on different indicators related to social, economic and environ-
mental issues. Geoethics is a path for Education for Sustainable Development
(Almeida and Vasconcelos, 2015).
13 Education and Geoethics: Three Fictional Life Stories 227
According to the International Association to Promote Geoethics (IAPG),

“Geoethics deals with the ethical, social and cultural implications of Geosciences
education, research and practice and with the responsibility of geoscientists in con-
ducting their professional activities” (http://www.geoethics.org).
Accordingly, geoethics strives to find specific ethical answers or at least to offer
an ethical perspective in relation to geoscience dilemmas, highlighting the implica-
tions of different approaches in Sustainable Development. It is undisputable that
geology influences models for economic growth and development and thereby the
cultural framework and way of life of every country. Education may help to reduce
regional disparities determined by geological specificities and with impacts on eco-
nomic growth and social development. Geoethics may help to re-evaluate behav-
iours, to increase awareness for alternative activities or even to redirect economic
models of growth and contribute to a more balanced globalisation.
13.2 Three Fictional Life Stories
13.2.1 Introduction
These are three fictional life stories that build upon several benchmark indicators
used by the United Nations to measure and rank human development (http://hdr.
undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi). These benchmarks refer to
indistinct countries or regions ranked in human development reports as very high
human development (country A), medium human development (country B) and low
human development (country C). The high human development ranking was not
considered. As such no specific references are presented throughout the text.
The authors acknowledge that the level and the evolution of these indicators
depend on the macroeconomic dynamic of each system, as well as on the develop-
ment and macroeconomic policies that are used. However, the purpose of this fic-
tional presentation is to emphasise the limits, constraints and opportunities that each
of these fictional systems generally present and to suggest that a conscious attitude
in terms of geoethics can indeed contribute to an improved well-being of
populations.
13.2.2 The Life of Rilka: Country A (Very High Human

Development)
Rilka is the chief executive of the development section in the National Geology and
Mining Service. Her daily concerns are related to energy efficiency, fuel, electricity,
renewable energy and geothermal resources. She is also concerned with mines and
quarries and the inevitable consequences of their exploitation on water resources.
Water discharged on the surface during mining processes ultimately takes root
through groundwater and surface water and contaminates both (Das 2015,
p. 401).
Her job is to guarantee access to energy supplies at competitive prices but in a

way that respects the environment. This is neither an easy nor an inconsequential
task. To say the least, it has an impact on companies, jobs, the external accounts and
the international competitiveness of the country, especially since country A is
dependent on energy, as it is in many natural resources. Actually, country A is basi-
cally a net importer of many crucial resources: oil, gas, coal and iron. And yet, it is
a developed country. “But how can this be so, if we are such a highly polluting
country?”
Agenda 2030; Goal 7; Target 7.a

By 2030, to enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean
energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy effi-
ciency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote invest-
ment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology (United Nations
2016).
A survey was undertaken with 36 higher education students attending Master

of Geology. The study concluded that the field of geoethics is unknown to the
majority of the respondents (Almeida and Vasconcelos 2015).
Rilka strives to find the most appropriate energy options for country A. She
insists on energy efficiency and believes in alternative clean energy sources. She
argues in favour of sustainable development and wants these concerns to be taken to
schools and families, the cradle of environmentally friendly behaviours.
Despite the long hours, Rilka insists on keeping the computer on while drinking
another cup of imported coffee. Working the stipulated hours is no longer enough to
maintain her status and way of life. Very early she became accustomed to doing
more than she was required, and nowadays, she is too well adapted to the singular
rhythm and values of a cosmopolitan city. The quality of the office, the location of
the house and the brand of car measure success: Rilka lives according to these stan-
dards. She is unable to change, and she knows that this way of life only comes, if at
all, with knowledge, very hard work, the help of technology and long hours of
skilled labour, the fundamentals of competitive advantage that lead to the forefront
trade benefits. Nonetheless, her personal and family life loses.
Rilka does not remember the last time she sat in a garden. Actually, Rilka does
not remember any garden at all in that part of the town. Instead of trees, the street
decorations are made from shadows of grey and neon advertisements. On rainy
days, clothes become impregnated with that stench of fuel that comes from the cars
that the populace insists on using instead of resorting to the subway and public
transportation. If they did, the country’s dependence on oil would decrease, and the
emissions of greenhouse gases and the irreparable environmental degradation would
be reduced. Maybe then they could be properly qualified as a developed country.
Maybe that is why Rilka has chosen to sit with her back to the window. The inte-
rior of the office is more agreeable, it has more colour, and she can directly face
whoever dares to interrupt her work and solitude. Rilka likes to be alone. If any-
thing, she looks at the social networks to learn about the world outside and inside.
“The meaning of existence is slowly fading away, behind technology and a per-
verted meaning of success”, she thinks. “We waste away the planet’s resources; we
produce in excess and sell what has no value/utility. We make our planet and our-
selves poorer. And when we do it we have no respect for the future(…) But what do
I know?(…)”
Agenda 2030; Goal 12; Target 12.2

By 2030, to achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural
resources (United Nations 2016).
Deep down, she enjoys her spacious apartment, her elegant clothes and her
leather shoes; she cannot do without the multiple high-tech gadgets scattered around
her house and the office, and she herself never takes the subway to work. This all
pleases her, as well as the many unknown faces that surround her. Nothing is miss-
ing. They were born in a fine place of the world (Fig. 13.1).
Fig. 13.1 Rilka in her

office
But Rilka also knows that we should not waste what nature has given us for free.
Rilka hurries.
Before going back home, she still needs to go to the clinic for a few routine
exams. She does not want to have the same thing as her next-door neighbour, who
did not handle all the stress, cigarettes and pollution very well. She tells herself, “It
is a good thing I never did have time to have children”.
Finally, Rilka runs out the door. She forgets the air conditioner on.
In many developed countries, human health is greatly affected by anthropo-

genic impact on the geological environment. Things like air quality and expo-
sures to pollutants may have a huge impact on human health, contributing to
increase the risk of developing certain diseases, namely, different types of
heart diseases (Davenhall 2012).
THE GEOETHICAL PROMISE. I promise I will practice geosciences being

fully aware of the involved social implications, and I will do my best for the
protection of geosphere for the benefit of mankind. I know my responsibilities
towards society, future generations and the Earth for a sustainable develop-
ment. In my job I will put the interest of society at large in the first place. (…)
I promise (Matteucci et al. 2014, p. 191)
13.2.3 The Life of Liy: Country B (Medium Human

Development)
This is the third time today that Liy goes to the well to fetch water. She is unschooled;
Liy thinks of how unequal her country is in terms of the territory management, the
distribution of resources and gender opportunities. The concern over water is indeed
one significant element shared by all the country, but still it is an element of segrega-
tion (Fig. 13.2).
Liy would rather be attending school, just as some of her friends do, than carry-
ing water. At least, she would like to learn how to read and write. But she was not
that lucky.

End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
(United Nations 2016).
Fig. 13.2 Liy in the well
Today, Liy is almost old enough to have a job, and it is not worth it anymore to
think about going to school. To begin with, they were too many at home. And then,
her parents became ill with skin disorders and cancer (from high arsenic concentra-
tions in domestic water supply), and her sister developed podoconiosis, caused by
geogenic factors and because she always walked barefoot.
That is why Liy always wears her slippers, no matter how uncomfortable or how
bad they look.
In the past, arsenic was extensively used either with therapeutic purposes, but
also as a poison (Davies et al. 2013). In fact, arsenic is an example of a toxic
element that may cause health problems (Finkelman et al. 2005). For exam-
ple, arsenic may be introduced rather easily into the food chain, as arsenic-
enriched water may be used to irrigate fields and vegetable plots (Dissanayake
and Chandrajith 2009). The consumption of and poisoning by arsenic may
cause several diseases, such as skin disorders, cancer, hyperpigmentation, and
cardiovascular diseases (Dissanayake et al. 2010).
Podoconiosis, or non-filarial elephantiasis, is a disease which is generally

associated with clay minerals. Some submicron size particles in clayey soil
may reach the blood-circulation and affect the cells of the immune system
(Davies 2010).
Her biggest concern is to avoid developing iodine deficiency disorders (from

iodine deficiency in soils and food crops).
Iodine deficiency may lead to the development of iodine deficiency disorders,

which include endemic goitre. Many geological and mineralogical factors
strongly affect the geochemistry of iodine and its bioavailability (Dissanayake
et al. 2010).
Liy is poor. She lives in the countryside and is always afraid of the rainy season,
which brings mudslides at the time of the monsoon.
Until recently she did not understand why adults chose to build tents and houses
on the hills of the mountains, which were repeatedly washed away by mudslides.
She now realises that there is an advantage in building next to the electricity poles,
from where they pull light, transforming the hills into an immensely beautiful tree
of light during the dark nights. But this choice on how to use the territory causes
many deaths, many times.
Liy knows that only a few kilometres down, so close by, people like her and her
family live in high buildings with light and water and waste. They do not have to
worry about unsafe water or poor hygiene and sanitation, at least not so much.

By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion
of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or
economic or other status. (United Nations 2016).
They also do not have to worry about rain in the winter or the drought in the sum-
mer. At least they do not have to worry so much. Liy knows that the water is also
rationed in those buildings. But it is a different kind of rationing. They do not need
to go to the well. They simply open the water tap fewer times and reduce the pres-
sure of the water jet in the shower and in the toilet. Yes, if in a fewer years the prob-
lem is not resolved, they will also have to go to the well. But by then, maybe the
access to the well will be restricted. Or maybe it will have dried up. Perhaps if the
authorities decided to construct a dam and irrigation systems, the ground would no
longer be soaked in the winter and thirsty in the summer. On the way to the well, Liy
can see the fissures in the ground as if it was cracked skin. Nothing can be grown
there anymore.
Agenda 2030; Goal 1. Target 1.5

By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events
and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters (United
Nations 2016).
In spite of all of this, Liy thinks to herself that she does not have much to com-
plain about. Her brothers studied at the village school, they had much fun with their
thirty or so classmates, but they also studied and learned.
Now, they belong to the other side, they live in those buildings, and they help
take care of her parents and sister. They no longer have to worry about the soaked or
dried ground that kills the plantations. They work with dry feet all day long. And her
eldest brother even has a job in a foreign factory, which is always receiving new
orders from abroad and will never close.

By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to
all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including
persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situ-
ations (United Nations 2016).
13.2.4 The Life of Zeviche: Country C (Low Human

Development)
Zeviche lives in a very rich economy. But this wealth has to be well understood. His
country’s deposits of petroleum, iron, copper, gold, diamonds, silver and platinum,
and all the other abundant natural resources, are simultaneously the promise and the
constraint of Zeviche’s life.
Contrary to what happens in the majority of developed countries, the inhabit-

ants of developing countries live in close association with the general geologi-
cal environment (Dissanayake et al. 2010).
The mineral exploitation overlaps the use of arable land and represents a cost-
effective alternative to the development of industries. The country has a high
national income, mostly related to the extractive industry, but it is poor in
view of the lack of a harmonised growth, the inexistence of different eco-
nomic sectors and the absence of proper healthcare and education.
The increasing pressure on the underground, in particular on georesources,

leads to competition between different ways of making use of the under-
ground and to social conflicts in two directions. On the one hand, conflicts
between different groups of actors arise today. (…). On the other, making use
of the underground according to todays’ needs may endanger the opportuni-
ties of coming generations to fulfil their needs because georesources will
already have been consumed by the generation living today (Grunwald 2015,
p. 26).
Fig. 13.3 Zeviche in the

mine
Zeviche finds it odd how the abundance of his country’s resources translates into
such a low development index.
He is 15 years old and has a life expectancy of fifty. He left school at the end of
last year, fulfilling what was expected of him. He is now actively present in the
labour market where he knows he has much greater opportunities than his sisters
will ever have. Despite the poverty, Zeviche knows he is privileged, if not because
of his meagre education then because of gender. He has the possibility of finding a
job in the formal sector, in a store or in the mines, or, if he prefers, he may explore
his creativity and innovation capabilities in the informal sector, where there is
always some cash to be made.
In the past, he sold units of deodorant sprays in the square, actually quite suc-
cessfully considering the prohibitive prices of the product for the majority of the
population. Another time, together with a classmate, he set up a travelling phone
booth, with several mobile phones attached to a wooden board, selling phone calls
to the passersby. This was also a successful experience, but it was harder to escape
the authorities, and when Zeviche’s mother fell ill, he realised that the informal sec-
tor had little or nothing to offer, after all. Nowadays, Zeviche wants to enter the
formal economy, to pay his taxes and to have access to healthcare services, for him
and for his family. Deep down, he hates the mines. In the value of the minerals, he
sees the poverty and the dysfunctional economy of his country. But that is where he
wants to work (Fig. 13.3).
He is especially afraid of the diseases that people say that come with working in
the mines – tooth decay (from fluoride deficiency), goitre (from iodine deficiency),
endomyocardial fibrosis (from high environmental levels of cerium) and lung can-
cer (from exposure to radon gas and its decay products).
Radon gas is formed by the radioactive decay of uranium and its distribution
is intimately related with geological factors (Selinus et al. 2010). This gas is
considered to be the second most important risk factor for lung cancer after
smoking (Volfson et al. 2010).
Zeviche would like things to be different, as once one of his teachers had
described to the class. Instead of forming an enclave, the mines stood at the core of
an harmonised growth of the regions around them, improving the standard of living
of the population and creating all kinds of linkage effects (production, revenue,
income and consumption), which favoured the emergence of other economic activi-
ties, industrialisation and employment.
13.2.4.1 Geoethics and Geoscience Education
There is an intricate relationship between nature, resources, environment, economic

activities, growth, sustainable development and social well-being. A respect for this
relationship is a paramount concern for the survival and the future of planet Earth
and of mankind. But this apparently straightforward idea is hard to pursue espe-
cially since citizens (that act as social, economic and political agents) are not aware
neither of the consequences of their behaviours nor the alternatives at their
disposal.
Teaching geoscience is incomplete without the dimension of geoethics, and both
are crucial to guarantee an informed attitude towards nature as a whole. Learning
about sustainable development, how to better use natural resources, how to better
organise economic activities and how to better respect the Earth is a lifetime task
and should be a priority in the school curricula.
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ISBN 978-3-319-43318-9 ISBN 978-3-319-43319-6 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956852

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Aveiro, Portugal Nilza Costa

7 Exploring Rocks and Minerals: An Experience of Integrated

Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto Clara Vasconcelos

1.1 Deep Understanding

The term ‘deep understanding’ is widely used in educational discussions but is

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

1.2 Initiatives to Foster Deep Understanding in Geoscience

1.2.1 ESTA’s ‘Science of the Earth’

1.2.2 The Earth Science Education Unit (ESEU)

1.2.3 The Earthlearningidea Initiative

Cumulative graph - Earthlearningidea activities added to ELI

Fig. 1.2 Translations of Earthlearningideas to December 2015

1.3 Analysis of Geoscience Teaching Activities:

Fig. 1.4 Observing the gutter (Photo: Peter Kennett)

1.4 Analysis of Geoscience Teaching Activities: Results

Table 1.1 An analysis of 250 Earthlearningidea activities

1.4.1 Basic Skills Exemplar

1.4.2 Observation Exemplar

The suite of Earthlearningidea building stone activities asks students to compare

1.4.3 Illustration Exemplar

Fig. 1.5 The bedding

Fig. 1.6 Southwest

1.4.4 Investigation Exemplar

Fig. 1.8 Pupils studying

1.4.5 Physical Model Exemplar

1.4.6 Diagrammatic Model Exemplar

Fig. 1.9 A Magnaprobe™

Fig. 1.10 The ﬁrst of the

1.4.7 Thought Experiment Exemplar

Thirty-two of the Earthlearningideas are thought experiments of different types and

Box 1.1: Guidance on Launching a Workshop-Based Initiative, Based

Similar guidance, for those considering the development of a web-based resource

Box 1.2: Guidance on Launching a Web-Based Resource Similar to

It would be wonderful to hear of successes like these being replicated elsewhere

Joana Torres and Clara Vasconcelos

2.1 Models in Science

J. Torres (*) C. Vasconcelos

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 25

Undoubtedly, different models may be used with different purposes, depending

2.1.1 Geoscientific Models

As described above, scientific models are extremely important in scientific knowl-

significant results with modelling experiments (Brandstetter 2011; Graveleau et al.

2.2 Models in Science Education

2.3 Intervention Programme: Scientific Models, Modelling

In this section we present a set of activities designed to improve prospective (and

Table 2.1 Main objectives of each class of the intervention programme

2.3.1 Class 1: Scientific Models and the Development

(iii) “Abstraction is considered to be a powerful tool in the process of knowledge

2.3.2 Class 2: Models and Modelling in Science Teaching

science. To that end, prospective science teachers were encouraged to represent

(iv) What is important to include in a scientific model?

2.3.3 Class 3: Historical Models and Nature of Science