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Human Behavior in Organization (HBO)
MODULE No.9
The Foundations of Group
Behavior
Introduction
The objective is to introduce you to basic group
concepts, provide you with a foundation for
understanding how groups work, and to show
you how to create effective teams. Let’s begin
by defining groups and explaining why people
join them.
Defining and Classifying Groups
 A group is defined as two or more
individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives.
Groups can be either formal or informal.
 By formal groups, we mean those
defined by the organization’s structure,
with designated work assignments
establishing tasks.
 In contrast, informal groups are
alliances that are neither formally
structured nor organizationally
determined. These groups are natural
formation in the work environment that
appear in response to the need for
social contact.
 A command group is determined by
the organization chart. It is composed of
individuals who report directly to a given
manager.
 Task groups, also organizationally
determined, represent those working
together to complete a job task.
 People who may or may not be aligned
into common command or task groups
may affiliate to attain a specific objective
with which each is concerned. This is
interest group.
 Groups often develop because the
individual members have one or more
common characteristics. We call these
formations friendship groups.
Why People Join Groups?
 Security. By joining a group,
individuals can reduce the insecurity of
“standing alone.” People feel stronger,
have fewer self-doubts, and are more
resistant to threats when they are part of
a group.
 Status. Inclusion in a group that is
viewed as important by others provides
recognition and status for its members.
 Self-esteem. Groups can provide
people with feelings of self-worth. That
is, in addition to conveying status to
those outside the group, membership
can also give increased feelings of
worth to the group members
themselves.
 Affiliation. Groups can fulfill social
needs. People enjoy the regular
interaction that comes with group
membership. For many people, these
on-the-job interactions are their primary
source for fulfilling their needs for
affiliation.
 Power. What cannot be achieved
individually often becomes possible
through group action. There is power in
numbers.
 Goal Achievement. There are times
when it takes more than one person to
accomplish a particular task – there is a
need to pool talents, knowledge, or
power in order to accomplish a job. In
such instances, management will rely on
the use of a formal group.
Stages of Group Development
Groups generally pass through a standardized
sequence in their evolution. We call this
sequence the five-stage model of group
development. Although research indicates that
not all groups follow this pattern, it is a useful
framework to understand group development.
The Five – Stage Model
The five-stage group development model
characterizes groups as proceeding through five
distinct stages: forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning.
1. The first stage, forming, is
characterized by a great deal of
uncertainty about the group’s purpose,
structure, and leadership. Members are
“testing the waters” to determine what
types of behaviors are acceptable.
2. The storming stage is one of intragroup
conflict. Members accept the existence
of the group, but there is resistance to
the constraints that the group imposes
on individuality. Furthermore, there is
conflict over who will control the group.
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3. The third stage is one in which close
relationships develop and the group
demonstrate cohesiveness. There is
now a strong sense of group identity
and camaraderie. This norming stage
is complete when the group structure
solidifies and the group has assimilated
a common set of expectations of what
define correct member behavior.
4. The fourth stage is performing. The
structure at this point is fully functional
and accepted. Group energy has
moved from getting to know and
understand each other to performing the
task at hand.
5. For permanent work groups, performing
is the last stage in their development.
However, for temporary committees,
teams, task forces and similar groups
that have a limited task to perform, there
is an adjourning stage. In this stage,
the group prepares for its disbandment.
Attention is directed toward wrapping up
activities. Others may be depressed
over the loss of camaraderie and
friendship gained during the work
group’s life.
An Alternative Model: For Temporary
Groups with Deadlines
Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to
follow the previous model. Studies indicate that
they have their own unique sequencing of
actions:
1. Their first meeting sets the group’s
direction;
2. This first phase of group activity is one
of inertia;
3. Transition takes place at the end of this
first phase, which occurs exactly when
the group has used up half its allotted
time;
4. A transition initiates major changes;
5. A second phase of inertia follows the
transition;
6. The group’s last meeting is
characterized by markedly accelerated
activity.
This pattern is called the punctuated-
equilibrium model –transitions temporary
groups go through between inertial and activity.
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Group Properties: Roles, Norms,
Status, Size and Cohesiveness
Work groups are not unorganized mobs. Work
groups have properties that shape the behavior
of members and make it possible to explain and
predict a large portion of individual behavior
within the group as well as the performance of
the group itself.
Roles
 Role. A set of expected behavior
patterns attributed to someone
occupying a given position in a social
unit.
 Role Identity. Certain attitudes and
behaviors consistent with a role.
 Role Perception. An individual’s view
of how he or she is supposed to act in a
given situation.
 Role Expectations. How others believe
a person should act in a given situation.
 Role Conflict. A situation in which an
individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations.
Norms
All groups have established norms, that is,
acceptable standards of behavior that are
shaped by the group’s members. Norms tell
members what they ought and ought not to do
under certain circumstances.
1. Common Classes of Norms. A
workgroup’s norms are like an
individual’s fingerprints – each is unique.
Yet there are still some common classes
of norms that appear in most work
groups.
 Probably the most common class of
norms is performance norms.
Work groups typically provide their
members with explicit cues on how
hard they should work, how to get
the job done, their level of output,
appropriate levels of tardiness and
the like.
 A second category encompasses
appearance norms. This includes
things like appropriate dress, loyalty
to the work group or organization,
when to look busy, and when it’s
acceptable to goof off. Some
organizations have formal dress
codes.
 Another category concerns social
arrangement norms. These norms
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come from informal work groups
and primarily regulate social
interactions within the group. With
whom group members eat lunch,
friendships on and off the job, social
games, and the like are influenced
by these norms.
 A final category relates to
allocation of resources norms.
These norms can originate in the
group or in the organization and
cover things like pay, assignment of
difficult jobs, and allocation of new
tools and equipment.
2. Conformity. As a member of a group,
you desire acceptance by the group.
Because of your desire for acceptance,
you are susceptible to conforming to the
group’s norms. There is considerable
evidence that groups can place strong
pressures on individual members to
change their attitudes and behaviors to
conform to the group’s standard.
3. Deviant Workplace Behavior. (also
called antisocial behavior or workplace
incivility) is voluntary behavior that
violates significant organizational norms
and, in doing so, threatens the well-
being of the organization or its
members. Employees report, for
example, an increase in rudeness and
disregard toward others by bosses and
coworkers in recent years. And nearly
half of employees who have suffered
this incivility report that it has led them
to think about changing jobs, with 12%
actually quitting because of it.
Status
Status – that is, a socially defined position or
rank given to a groups or group members by
others – permeates every society. Despite
many attempts, we have made little progress
toward a classless society. Status is an
important factor in understanding human
behavior because it is a significant motivator and
has major behavioral consequences when
individuals perceive a disparity between what
they believe their status to be and what others
perceive it to be.
 What Determined Status? According
to status characteristics theory,
differences in status characteristics
create status hierarchies within groups.
Moreover, status tends to be derived
from one to three sources:
1. The power a person wields over others;
2. A person’s ability to contribute to a
group’s goals;
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3. An individual’s personal characteristics.
 Status and Norms. Status has been
shown to have some interesting effects
on the power of norms and pressures to
conform. For instance, high-status
members of groups often are given
more freedom to deviate from norms
than are other group members. High-
status people also are better able to
resist conformity pressures than their
lower-status peers. An individual who is
highly valued by a group but who
doesn’t much need or care about the
social rewards the group provides is
particularly able to pay minimal attention
to conformity norms.
 Status and Group Interaction.
Interaction among members of groups is
influenced by status. We find, for
instance, that high-status people tend to
be more assertive. They speak out
more often, criticize more, state more
commands, and interrupt others more
often. But status differences actually
inhibit diversity of ideas and creativity in
groups because lower-status members
tend to be less active participants in
group discussion.
 Status Inequity. It is important for group
members to believe that the status
hierarchy is equitable. \when inequity is
perceived, it creates disequilibrium,
which results in various types of
corrective behavior.
 Status and Culture. The importance of
status does vary between cultures. The
French, for example, are highly
conscious. In contrast, although status
is still important in countries like the
United States and Australia, it tends to
be less “in your face”. And it tends to be
bestowed more on accomplishments
than on titles and family trees.
Size
Does the size of the group affect the group’s
overall behavior? The answer to this question is
a definite YES, but the effect is contingent on
what dependent variables you look at. The
evidence indicates, for instance, that smaller
groups are faster at completing tasks than are
larger ones, and that individuals perform better
in smaller groups. However, if the group is
engaged in problem solving, large groups
consistently get better marks than their small
counterparts.
One of the most important findings related to the
size of a group has been labeled social loafing.
Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to
expend less effort when working collectively
than when working individually. It directly
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challenges the logic that the productivity of the
group as a whole should at least equal the sum
of the productivity of each individual in that
group.
Cohesiveness
Groups differ in their cohesiveness, that is, the
degree to which members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group.
For instance, some work groups are cohesive
because the members have spent a great deal
of time together, or the group’s small size
facilitates high interaction, or the group has
experienced external threats that have brought
members close together. Cohesiveness is
important because it has been found to be
related to the group’s productivity.
What can you do to encourage group
cohesiveness? You might try one or more of the
following suggestions:
1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
3. Increase the time members spend
together.
4. Increase the status of the group and the
perceived difficulty of attaining
membership in the group.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group rather than to
individual members
7. Physically isolate the group.
Group Decision Making
The belief-characterized by juries – that two
heads are better than one has long been
accepted as a basic component of North
American and many other countries’ legal
systems. This belief has expanded to the point
that, today, many decisions in organizations are
made by groups, teams, or committees.
Groups Versus the Individual
Strengths of Group Decision Making. Groups
generate more complete information and
knowledge. By aggregating the resources of
several individuals, groups bring more input into
the decision process. In addition to more input,
groups can bring heterogeneity to the decision
process. They offer increased diversity of views.
Weaknesses of Group Decision Making. In
spite of the pluses noted, group decisions have
their drawbacks. They’re time consuming
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because groups typically take more time to
reach a solution than would we the case if an
individual were making the decision. There are
conformity pressures in groups.
Effectiveness and Efficiency. Whether groups
are more effective than individuals depends on
the criteria you use for defining effectiveness. In
terms of accuracy, group decisions are generally
more accurate than the decisions of the average
individual in a group but less accurate than the
judgments of the most accurate group member.
Groupthink and Groupshift
The first phenomenon, called groupthink, is
related to norms. It describes situations in which
group pressures for conformity deter the group
from critically appraising unusual, minority or
unpopular views. Groupthink is a disease that
attacks many groups and can dramatically
hinder their performance.
The second phenomenon we shall discuss is
called groupshift. It indicates that in discussing
a given set of alternatives and arriving at a
solution, group members tend to exaggerate the
initial positions that they hold. In some
situations, caution dominates, and there is a
conservative shift.
Group Decision-Making Techniques
The most common form of group decision
making takes place in interacting groups. In
these groups, members meet face-to-face and
rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to
communicate with each other.
Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures
for conformity in the interacting group that retard
the development of creative alternatives. It does
this by utilizing an idea-generation process that
specifically encourages any and all alternatives
while withholding any criticism of those
alternatives.
In a typical brainstorming session, a half-dozen
people sit around a table. The group leader
states the problem in a clear manner so that it is
understood by all participants. Members then
“freewheel” as many alternatives as they can in
given length of time. No criticism is allowed, and
all the alternatives are recorded for later
discussion and analysis.
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