A concise history o j

PHOTOGRAPHY
HELMUT GERNSHEIM
in collaboration with
ALISON GERNSHEIM

THAMES AND HUDSON . LONDON

 A concise histoy of
PHOTOGRAPHY

PEDKU SAN NICOLAS

JWic ;t1c= i 3. 13
Caracol Copoacan, C. P. 04739
Tel. & Fex 665-03-53
Contents

T H E TECHNICAL EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The Pre-History of Photography .................. 9

The camera obscura ....................................... 9

Photodiemistry .............................. ... ....... . 15

The lnvention o f Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

The earliest attempts at photography ......................... 17

The inrroduction of photography on metal .................... 20

The introduction of photography on paper .................... 26

The introduction of photography on glass ..................... 31

The introduction of photography on film ..................... 36

The evolution of equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

The evolution of colour photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

T H E ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Pictures and Their Makers up to 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

The daguerreotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Photographs on paper ..................................... 79

Photographs by the collodion and gelatine processes ............ 96

Exploration and Topographical .............................. 97

Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Archirecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................ 111

Portraiture and genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

War Reportage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Social Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146

Photogra~hyof Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Pictorial Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

The New Amateurs ........................................ 166

. .
Naturalism and Impressionisrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Pictures and Their Makers: The Modern Period ... 191

The revolurion in phorography ..............................191
. . .
New Objectivi~' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Conremporary portraiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Fotoform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Reportage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Colour photograpliy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280

Of .what use are lens and light
To those who lack in mind and si~ht?
TRANSLATION OF LATIN INSCRIPTION
ON A B R L ' ) ~ S W I C THALER
~ m 1589
 THE TECHNICAL EVOLUTION
O F PHOTOGRAPHY

The Pre-History of Photography

THE CAMERA OBSCURA

'That window, that vast horizon, those black clouds, that raging sea, are
al1 hut a picture . . . You know that the rays of light, reflected from
different bodies, form a picmre, and paint the image reflected on al1
polished surfaces, for instance, on the retina of the eye, on water, and
on glass. The elemental spirits have sought to fix these fleeting images;
they have composed a subtle matter, very viscous and quick to harden
and dry' b~ means of which a picmre is fonned in the twinkling of an
eye. n i e y coat a piece of canvas with this matter, and hold it in front
of the objects they wish to paint. The first effect of this canvas is
similar to that of a mirror; one sees there al1 objects, near and far,
the image of which light can transmit. But what a glass cannot do,
the canvas by means of its viscous matter, retains the images. l n e
mirror represents the objecu faithfully, but retains them not: our canvas
shows them with the same exactness, and retains them all. Thij im-
pression of the image is instantaoeous, and the canvas is immediately
carried away into some dark place. An hour later the impression is
dry, and you have a p i m r e the more valuable in that it cannot be
.
imitared by art or destroyed by time.. The correctness of the drawing,
the tmth of the expression, the stronger or weaker strokes, the gradatinn
of the shades, the les of perspective, al1 these we leave to Nature,
who with a sure and never-erriiig hand, draws upon our canvasses
images which deceive the eye!
In this episode from his science-fiction Giphantie (1760) Tiphaigne de la
Roche recounts a long-cherished dream of humanity: to fix the reflections
of the mirror and make picmres without the aid of the anist's pencil. The
fact that light affecu various substances-fading of textiles, and suntanniug
of the skin-had of course long been observed. The pimre-making
activities of Tiphaigne de la Roche's elemental spirits might be ascnhed
to photochemistry, but without the formation of a clear optical image
in the camera obscura, which plays an equally essential rOle in photo-
graphy, recording nature automatically would never have become possible.
Knowledge of the optical principle of the camera obscura images can
be traced back to Aristotle; its use as an aid in drawing, to Giovanni
Battista della Porta. The photographic camera derives directly from the
camera obscura, which was origiiially, as its Latin name implies, a dark
room, with a small hole in the wall or window-shutter through which an
inverted image of the view outside is projected on to the opposite wall or
a white screen. In southern climates where people darken their rooms in
hot weather, this phenomenon may well have been noticed even before its
underlying optical principle was described by Aristotle. He observed the
crescent shape of the partially eclipsed sun projected on the ground through
the holes of a sieve, and the gaps between the leaves of a plane tree. He
also noticed that the smaller the hole, the sharper the image.
A clearer description was given early in the eleventh century by the
Arabian scholar Alhazen in his work on optics, which later became the
main source-book of Roger Bacon and other European scholars.
'If the image of the sun at the time of an eclipse-provided it is not
a total one-passes through a small round hole on to a plane surface
opposite, it will be crescent-sbaped . .. l l c : x q e of rhe sun only
shows this property when the hole is very small.'
It may be assumed that knowledge of the camera obscrrta efTect was wide-
spread amongst Arab scholars, who presemed Aristotelian lcarning through-
out the Dark Ages in Europe.
During the next five centuries the use of the camera obscura for the
obsewation of solar eclipses without harming the eyes by looking directly
at the mn was referred to by a number of scholars including Roger Bacon.
The first published illustration (111. 2) of it is contained in De radio
astronomico et geometrico liber (1545) by a Dutch physician nnd mathe-
matician Reiner Gemma Frisius. The earliest printed account antedates thk
by twenty-four years. Cesare Cesariano, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci.
described in an annotation in his 1521 edition of Vitmvius's De architectuva
the camera obscura in which the image of everything outside the roor.1
can be seen. Leonardo had already written two descriptions of the camer.2
obscura in his notebooks, which however were not published until 1797.
The fullest and best description of the camera obscura was published
by a Neapolitan scientist Giovanni Battista della Porta in Magiae naturalis
(1558), in which for the first time it was recommended as an aid in drawing.
 ,a -.
iiiurn in tabula per radiossolis, quarn m celo contin-
git:hoc efi,ii in celo Cupcrior pus delrquiii patiatur,in
radiis appmbit inferior deficere,vt ratio exigitoptica.

Sic nos mett Aniio . I 544. Louanii ecliplim Solis

obleru~uirnus,inuenimusq;deficcre plus ij dex-
tanrem,lioc eil. ravncias h e dieitos vt noiirilcrciuun.

'If you cannot paint, you can by this arrangement draw [the outliiie
of the images] with a pencil. You have then only to lay on the colours.
This is done by reflecting the image downwards on to a drawing-board
wirh paper. And for a person who is skilful this is a very easy matter.'
In the second greatly enlarged edition which appeared thirty-one years
later Pona extended the practica1 application of the camera to portraimre,
the sitter being posed in direct sunshine outside the room and in front of
the aperture in the window-shurter. Magiae naturali~was one of the bcst-
known works on popular science published during the sixteenth cenrury,
appearing in many editions and languages. For this reason its author was
for a long time believed to be the inventor of the camera obscura.
The first significant improvement to the camera obscura was the insenion
of a bi-convex lens in the apermre to form a hrighter image. Its use was
recommended by Girolamo Cardano, a Milanese pliysician, in De sub-
tilitate (1550).
3 NINETEENTH-CENTL'RY TENT
CAMLRA OBSCURA, OP THE TYPE
KSEO BY IOHANN KEPLER I N 1620

Daniello Barbaro, a Venetian nobleman, in La Prntica della prrspettiva

(1568) mentioned that by adding lens diaphragms of various sizes the
image could be sharpened. Egnatio Danti, a Florentine matbematician and
astronomer, in La prospettiva di Euclide (1573) made known a further im-
provement of adding a concave mirror to redress the hitherto inverted image.
Daniel Schwenter, professor of mathematics at Altdorf University,
described in Deliciae physico-mathematicae (1636) an elaborate lens-system
combining three different focal lengths. The scioptric ball or 'ox-eye'
consisted of a hollow, revolvable wooden sphere with a hole bored through
irs axis and a lens fitred at either end, each of different focal length.
Combined, they gare a shorter focus than either separately. Screwed into
the window-shutter of a darkened room, the scioptric ball projected on
to the opposite white wall or screen, picmres from al1 directions in which
the ball was mrned, instead of only the view direnly in front of the
window. Schwenter mentioned that the artist Hans Hauer used the instm-
ment for drawing a large panoramic view of Nuremberg and obtained
excellent perspective with its aid.
 The camera obscura in its original form as a darkened room in a house
restricted the artist to the view outside, or to ponraits of people posed in
front of the hole, but in the seventeenth century portable cameras, which
had first been suggested before 1580 by Friedrich Risner and published
posthumously in his Optics (1606), were constructed.
Fourteen years later the astronomer Johann Kepler while making a survey
of Upper Austria in his capacity as Imperial Mathematician, sketched in
a small black tent, through the top of which projected a tube containing
a biconvex lens, and a mirror to reflect the image down on to the drawing-
board. n i e tent-type camera obscura was still in use in the early nineteenth
century (111.3).
Athanasius Kircher, a Jesuit scholar and professor in Rome, dercribed
and illustated in Ars magna lucis et umbrae (1646) a camera obscura light
enough to be carried on poles by two men. It consisted of an outer cube
made of lightweight but strong material, with a lens in the centre of each
wall, and an inner cube of transparent paper for drawing on. The artist
entered through a trapdoor in the floor (111.4).
Kircher's pupil Kaspar Schott, professor of mathematics at Wurzburg,
realized that it was not necessary for the artist to get inside the camera;
it would perfecrly sufTice to look through a small hole in its side. I n
Magia Optica (1657) Schotr mentioiied that a traveller remrned from Spain
rold him about a camera obscura small enough to be carried under the
arm. He then constructed one in the form of two boxes, one slightly smaller
so that ir could slide within the other to adjust the focus. Two convex
lenses were fitted in an adjustable tube and erect images were obtained.
The earliest reflex camera was described and illustrated by Johann
Christoph Srurm, professor of mathematics at Altdorf, in Collegium ex-
4 ATHANASIUS KIRCHER, PORTABLE CAMERA OBSCUM, 1646
 5 JOHANN ZAHX, RCFLEl TYPE
PORTABLE CUERA OBSCL~WA, 1685

perimcntzle, sive cnrioum (1676). A plane mirror a t 45" to the lens

reflected the image the right way up on to a piece of oiled paper stretched
across the opening in the top of the camera, which mas shaded by a hood
for improved visibility of the image. Nine years later Johann Zahn, a
Premonstratensian monk a t Wurzburg, illustrated in Ocidur artificialis
teledioptricur (1685-6) several types of box camera obscura small enough
to be taken anywhere. ?he reflex type (111. I) aras only about 9 inches
in height and width and about 2 feet long. For the first time such refine-
ments are described as an opal-glass focussing screen, and painting the in-
terior of the box and lens-tube hlack to aroid reflections. I n size and design
Zahn's cameras were prototypes of niiieteenth-cenrury photographic box
and reflex cameras.
6 S'GRAVESANDE, SEDAN-CHAIR CAMERA OBSCURA,
1711
7 EIGHTEEKTH-CENTITRY BOOK CAAlERI OBSCURA
 By the eighteenth century the use of the ramera obscura was common
knowledge among educated pcople; long dcscriptions of rhe apparatus were
contained in most works on oprics, treatises on painting, and books of
popular recreation. Cameras were constructed in innumerable types and
sizes, from the original darkened room-now usually in a tower, to give
an extensive panorama of the surroundings-to pocket cameras only 6 to
8 inches long and 2 or 3 inches wide. Some were in the form of a book
(111.7), others were concealed in the head of a walking-stick. To aid
the artist in ponraimre, still-life, and interiors, there were table cameras
( 1 1 . 8 ) while for landscapes portable box cameras and sedan-chair
cameras (111. 6) were employed. Sometimes carriages were adapted by
lining the interior wirh dark material and having well-fitting curtains and
a table to draw on. As in the sedan-chair type, the lens was fixed in the
roof and the image reflected on to the rable by a mirror, so that the
rraveller could make skctchcs wliencvcr Iic camc to a bcauty-spur wirhuur
borhering ro leave his vehicle.

PHOTOCHEMISTRY
Whereas since the middle of the seventeenth century the existing optical
apparatus could have been used for photography, from the chemical point
of view ir was not until 1725 thar Johann Heinrich Schulze, profesor of
anatomy at the University of Altdorf near Nuremberg, observed rhat the
darkening of silver salts (on which most photographic processes depend)
was not due-as previously believed-to the sun's heat or to air, but
to light alone. While trying to make phosphoms, Schulze saturated chalk
with nitric acid which happened to contain some silver. H e performed the
experiment near an open window in sunshine, and was surprised to see
that the mixture on the side of the flask facing the light turned purple,
whie the portion away from the light remained white. Tests by the fire
proved that the colour change was not due to heat. Using a mixture con-
taining more silver, the discoloration took place much more rapidly. Finally,
Schulze covered the flask with p a p a from which he had cut out letters.
'Before long 1 found that tbe sun's rays on the side on which they had
touched the glass through the apertures in the paper, wrote the words or
sentences so accurately and distinctly on the chalk sediment, that many
people . . . were led to attribute the result to al1 kinds of artifices.' Beyond
making evanescent stencil images Schulze did not carry his experiments
towards photography. H e published his observations in 1727 in the trans-
actions of the Imperial Academy at Nuremberg, entitling his paper jokingly
Scotophorus pro Phosphoro Inventus, for he had been trying to make
phosphoms, 'bringer of light', and discovered instad 'Scotophoms', 'bringer
of darkness'.
Schulze's experiment became widely known, not only in scientific circles,
being also published in many popular books of 'rational recreations' as a
parlour-trick.
Extending Schulze's observations, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm
Scheele proved that the violet rays of the solar spectnun have a more rapid
darkening effect on silver chloride than the other wavelengths-a fact
which later on proved a disadvantage in photography until tbe introduction
of panchromatic emulsions, as it caused an incorrect translation of the
colours of namre into the monochrome tone scale. Scheele also published in
Chemirche Abhandlung oon der Lufi und dem Feuer (1777) that silver
chloride acted on by light becomes insoluble in ammonia.
Jean Senebier, librarian in Geneva, carried Scheele's photometric obser-
vations further, and ~ublishedin Memoirer pl~ysico-chymiquessur I'inpuence
de la lumi2re solaire (1782)bis experiments on the relative speed with which
the different spectmin colours darken silver chloride: from 15 seconds for
violet light to 20 minutes for red. Senebier also made important investiga-
tions of the effect of light o11 resins, finding that some lose their solubility
in turpentine atler exposure to light: i. e. tliey harden-a phenomenon later
used by Nickphore Niepce in his photographic experimeuts.
The lnvention of Photography
T H E EARLIEST ATTEMPTS AT PHOTOGRAPHP
The first to try to fix rhe images of the camera olncura by chemical means
were rhe brothers Joseph Nicephore and Claude Niepce, officers in the
French army and navy respectively, while stationed at Cagliari, capital of
Sardinia, in 1793. Beyond the fact that they made some experiments ro-
gerher, referred to in a letter from Nicephore to Claude on 16th September
1824, nothing is known.
Towards the close of tlie eighteeiith century niomas Wedgwood, son of
the potter Josiah Wedgwood, and an amateur scientist, conceived inde-
pendently the same idea. Tom b7edgwood was familiar with the camera
obscura used for sketching great country liouses to ornament dinner and
tea services made a t the Etruria pottery works. His knowledge of the light-
sensitivity of silver nitrate was acquired from his tutor Alexander Chisholm,
formerly chemical assistant of D r William Lewis, rhe first person in Eng-
land to publish (in 1763) Schulze's investigations.
Wedgwood's attempts at photography were published in the Journal o)
the Roya1 Institution, London, in June 1802 by Iiis friend (Sir) Humphry
Davy. Wedgwood'~mnin object was to fix tlie images of the camera obscura
on silvcr nitrare, but he failed to do so 'in any moderate time'-wirhout
staring what he considered moderate. Wedgwood and Davy both succeeded
in making copies of leares, insects' wings, and tlie then fashionable painrings
on glas~,hv rimply laying them on pnper or white l a t h e r sensitized with
silver iiitrm, or rilvcr chloridc which n n v y found more light-aensirive.
Davy also made phorornicrographs. However, rhe pictures were unfixed
and could only be viewed by candleliglit, otherwise rhey darkened al1 over.
Ir is astonishing that such a distinguished scientist as Humphw Davy, who
referred to Scheele's experiments, failed to norice his sratement that ammonia
dissolres [he silver chloride unaffected by li&t, and could therefore have
been used ro fix the image.
 It was letl to larer experimenters to complete the invention of photo-
graphp of which Thomas Wedgwood laid the foundation, but he has the
honour of being the first to demonstrate the possibility of photography-
a great step forward from Schulze.
In 1813, eight years after W'edgwood's early death, Nichphore Niepce,
(111. 10) now living in retiremeut at his country estate Gras near Chilon-
sur-Saone, revived bis earlier ambition through his interest in lithograpby,
vihich began to become popular in France that year. Lacking artistic skiil,
Niepce tried to obtain images by photochemical methods. H e laid engrav-
ings, made transparent with wax, on lithographic stones coated with an
unspecified light-sensitive varnish and exposed them to sunlight. From this
he progressed to attempts to fis the images of the camera obscura, in April
1816. H e succeeded in taking pictures of the court~ardof his house on paper

9 N I C ~ P H O R E NIIPCE.
HELIOGRAPH OF CARDINAL
~'amoisz,1526-27
 10 NICFPHORX K I ~ P SPEI N. C I L AND V A S H . PORTRAI? BY C.LAGUICHE, C. 1795

sensitized with silver chloride, but only parridly fixed with nitric acid. As
the parrs which were li$t in reality appeared dark in the photographs-they
were negatives-Ni&pce rried to print tlirough one of rhem, and though un-
successful in making a posirire copy, his knowledge of this porsibility
forestalled Talbot.
For many years NiGpce esperimenred with different light-sensitive
materials and eventually turned to substances mentioned by Senebier which
harden, instead of darken, under the influence of sunliglit. In July 1822
he made his first successful photo-copy of a copperplarc engraving by
laying ir on a glass place coated with bimmen of Jiidea, a kind of asphalt
used in engraving on account of its rmistance to erching fluids. In the
following yeirs Ni6pce copied scwral engravings by superposition on metal
plares (usually zinc or pewter) instead of glass, for he inrended them to be
etched and priiired from. The best is portrnir of Cardinal d'Amboise
(111.9) which NiGpce made in 1826 and had prinred by the Parisian engraver
Lemdtre the following February.
 11 J. E. MAYALL. OAGUERREOTYPE
OF L. J. M. DAGUERRE,
1846

THE INTRODUCTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY ON METAL

The world's first successful photograph was taken by Nicephore Nikpce
on a pewter plate in 1826 (111. IZ), using his first professionally-made
camera supplied
.- by the Parisian optician Charles Chevalier. It shows the
view from Niepce's workroom window, with the pigeon-house on the left,
a pear-tree with a patch of sky showing through the branches, in the centre d
the slanting roof of the bam, and on the right another wing of the house.
Tlie appearance of sunshine on both sides of tlie courtyard is due to the
long exposure of about eight hours on a summer's day. The coating of
bitumen of Judea dissolved in oil of larender became hard in the parts
affected by light, whilst that in rhe dark parts of rhe picture remained
soluble and was washed away with a solvent consisting of oil of lavender
and white petroleum (turpentine). The result was a permanent positive
picture in which the lights are represented by bitumen and the shades by
bare pewter.
Niepce gave the name Heliographie (sun drawing) both to phorographs
made in the camera and to engravings copied by superposition.
In Septemb.er 1827 Niepce came to Kew near London to visit his brother
Claude, bringing with him this camera view, the engaving of Cardinal
d'hboise, and severa1 orher heliographic reproductions. Ar Kew he made
the acquaintance of the botanical painter Francis Bauer, who recognizing
the imponance of the invention persuaded Niepce to address a memoir on
the subject to King George IV and to the Royal Society. However, as the
cautious inventor refused to disclose the details of his process, the Royd
Society would not take cognizance of it. Before returning home, Ni6pce
gave Bauer al1 these photographic incunul>ula, and aker several years'
'detective work' by the authors 111s. 9 and 12 and both rnemoirs came w
light in 1952.
Giving up pewter, which is tm so& a material to form a satisfactory
printing plate-always Niepce's final aim-he changed to silverplated slieets
of copper, improving the contrast of his pictures by blackening the hare
parts of the silvered plate with iodiie vapour. The exposure, however,
remained unpractically long.
In December 1829 Niepce signed a pannership agreement with Louis
Jacques hlande Daguerre (111. I I ) , theatrical designer and co-inventor with

12 NICEPHORE NIEPCE. FlRST SUCCESSNL PAOTOGRAPH PROM NA'IURE, 1826

Charles Marie Bouton of the Diorama. This was a papular show of enomous
views painted on semi-transparent canvas, with changing effens according
to whether the picture were illuminated by reflected or transmitted light. In
order to achieve perfect perspective and realistic detail Daguerre made pre-
lminary sketches with the camera obscura, and had for many years been
trying to fix its images automatically instad of tracing them by hand-but
in vain. All Daguerre could contribute to the partnenhip was an improved
model of camera obscura and his talents, and it was formed explicitly for
the purpose of perfecting Heliography. Two years after NiCpce's death
Daguerre discovered that an almost invisible or latent image could be
brought out or developed with mercury vapour, thus reducing the exposure
time from at least eight hours to 2%30 minutes. It was not until May 1837,
however, that he found a way of fixing the pictures with a solution of
common salt.
Believing his new process to be distinct from that of Nihpce (though
founded to a large extent on his late partner's knowledge) Daguerre called
it Daguerreotypie. After unsuccessful attempts dunng 1838 to get it taken
up commercially by subscription, Daguerre secured the patronage of the
astronomer and Deputy Fran~oisArago, who was instrumental in the French
Government's acquiring the invention. The scientist Gay-Lussac, a Member
of the Upper House, strengthened Arago's plea for the purchase of the in-
vention by an argument so obvious that it is surprising that other important
discoveries have not been helped similarly by governments: if the invention
remains in the hands of an individual there is danger that it will remain
stationary for a long time; made public, however, it will soon be perfected
by the ideas of others. In July 1839 the Government acquired the daguer-
reotype in order to give it free to the world in return for pensions to
Daguerre and NiCpce's son, and the Legion of Honour for the former.
Nevenheiess, Daguerre took out a patent in England five days before
details of the process were made public in Paris.
Speculation ran high (111. 13) afcer Arago's much publicized statement
in the Chamber of Deputies that the daguerreotype 'requires no knowledge
of drawing and ir not dependan1 upon any manual dexterity. Anyone may
succeed with the same certainty and perform as well as the author of the
invention'. Details of this first practicable method of photography were not
revealed by Arago until 19th August 1839, a t a joint meeting of the Academia
des Sciences and Beaux-Arts at the Institut de France (111. 14). On this
date, which counts as the official birthday of photography, a vast and
curious crowd overflowed into the counyard of the Institut and 'there was
 MPPORT

13 TITLB-PACE OP 7HE RRST PHOTOGRAPHIC MANUAL I S 7HE TSORLD, JULY 1839,

BY %-N' (PROBABLY
KARL VON FRANKENSTEM,
GRAZ).

14 ARAGO'S OPFlClAL REPORT O S THE DAGUERREOTYPB, AUGUST 1839

as much excitement as afler a victorious battle'. Nowadays photography is
so completely taken for granted that it is difficult to realize how magical
the idea seemed to Daguerre's contemporaries that Namre could be made
to produce a picmre spontaneously (Il!. 15). Though realistic representa-
tion of the everyday world had been the aim of many painters from the
time of Van Eyck and even much earlier in the Hellenistic period, the sudden
achievement of their hopes without the need for an artist was so stanling that
Paul Delaroche exclaimed in bewilderment: 'From today, painting is dead!'
Miniature painters and engraven feared for their livelihood, and in reaction-
ary circles the daguerreotype was even disapproved of on religious groirnds.
'The wish to capmre evanescent reflections is not only impossible,'
thundered the Leipziger Stadtanzeiger indignantly, 'as has been shown
by thorough German investigation, but the mere desire alone, the will
to do so, is blasphemy. God created man in His own image, and no
man-made machine may fix the image of God. 1s it possible that God
 should have abandoned His eterna1 principies, and ailowed a Frenchman
in Paris to gire to the world an invention of the Devil? .. The ideal.
of the Revolution-fraternity, and Napoleon's ambition to turn Europe
into one reaim-al1 these crazy ideas Monsieur Daguerre now claitns ro
I surpass because he wants to outdo the Creator of the world. If this thing
were at al1 possible, then something similar would have been done a
long time ago in antiquity by men like Archimedes or Moses. But if
these vise men knew nothing of mirror pictures made permanent, then
one can straightway cal1 the Frenchman Daguerre, who boasts of such
unheard of rhings, the fool of fools.'
The manipulation published in Daguerre's manual Historiqtre et Descrip-
tion des Procedes di< Dagueneotype et du Diorama (111. 16) immediately
afler the historic meeting at che Insritut de Frnnce aras briefly as follows:
A silvered copper plate, boujht ready-made, was sensitized with iodine
vapour which formed silver iodide on the plate. -4fter exposure in the
camera the latent image was developed by rapour of mercury heated over
a spirit-lamp, the mercurv attaching itself to those parts of the silver iodide
which had been affected by light. The picture was fised with hyposulphite
of soda and ruised with distilled water. The result was a finely detailed
positive picmre with a delicate surface which had to be protected by a
cover-glass against abrasinn, and sealed to prevent tarnishing through con-
tact with air.

m...m*-*~.*

D.\CJPERREC~'PE
tt au Diorama.
?U DAWEIRE.
hr . ,..rr..i*ri r
 From August 1840 onward daguerreotypes were generally toned with
chloride of gold, an important improvement due to Hippolyte Fizeau. This
increased the contrast of the image and made the mercury adhere more
strongly to the silvered plate.
Owing to the length of the exposure (20-30 minutes) the daguerreotype
could not be used for portraiture-its most desired application-until affer
considerable improvemeiits had been made to Daguerre's process and appa-
ratus by experimenters in America, England and Austria.

THE INTRODUCTION 01: PHOTOGRAPHY ON PAPER

Immediately afier Arago's announcement of Daguerre's inrention on 7th Jan-
uary 1539 several independent inventors came forward with claims to have
also made pictures by the action of light. The majority of them do not bear
investigation, but a few were genuine and should be briefly recorded, if only
to show how ripe the time was for the inrention of photography.
Friedrich Gerber, a veterinary surgeon and professor at Berne University,
announced in the Scbueizerischer Beobachte~on 2nd February 1839 that
since 1836 he had been able to fix the images of the camera obscura on paper
coxed with silver salts. From his description it is evideiit rhat Gerher had
indepcndently achieved the production of direct positiva, and a negative
process which aiiowed him to niake any number of positive copies; also,
enlarged photographic images of microscopic objects. However, his achieve-
ments with the camera had ohviously not yet reached any degree of per-
fsction, and his success secms to have been mainly in photographic images
of objects laid on prepared paper. At any rate, only the latter were seen by
a critic, and none of Gerber's phorographic incunabirla has survi~ed.
The Rev. J. B. Reade was a distinguished scientist in the astronomical and
microscopical fields. Reade liad followed up the photographic experiments
of Wedgwwd and made photomicrographs on white leather, and on silver
chloride paper washed over with a solution of gallic acid which he knew
to be used in the tanning of leather. Reade considered gallic acid to be
merely an accelerator and did not realize that it was in fact developing a
latent image. He fixed his pictures with hyposulphite of soda, which he
found listed in Brande's manual of chemistry on Herschel's authority as a
soivenr of silver salts. Apart from 'solar mezzotints', as he called his photo-
micrographs made with a solar microscope, Reade also made contact copies
oi botanical specimens and lace by superposition on sensitive paper, and
took some photographs in tlie camera ohscura. They were shown a t the
Royal Society, London, in April 1839, and in comparing notes with Talbot
on their methods, Reade mentioned that he had been speeding up his photo-
graphs with an infusion uf galls. A recently discovered letter from Reade
to his brother dated 1st April 1839 s e a s to contradict Reade's claim, made
many years later, that his experiments began in 1837.
On hearing of Daguerre's discovery, the great English astronomer Sir
John Herschel set himself the task of solving the problem of photography
independently. Within a week he achieved what had taken others years to
accomplish. His first photograph, of his father's hig telescope at Slough near
London, was taken on 29th January 1839 on paper sensitized with carbonate
of silver and fixed with hyposulphite of soda. On 14th March Herschel read
a paper to the Royal Society 'On the Art of Photography' which v a s
accompanied by twenty-three photographs on paper, some of them negatives,
others positives. Apart from the photograph of the telescope they were al1
copies of engravings or drawings by superpositiou. Out of consideration for
Talbot, whose achievement Herschel did not want to belittle by his own
independent discovery, Herschel withdrew his communication from publica-
tion in the Royal Society's Transactions, and only an ahstract was printed
in the Society's Proceedigs.
Photography owes Herschel many valuable contributions, not least as
regards nomenclature. In his notebook the verh 'to photograph' and the
adjective 'photographic' appear three weeks hefore the German astronomer
Midler first puhlished the noun 'Photographie' in the Vossische Zeitung on
25th Februav 1839; and Herschel used rhe term 'photography' in his paper
to the Royal Society of 14th March. Furthermore, he introduced 'negative'
and 'positive' in his second communication on photography tn the Royal
Society in January 1840, and the term 'snap shot' twenty years later.
On the practica1 side, the earliest extant photograph on glass is due to
Herschel, in September 1839, and the cyanotype nr blueprint in June 1842.
It is impnssible to enumerate al1 his invaluable and frequently prophetic
snggestions. The most striking is undoubtedly his forecast in 1853 of micro-
film documentation of public records and works of referente and their sub-
sequent enlargement on a readable scale-a scheme which had to wait eighty-
five years for realization.
Hippolyte Bayard, a French civil servant, had been making photographic
experiments since 1837, and aRer the announcement of the daguerreorype
redoubled his egorts. By 5th Febmary 1839 he was able to show some imper-
fect negative images on silver chloride ~ a ~ e r - s i m i l a to
r Talbot's but made
before details of Photogenic Drawing were published. Learning that Da-
gnerre's pictures were ~ositires,Bayard, thinking that this constituted an
advantage over negatives, set to worlt to do the same. I t is a curious fact
that in the first years of photography the direct positive process was by
most people regarded as superior to the negativeipositive process which
required two manipulations in order to get a picture, instad of one-with-
out considering the convenience of being able to make any number of copies.
On 20th March Bayard obtained his first direct positires on paper in the
camera. The exposure was stated to have been about an hour. In June he
showed thirty photographs of still-life, sculpture and architecture at a mis-
cellaneous exhibition in Paris. Arago, to avoid prejudicing his negotiations
with the Government on behalf of his prote~eDaguerre, persuaded Bayard
by a grant of Fr. 600 for better equipment, not to publish his method at
present. For this trifling consideration Bayard did not divulge his meao-
while improved manipulation to the Academie des Sciences until 24th Feb-
mary 1840, thus losing his right to a more prominent position as an in-
dependent inventor of photography, which would undoubtedly have been
accorded to him had he puhlished prior to Daguerre.
Two German scientists, Franz r-on Kobell, professor of mineralogy, and
Carl A u p s t von Steinheil, professor of mathematics, both at Munich Uni-
versity, hare occasionally been srated in German source-books to be in-
dependent inventors of photography in 1837. Our researches published in
1959 prove, however, that their photographic experiments did not begin
until March 1839 when they drew up a joint report on Talbot's invention
for the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. They presented their report on
13th April, together with three paper negatives Isla inches square which they
had recently taken of buildings in Munich with an exposure of several hours.
Though k e d with ammonia, they were apparently too dense for printing
positives. Four of these pimres are presemed at the Deutsches Museum in
Munich, together with an autograph note of Kobell describing them as
'Photographic experimenu by me and Steinheil, 1839', which should put al1
speculation as to date at rest.
The only process that eventually established itself to some extent as a
rival to the daguerreotype was the Calotype, the improved venion of
Photogenic Drawing invented by William Henry Fox Talbot (111. 17), an
English landowner, scholar and scientist. On hearing of Daguerre's success
in fixing the images of the camera obscura Talbot hastened to put forward
his priority claim by submitting a paper to the Royal Society, London, on
31st January 1839, entitled: 'Some account of the Art of Photogenic Draw-
ing, or rhe process by which natural objects may be made to delineate them-
selves without the aid of the artist's pencil.' (111. 18).
 15 TITLE-PACE OF TALBOT'S PRI\-WELY
PCBLISHED CROCHURE, COXSTITUTING
THE V O R L D ' S FIRST SEPARATE PURLICATIOS
O N PHOTOGRAPHY. FERRUIRY 1539

19 PORTABLE CIMERA OBSCURA,

c. 1810, OF THE TYPE "SED BY
TALROT ANO DAGUERRE
20 W. H. FOX TALBOT. PHOTO-
GENIC DRAVING OF FEATHERS
AND LACE, 1839

Like Wedgwood, Niepce, and Dasuerre-and doubtless otlicr, unl~~iown,

usen of the camera obscura-it occurred to Talbot: 'How charming it would
be if it were possible to cause these n a ~ r a limages to imprint themselves
durably and remain fixed upon the paper!' This idea came to him while
sketching at Bellagio on Lalie Como in October 1833 with the aid of a
camera lucida. Finding this optical device difficult to use, he remembered
having previously been more successful with a camera obscura (111. 19).
Talbot began his photographic experiments by making cowact copies of
plants, lace, and feathers (111. ZO), on silrer nitrate and silrer chloride
paper, fixed imperfectly with ammonia and sometimes potassium iodide. In
the summer o i 1835 he liad a number of cameras made, only 2'1% inches
square, and took tiny views of his house Lacock Abbey in Wiltshire on silver
chloride paper with an exposure of half an hour. They were fixed with
common salt. The earliest extant paper negatire was taken in August 1835
and shows the window of the library a t Lacock Abbey. Compared with
Niepce's 8 x 6 ' 1 ~incher view taken nine years earlier, Talbot's 1 inch square
picture is rather poor. N o wonder that Photogenic Drawing completely
failed to capture the imaginarion of the public. Pictures taken in the camern
were too slow, too small, and not good enoush technically compared with
the brilliant detail of the daguerreotype, and contact copies of botanical
specimens were of interest to comparatively few people. Talbot continued
trying to improve his invention and in September 1840 discovered the pos-
sibility of developing tlie latent image formed during a much shoner es-
posure, by using gallo-nitrate of silver-having been iniormed of the accel-
erating properties of gallic acid, whicb had been used by the Rev. J. B. Reade.
Talbot patented his improved process, which he called Calotype, on
8th February 1841. Later it also became known as Talbotype.
Good qnality writing paper was coated successirely with solutions of
silver nitrate and potassium iodide, forming s i l ~ e riodide, then further sen-
sitized with solutions of glllic acid and silrer nitrate. Afier exposure the
latent image was developed with a funher application of gallo-nitrate of
silver solntion-which had the same function as rhe mercury developer in
the daguerreotype-and the picture became risible when the paper was
warmed by the fire for one or two minutes. The negative was fixed with
potassium bromide (later liyposulphite of soda) and then rinsed with water.
The positive print was linde on Photogenic Drawing paper (not developed).
Talbot's process had now (1841) reached the same speed as Daguerre'r
had with chemical acceleration, and offered the great advantage that any
number of positive prints could be made. I t is rhis negativelpositive principie
on which modern photography is based, whereas the daguerreotype, which
produced a single picture: was a cwl-de-sac in photography.

THE IXTRODUCTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY ON GLASS

Niepce had used glass for Heliography as early as 1822. Sir John Herschel
on 9th Scptember 1839 toolc a photograph of his father's telescope on glass
coated with carbonate of silver. Tliis earliest surviring photograph on glass
Z'lr inches in diameter was considered by Talbot 'the step of a giant'.

Albumen-on-glass process
The firsr pracricable method of ~ h o t o g r a ~ hon
y filass was the albumen
process of Abel Niepce de Sainr-Victor, a cousin of Nidphore Nibpce,
published in June 1848. A glass plate was coated with white of egg sensiti-
zed with potassium iodide, washed ~ i t han acid solution of silver nitrare,
developed with gallic acid and fixed in the usual way. Very fine detail aras
achieved, and the prepared plates could be kept for a fortnight, and dewlop-
ment postponed for a week or two. The esposure, howerer, lasted 5 to 15
minutes, according to circumstances, which ruled out portraiture, but slow-
ness was no great drawback for landscapes, architecture, and art reproduc-
tions.
Positives printed on albumen glass plates were excellent for magic-lantern
slides and stereoscopic pictures oii account of their perfect transparency.
The former were introduced by William and Frederick Langenheim of
Philadelphia in 1849 under the name Hyalotype; the latter by C. M. Ferrier
of Paris in 1851.

Collodion process
1551 marks the beginning of a new era in photography. The invention
which in a short time supplanted al1 existing methods was Frederick Scott
Arclier's wet collodion process published in the March issue of Tbe Chemist
that year. Before this, Robert J. Bingliam and Gustave LeGray had alluded,
independently, to the possible use of collodion in photograph~,but neither
published a workable manipulation.
An English sculptor, who learned calotyping in order to hare portraits
of his sitten as studies, Archer endeavoured to improve Calotype paper by
spreading various substances on ir. incluiing the recently discovered collo-
dlon. This led him to tlie idea of using collodion as a s u b s r i ~ t efor paper.
 In Archer's process collodion containing postassium iodide was poured on
to a glass plate, which was carefully tilted until an even coating was formed
al1 over ir. Sensitizing followed immediately by dipping the plate in a batb
of silver nitrate solution. It then had to be exposed whiie still moist, because
the sensitivity deteriorared rapidly as the collodion dried. Development had
to follow directly afcer enposure, with either pyrogallic acid or ferrous sul-
phate. The picture was fixed with hyposulphite of soda or potassium cyanide.
The manipulation was much more complicated than with the daguerreorype
or Calotype, and since al1 the operations had to be done on the spot, the
outdoor photographer was burdened with a complete darkroom outfit
(111.21). These disadvantages were, however, compensated for by rbe
greatly increased sensitivity. Exposures with the collodion process varied
from 10 seconds to I'lr minuta for landscapes and architecture on plates
of moderate size. Small portraits (Ambrotypes) could he taken iu 2 to 20
seconds. It was the fastest photographic process so far devised, and the first
to be free from patent restrictions in England. Collodion remained in gene-
ral use for over thirty years and is still employed in block-making.
A variation worked out by Archer in collaboration with Peter Wickens
Fry was the duect positire on glass, obtained by bleaching an underexposed
collodion negatire and transforming ir into a seemingly positive picmre

*1
22 AMEROTYPE WITH HALF THE
BACKIXG RE\IOVED TO SHOW
POSITIVE AND N E C l T l V E EFFECT,
c. 1558
when viewed by reflected light against a black background. When seen by
transmitted light, o r without a dark background, the picture retains its
negative character (111.22). The name Ambrotype was suggested for collo-
dion positives by Marcus A. Root, a Philadelphia daguerreotypist, and was
also current in England. O n the Continent they were usually called Melaino-
types. Backed with dark-coloured velvet, paper or varnish, and contained
in decorative American 'Union' cases of moulded plastic material, or some-
times in gilded frames, Ambrotypes bear a superficial resemblance to dagu-
erreotypes (111.23), and were in the nanire of a cheap substinite for them.
The vast majority are small portraits, and were very popular with the
cheaper kind of photographer from the early 'fitlies until the mid-sixties
when the fashion for the carte-de-aisite superseded them.
Collodion direct positives were also sometimes made on dark-coloured
leatlier or on black paper (Atrographs). Ferrotype or tintype portraits on
enamelled sheet iron originated with Adolphe Alexandre Martin, a French
teacher, in 1853. They enjoyed great popularity in the United States witli
the lower grade photographers from c. 1860 onward, but failed to establish
themselves in Europe until the late 1870s when they were introduced as an
American novelty by beach and street photographers. Better class photogra-
phers had little demand for any of these direct positives, and made mostly
contact copies on albumen paper. This positive paper introduced by E. Blan-
quart-Evrard in May 1850 was coated with white of egg (albumen) to give
ir a glossy surface, and sensitized with silver nitrate. As the process of
albumenising was rather troublesome, the paper was later on manufactured
commercially, but the ~hotographerhad still to sensitize it before use. The
printed-out picture was usually toned with chloride of gold to improve its
colour and permanence. Albumen paper remained the most popular until the
mrn of the century. The consumption of eggs for albumenising was tremen-
dous; the Dresden Albuminpapier Fabrik, the largest producer of albumen
paper in Europe in the 1890s, used 60,000 eggs daily - about 18 million a
year.
The inconveniente of the wet collodion process for the landscape photo-
grapher led ro the demand for dry plates. Various methods were devised
for keeping the collodion in a sticky sensitive state for several days or even
weeks, so that the entire chemical manipulation could be carried out in the
photographer's darkroom at home. All these preservative processes, however,
were many times slower than wet collodion.
In September 1871 D r Richard Leach Maddox, an English medical doctor
and well-known microscopist, published experiments on gelatine silver bro-
mide emulsion as a suhstimte for collodion. This turned out to be an epoch-
making invention, though as initially puhlished it was 180 times rlower than
wet collodion. Improved and speeded up by John Burgess, Richard Kennett
and Charles Bennett, the rapid gelatine dry plate ushered in the modern era
of factory-produccd photographic material, frccing the photographer from
the necessity of preparing his own plates. By April 1875 four Britisb firms
were mass-producing gelatine dry plares, which could be stored for long
periods, and made possihle tmly instantaneous photographs with exposures
of a fraction of a second. The following year factories in several other coun-
tries started production. With certain improvements, it is still gelatine emul-
sion which is used in modern photography.
THE INTRODUCTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY ON FILM
The convenient gelatine dry plates had still the disadvantage of their weight,
and photographers had long been desirous of replacing glass plates by a less
heavy and fragile suppon. From time to time methods had been devised to
peel off the emulsion from a paper backinc. I n the 1880s a number of flex-
ible film supporu were introduced but proved unreliable. Celluloid, invented
by Alexander Parkes in 1861, provided the answer to the prnblem aRer
John Carbutt, an English photographer who had emigrated to Arnerica,
persuaded a celluloid manufacturer to produce sufficiently thin sheets in
1888. Coated with gelatine emulsion, it was used in the form of cut film.
The following year The Eastman Co., manufacmrers of the Kodak, went
into production with much thinner nitro-cellulose 1011-film, and by 1902
were producing 8001e90% of the world's output. The film had been inde-
pendently invented and patent applied for in 1887 by the Rev. Hannibal
Goodwin, whose successors evenmally were awarded five million dollars
aRer a twelve-year lawsuit against &e Eastman Kodak Company. The
highly inflamable nitro-cellulose film began to be replaced by non-inflam-
mable cellulose acetate about 1930, and since then the emulsion has been
frequently increased in sensitivity.

THE EVOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT

The pioneen of photography made their first experiments with simple box
camera obscuras, oRen home-made. Niepce's cameras at the MusEe Denon
a t Chilon-sur-Sabe seem unnecessarily bulky considering that the plate
size was 6 ' 1 ~ x 8inches. Al1 but one are wooden, but a camera sent to him
by Daguerre under the 1829 partnership contract is of zinc, and measures
1 4 1 4~ ~ 2 5 %inches. One camera has an accordion-like square leather bel-
lows, and two others are fitted with a variable iris diaphragrn behind the
lens to sharpen the image - features that had been incorporated in certain
eighteenth-century camera obscuras and telescopes, respectively, but were
used by Niepce for the first time in photography.
The first photographic camera on sale to the public was advertised in
June 1839 by a London optician, Francis West, for Photogenic Drawing.
The daguerreotype cameras put on the market by Alphonse Giroux of
Paris a t the time of publication of the process in August 1839 consisted of
two wooden boxes, h e rear part mith the ground-glass for focussing sliding
within rhe front part containing the lens (Ill. 24). The complete outfit
with plate box, iodising and mercury boxes, spirit-lamp, bottles of chemicals
and other paraphernalia, weighed 110 lbs. and cost 4C3 francs (then •’16-by
24 DAGUERREOTYPE CAXERA
T I T H THE SEAL OT THE
MANUPACTURER CIROUX AND
DGUERRE'S SIGNATCRE, 1839

roday's value about •’120) (111. 2J). Soon smallcr models and folding
cameras were designed for travelling. In December Baron Seguier introduced
a light-weight bellows camera, and with it three 'firsts' in photographic
equipmenr: the darkroom tent, the photographic tripod and the ball-and-
socket head. Previously, the camera was simply placed on a table or
other solid stand.
The sanie month, Carl August von Steinheil constmcted a pocket camera
taking 8 X 11 mm daguerreotypes, whicli had to be viewed through a
magnifying glass. This provcd a stumbling-block to the introduction of the
miniature camera - an inrention that had come long before its rime.

25 COMPLETE D4GUERREOTYPE OUTFI1

 26 woi.corr's MIRROR
CIMERA, 1840

27 'THE PHOTOGRhPHER
DEPRIVES THE ARTIST OF HlS
LIVELIHOOU'. CARICATURE B Y
TH. HOSEM.4NN SHO'SING THE
VOIGTL.~NDER C.AMER.4. IS43

The lenses made by Lerebours and Cheralier for tlie early French appa-
rams were of poor quality, the eifectire aperture at which a sharp image
was obtained being F 14 or even F 16, mith the result that the necessary
long exposure ruled out portraiture. To overcome this grave disadvantage
Alexander S. Wolcott of New York in May 1843 patented a mirror camera:
a wooden box which had instead of a leiis an open front through which tlie
image of the sitter was received on a concare mirror and retlected on to the
2x2 inch daguerreorype plate (111.26). By this ingenious arrangement
much more light v a s received on the plate than if it liad passed through
a lens.
l n e need for a rapid portrait lens prompted the Viennese mathematician
Josef Max Petzval to calculate one for Friedrich Voigtlinder, who designed
an original conical-shaped hrass camera Ior it (111.27). The apparatus pul
on the market on 1st January 1841 took circular pictures 3' r inclies in dia-
meter in 1'1%to 2 minutes on a sunny da? in the shade. It made portraimre
possible even before the introduction of chemical acceleration of the daguer-
reotype plate, for Petzval's douhle comhiiiation lens gave excellent definition
eren a t full aperture F 3.5, and was thirty times faster than any other lens
of the period. Indeed tliis leiis-the iirst designed specifically for plioto-
graphic portraits - remained the most widely used lens-design for portrai-
ture al1 over the world until the introduction of Paul Rudolph's aiiastigmat
by Carl Zeiss in 1859.
Wolcott's aiid Voigtlandcr's cameras were, however, exceptions and only
used for a short period until chemical acceleration made possible the taking
of larger pictures with ordinary cameras.
Cameras for taking Calotypes were similar to those for daperreotypes.
In 1850 Marcus Sparling, Roger Fenton's assistant during the Crimean
War, designed tlie first magazine camera for the aavelling photographer.
Ten sheets of Cdotype paper were stored in separate holders inside tlie
camera, each sheet being dropped after exposure into a receptacle beneath
the instrument.
Pride of place for ingenuity must go to -4.J. Melhuish and J. B. Spencer
for the first '1011-film' arrangement in Mav 1854. Sensitized waxed paper
was rolled up on a spool and the exposed part rewound on to a receiving
spool. The roll-holder was made in several sizes suitable for attachment
to anv camera.
n i e laiidscape photographer using wet collodion had to tike with him
an enormous amount of equipment as the plntes had to be prepnred. exposed
and developed while the collodion was srill moist. In addition to camera
23 DARK-ROOM TENT IN VET COLLODlON PERIOD. C. 1875
and tripod, and a choice of sereral Ienses, he needed a chest full of bottles

1
containing chemicals for coating, sensitizing, developing and fixing the
negatires, a supply of glass plates, a number of dishes, scales and weights,
glass measures and funnels, a pail to fetch rinsing water (and where none
was likely to be found, the water itself), and a portable dark-tent in
which the chemical operations took place (111.28). An amateur's equip-
ment for a day's outing weighed 100-120 lbs. Since it mas both undignified
and uncomfortable to stagger along bent double beneath the weight of
cumbersome apparatus (111.29), maiiy photographers employed a porter.
The less affluent pushed a wheelbarrow or small hand-can containing al1
the equipment. The more success~ulcould afford a carriage, which in some
cases simply served to conyey the photographer and his equipment to the
scene; in others was fitted up as a travelling darkroom. Roger Fenton took
with him to the Crimean W'ar a horse-drawn van rigged up as a darkroom
and sleepiiig quarters (111.30).
Many inventive minds worked towards methods of avoiding the need
for a dark-tent. This could be effected either by chemical methods allowing
prepararion of the plate in adrance, and delaped development, or by con-
stmctiiig carneras titted with a compartment in which the cliemical mani-
pulation could be performed. Ncither of these two methods was, howerer,
29 TITLE-PAGE OP 'PHOTOGXAPHIC P L E ~ S C R E S ' BY CVTHBERT BEDE, 1855. THE FlRSI
BOOK CARICATURING PHOTOGRAPHI-

31 ROGER FENION'SPHOTOGRAPHIC VAN IN THE CRIMEAN E A R , 1855

really satisfactory in practice. The so-called dry collodion plates were far
too slow, and manipulating chemicals inside the camera was a messy business.
Paradoxically, during the collodion period (1851-c.1880) the camera
became both larger and smaller - according to tlie purpose for which it was
intended. Realizing the possibilities of photography as an independent art
medium - a feeling which had hardly existed in the 1840s when photo-
graphy was largely in the hands of professional portraitists - many amateurs
took u p the art and competed with each other and with professionals in
exhibirions. Namraiiy, the bigger pictures were the more imposing (Ill. 31),
and as enlargiig was not yet practicable on account of the extreme slowness
of <be poritive printing-out paper, the photogrnpher had to use big plates
from which he made contact prints. l O X l Z inch and 1 2 x 1 6 incb were
quite ordinary plate sizes, and some hardy spirits felt thar nothing smaller
than a 2 0 x 1 6 inch plate would do justice to their subject. Keen photogra-
phers laboured under the most trying conditions with their huge equipment,
but these difficulties caused rhem to be particularly careful in rhe dioice
of viewpoint and lighring in order to ensure success ar the first expvsure.
 The largest camera made during the nineteenth century was constructed
in 1860 for John Kibble, a Glasgow amateur. Ir was so big rhat it had to be
mounted on wheels and drawn by a horse. The glass plates rneasured 4 4 x 3 6
inches and each one weighed about 44 lbs. Fomnately Kibble was used to
handling large panes of glass, being by trade a builder of conservatories
and greenhouses.
In contast to this rnonster canera arere the stereoscopic cameras intro-
duced in the 'fifiies when a great demand arose for photographs to be viewed
in Sir David Brewster's lenticular stereoscope, commercially introduced by
Louis Jules Duboscq in 1851. To enable two pictures of the sarne object to
be taken from slightly different viewpoints, giving an impression of relief
and astonishing reality when vienred in the stereoscope, special carneras were
constructed. In the single-lens rype, afier the first picture had been taken
on one half of the plate, the whole camera was moved along a rail on the
carrying-bos oii which it stood, and the other half of the plate was then
exposed. Of course only still objects could he photographed in this way
(111.32). The binocular or twin-lens type proposed by Brewster io 1849
and constructed in 1953 by Jolin Beojamin Dancer of Manchester (111.33)
and A. Quinet of Paris, took botli pictures simultaneously, and soon super-
seded the slow single-lens type. Owing to the small size of each picture
(3x3'11 inches) and the sliort foca1 length of the lenses (5 inches) it was
possible wirh binocular stereoscopic cameras to ohtain lively instantaneous
pictures of moving objects in a fraction of a second: street scenes with traffic
(111.34), seascapei with rolling wares, public cerernonies. The extreme
popularity of stereoscopic pictures began in the mid-'fifiies and affected the
whole of the so-called cirilized world for about fifleeii years. It was claimed
there was 'no home without a stereoscope'.
Realization of thc new possibilities opened up by the binocular camera
led to the constniction of small cameras for taking single pictures. Thomas
Skaife's metal 'Pistolgraph' (185s) had a spring shutter worked by mbber
bands released by a triggcr, lience 'pistol'. It was fitted with one of the
fastest lenses ever niade, a Dallmeyer combinatinn with effective aperture
F 1.1, takiiig snapshots about l'!? inches in diameter. Rather incongruously
Skaife particularly recommendcd his pistol camera for photographing pet
animals and babies. He cnce aimed his 'Pistolgraph' at Queen Victoria and
was nearly arrested for an arrempt on her life. Unformnately this interesting
pliotogrnpli was lost for ever when Skaife had to open his 'pistol' to convince
the ~ o l i c ethat his 'shots' were harmless snapshots. It may well have been
the 'Pisrolgraph' that led Sir John Herschel to write in 1860 of 'the possi-
bility of taking a photograph as it were by a snap shot'-the first use of
this tenn.
Probably the smallest nineteenth-century camera was introduced by
T. Morris of Birmingham in 1859. It measured only 1'lrXI1IzX2 inches,
rook S,', inch square pictures suitahle for locket portraks or for enlargement,
and was called a miniature camera.
The best known of these small camerar was Adolphe Bertsch's 'automatic
camera' (1860). The 4 inch square metal box camera had a iixed-focus lens
(hence automatic) rendering sharp al1 objects beyond a distance of 40 feet.
Insread of the usual ground-glass it was provided with a frame viewfinder
and spirit-level. Whilst the comparativelv long exposures with the large
cameras of the period rendered a shutter mechanism unnecessary, ir is sur-
prising that in Bertsch's camera the short exposures were made simply by
removing the lens cap by hand. The 'chambre noire automatique' was an
early example of the modern system of a miniature camera producing nega-
tives for enlargement. Tenfold magnification could be achieved from die
2 ' 1 r ~ 2 ' 1inch
~ negatives with Bertsch's improved solar enlarger with double
condensor. The best known enlarger was D. A. Woodward's 'solar camera'
of 1857 (111.35), but enlarging was lirtle pracrised because it depended
on hours of sunshine with the slow printing-out paper.
The cameras just described, and a number of other p c k c t cameras intro-
duced in the 1860s were, therefore, exceptions. Mosr serious photographers
worked, as alreadv mentioned, with big plate cameras.
Curte-de-visite photographers used a camera fined with four identical
lenses of short focus; the interior was divided into four compartmenrs, one
for each lens. By exposing first one half of the plate and then the other
36 DISDERI. UNCUT SHEET O F CARTE DE VISITE PORTRIITS O I PRINCESS B U O N A P R T E -
GABRIELLE, C. 1862

by means of a sliding plate-holder, eight small portraits could be taken on

a plate 10x8 inches. For a variety of poses the lenses could be uncapped
separately and a new pose taken each time (111.36). The advantage of chis
method, patented by Disderi in Novemher 1854, was that eight photo-
graphs were obtained on one negative, the remlting contact print somewhat
resembling a ser of Polyphotos was then cut np and each portrair, trimmed
to 21l.iX3'ip inches, mounted on a card 2112x4 inches-tbe usual visitinp
card size. l n i s was namrally much cheaper than taking eight separate photo-
graphs. An additional saving was achieved because in these tiny full-lengtt
portraits the sitter's head was so small that retouching was unnecessary.
 The rapid gelatine dry plate which began to come into general use in
1879-80 not only greatly simplified photographic technique but also revo-
lutionized equipment. Cameras for outdoor work were now small, and pro-
vided with an instantaneous shutter. Quarter-plate and 4 x 5 inch hand
cameras established themselves as the most popular sizes for amateurs in the
Anglo-Saxon countries, the Continental equivalent being 9 X 12 cm.
During the 1880s and 90s a variety of cameras were produced for use
with dry plates, cut film, and roll-film. They fall into four main categories:
(1) Change-box cameras with a plate-changing box attached, similar to a
modern film-pack casette. They usually held a dozen plates (sometimes cut
film), each in a separate plate-holder, permitting daylight changing. In most
cases an automatic counter indicated the number of exposures made.
(2) Magazine cameras with twelve plates or forty sheets of cut film stored
in a magazine or chamber inside the camera body, the plate being changed
afler each exposure by rarious mechanisms. In the simplest form the ex-
posed plate was dropped into the bottom of the camera and the next plate
pushed forward by a spring (111.37). An automatic counter was provided.
(3) Reflex cameras. Single and twin-lens retlex cameras are classed as a
separate group, for although they were variously made with change-box,
magazine, or roll-film atrachment, they are basically of different constmc-
tion, incorporating a mirror fixed at 45' to the lens, reflecting the image
on to a ground-glass in the top of the camera, allowing observation of the
subject up to the moment of raking the picture.
Tbe first to apply this cenmries-old camera obscura principie to photo-
graphy was Thomas Sutton, editor of Photographic Notes, who patented
his single-lens reflex camera in August 1861. However, like the 1011-holder
of Melhuirh and Spencer (1854), the focal-plane shutter of William England
(1861), miniamre cameras, and other inventions in advance of their time,
there was no demand for the reflex camera u n t i the mid-'eighties, when
photography for the first time became the hobby of millions. 'Ihe first of the
twin-lens reflex cameras, a quarter-plate with a roller-blind shutter anached
to the taking lens, was made by R. & J. Beck, London, in Februar). 1880.
Perhaps the most advanced in design was Ross & Co.'s 'Divided' (1891)
(111.38), of which the smallest model, for 3'/rX31/r inch negatives on
48-exporure Easman 1011-film, measured only 6X41IrX711, inches.
(4) Roller-slidei and roll-film cameras, which evenmally superseded change-
box and magazine cameras, used flexible films instead of glass plates or cut
films, the film being wound on two spools. At fint the film was in a separate
box or roller-slide, made in many sizes for atrachment to almost any camera.
The first camera incorporating a 1011-film was the Kodak introduced by
George Eastman in August 1888. The apparams was the embodiment of
simplicity, being a wooden box 61lzX3'/rX3'1~ inches with a rectilinear
fixed-fonis lens giving sharp definition of everything beyond S feet, and
having only one speed and a fixed stop. With the Kodak anyhody could
photograph wlio could 'Pul1 the string-turn the key-press the button'. Its
appeal to the unskilled amateur was further enhanced by Eastman's recom-
mendation to return the camera to the factory for developing and printing
of the film, according to his famous slogan 'You press the button-we do
the red.
The rapid growth of the amateur movement afcer 1880 had made the
mass-production of photographic equipment and materials feasible for the
first time, and the Eastman Company in Rochester, N.Y., was the first of

39 'ricr~'DETECTKE 1
CAMERA TAKING 25 PICTERES
ON 16 Y M FILM, 1906
the great photographic manufacmring companies to cater for their needs
and stimulate their demand with brilliant psychology applied to advertising.
'A collection of these pictures,' prospectire buyers of the Kodak were in-
formed, 'may be made to furnish a pictorial history of life as ir is lived by
the owner, that will grow more valuable every day that pases.' n i i s was,
and srill ir, al1 that the average camera user wants to get out of photography.
While other manufacmren were discouraged from producing 1011-film
cameras by Eastman's virmal monopoly of nitro-cellulose roll-film, intro-
duced in 1889, a large variety of hand-cameras for plates or cut film appeared.
In the '80s and '90s some very small and compact cameras were designed,
which were in the tme sense pocket cameras. It was a status symbol for
amateurs of both sexes to carry a camera about, and the market was inundated
with small cheap models, which degenerated into toys of little practica1
value, rather like some transistor radios of today. A craze started for so-
called detective cameras gor up in the form of field-glasses, revolvers, bwks,
watches (111.39), parcels, concealed in purses, walking-sticks, hats, cravats,
or beneath the waistcoat. Tbe lenses of these cheap cameras were pwr, the
picmres too minute to be of any use. Only in one respect are they of in-
terest, in that they show a steady trend towards the miniature camera which,
as a scientific precision instmment, did not arrive until 1924.
Space does not permit more than a passing reference to the many cameras
designed for special purposes, such as panoramic views, stereoscopy, 'postage-
stamp' photographs (111. 40), chronopliotograpliy, and for various medical
and other scientific purposes.
 New cameras constantly appeared on the market, for the rankr of photo-
graphers swelled from week to week. By 1900 every tenth person in Britain
-four miuion people-was reckoned to own a camera. 'lhe proportion was
probably about the same in the U.S.A., but considerably lower on the
Continent. Today the U S A . with over forty million amateur photographers
ir the largest camera-owning country, followed by Britain and Japan.
The vast majority of the small cameras were of the folding type and
made of light-weight metal. Gaumont of Paris introduced in 1903 a well-
designed vest pocket camera, as the 4%X6 cm plate size was generally
called. This was the smallest size from which a contact print was considered
acceptable for pasting in an amateur's album.
An interesting pointer to future development and a precursor of the
Leica was designed and constmcted by George P. Smith of Missouri in 1912.
His 35 mm camera took 1Xl';a inch pictures on cine-film. The mass-pro-
duction of 35 mm film for the new cinema industry made it economical for
still photography and it is natural that this idea should have occurred to
more than one camera designer about the same time. The Minnograph intro-
duced in 1914 by Levy-Roth of Berlin took 50 pictures 1 8 x 2 4 mm on
35 mm cine-film. The externa1 dimensions of the Minnograph, 5 X 6 X 1 3 cm,
are very similar to the Leica's. The prototype of the Leica was constmcted
in the same year by Oskar Barnack, a microscope designer at Leitz in
Wetzlar. Owing to the first World War and the subsequent inflation in
Germany it was ten years before the Leica went into production. The
significance of the Leica lay in the fact that various features such as a
range-finder coupled with the excellent Elmar lens designed by D r Max
Berek to gire first-rate definition at the full aperture of F 3.5, raised the
miniature camera to a precision instmment.
With the Leica the era of the true miniature camera began, and enlarging
on fast, developed gelatine bromide paper at last became standard practice.
Nevertheless, the advantages of the Leica were not fully appreciated immedi-
arely. In particular, the high resolving power of the Elmar lens was far in
advance of the resolving power of the films of that day, and until about 1931
when fine-grain developers reduced the graininess of fast films, and conse-
quently ensured good enlargements, the small plate camera retained un-
douhted advantages over theminiature camera. Ir was in fact a platecamera,
the Ennanox (111.41) made by the Ernemann Works, Dresden, and put on
the market in 1924, one year before the Leica, that for a few yean ~ r o v e d
a more useful tool for phorographers needing a fast instrument. Indeed the
powerful F 1.8 and F 2 Ernostar lenses made snapshots possible by available
 41 ERMANOX CAMERA WITH
ERNOSTAR LENS F 2. 1924

light at political meetings, indoor social functions, the theatre, and so on. In
conjunction with fast panchromatic plates 41!eX6 cm, the Ermanox was the
camera used by the pioneers of photo-journalism, Dr Eridi Salomon, Felix
H. Man, and others who had to work in poor lighting conditions.
The Rolleiflex put on the market in 1929 by Franke & Heidecke, Braun-
schweig, was the precursor of numerous similar twin-lens reflex 1011-film
cameras, of which it still remains the most popular. Like the Leica and the
Contax, the Rolleiflex has undergone many revisions since its first appearance,
and its former disadrantage of heing restricted to one focal length has heen
overcome by a modification of the cnnstmction to permit interchangeability
of lenses, as with other cameras.
The best-known of the pre-war single-lens reflex cameras in the 6 x 6 cm
formar, the Refles Korrelle, was also of German make.
Atter World War 11 the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera of the Swedish
manufacturer Hasselblad in Gothenburg, incorporating an interchangeable
film hack, came into prominence. It ir popular among adverrising, fashion
and portrait photographers.
In recent years the Japanese camera industry has produced precision
instmments in the 35 mm and 6 x 6 cm sizes now aimost universaily far-
oured, with a range of excellent lenses, challenging for the first time the
previous hegemony of the German camera and photographic optical industry.
This had begun in 1889 with the introduction of D r Paul Rudolph's an-
astigmat, and was firmly established with his Tasar lens (1902), and other
world-famous lenses and camera features such as Friedrich Deckel's Compur
shutter (1912), and above al1 the Leica and the Rolleitlex.
The need for several lenses of different focal length will before long be
superseded by the Zoom lens system giving variable focal length, introduced
by Voigtliinder, Braunschweig, in 1959.
With the latest fully automatic cameras, of which the prototype
. . was the
Oprima of Agfa, the amateur has no longer to worry about diaphragm open-
ing and length of exposure, which are controlled by built-in photocells.
The Polaroid camera invented by Edwin H. Land in 1947, with which a
positive could be obtained in 60 seconds (now reduced to 10 seconds) afler
exposure, the paper negative and positive being developed in the camera,
is by many people considered the ideal instmment for the amateur. Ex-
tremely simple in operation, it has the disadvantage of producing only one
print, for the negative cannnt be re-used.
These refinements free the amateur from the need for any technical know-
ledge whatsoever, but
'Of what use are lens and light
T o those who lack in mind and sight!'

THE EVOLUTION OF COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY

From the fint announcement of the daguerreotype on 7th January 1839 a
certain disappointment was felt at its inability tn record colours, which were
instead translated into varying shades of monochrome. Yet having achieved
the exact representatioo of Nanire with al1 its details, it was realized that
the attainment of colour was only a matter of time-though its advent carne
much later than expected.
Lack of colonr was at first particularly felt in parminire, for the public,
accustomed t o miniatures, preferred 'twopence coloured' to 'penny plain'.
Miniature painters, finding themselves out of work thmugh tbe popularity
of the daguerreotype, soon fulfilled the demand by tinting daguerreorypes
and ocasionally painting over paper photographs.
(Sir) James Clerk-Maxwell in a lecture on the Young/Helmholtz theory
of colour vision at the Royal Institution, London, in May 1861 demonstrated
that erery possible shade of colour could be made up from the three primary
colours red, blue and greeo. Thomas Sutton took for him three photographs
of striped coloured rihbon through glass cells containing red, blue and green
solutions of metallic salts (acting as filters). Diapositives of these were
projected from three optical lanterns behind three identical coloured filters,
and when superimposed on the screen, combined into a colour photograph.
Though the result was far from perfect, Clerk-Maxwell indicated the
correa primary colours for three-colour phorography by the additive pro-
cess, whereas the suggestions pur forward by Henry Collen in 1865 were
not only impracticable but were moreover hased on Sir David Brewster's
theory of red, blue and yellow as primary colours, which ir erroneous for
light, though valid for pigments.
Louis Ducos du Hauron made the greatest contribution to the evolution
of colour photography in the uineteenth century. H e proposed the subtractive
method of colour photography in his bwk Les C O U ~ ~ U enTPhotographie,
S
Solution du Probleme (1869), !.e. the pigments absorb or subtract from
light al1 colours except their own, which they reflect. Ducos du Hauron
took three separation negatives behind green, orange and violet filters, and
made positives on thin sheets of bichromated gelatine incorporating carbon
pigments of red, blue and yellow colour respectively, !.e. the complementary
colours to those by which the negatives were taken. When the red, blue and
yellow carbon prints were mounted superimposed, a Heliochrome or colour
photograph was the result. Either coiour traiisparencies or colour prints
could be made, depending on whether the carbon prints were mounted on
paper or on glass.
Charles Cros independently published the correct principie of the sub-
tractive colour method two days aRer the granting of a patent to Ducos du
Hauron on 23rd Febmary 1869.
I n his book Ducos du Hauron also made a correct forecast of the additive
colour process by the line screen system, which was elaborated by the
Dublin physicist Charles Jasper Joly in 1896, using a screen plate with
250 lines per inch.
Like al1 other experimenters trying to solve the problem of colour photo-
graphy Ducos du Hauron was seriously impeded by the comparative in-
sensitivity of photographic negative material~to colours other t h m blue
and violet. Even the most correct theory was bound to lead to unbalanced
colour picmres uxi! p o d orthochromatic material was available. Ducos du
Hauron's earl; ..t surviving colour photograph, a view of Angoulhe (111.42)
dates from 1877, and tbough taken affer the introduction of certain dyesmffs
which had the effect of increasing the sensitivity to other colours, the carbon
print is far from perfect.
The discovery of the power of particular dyes to render the photographic
emulsion sensitive to al1 colours was the one step needed to turn the theory
of three colour photography into practice. In Decmber 1873 Hermann
Wilhelm Vogel, prnfessor of photochemistry at the Technische Hochschule,
Berlin, discovered that by bathing the collodion plate in particular aniline
dyes its sensitivity to green was increased to some extent. Vogel's pioneer
work in orthochromatism led a number of other investigators to experiment
on similar lines, with the result that through new and betrer colour sensi-
tizers the photographic plate was by degrees made more sensitive to green,
yellow, and orange. Orthochromatic plates were, however, still compara-
tively insensitive to red and over-sensitive tn blue. Ir was not until 1906
that the first tmly panchromatic plates (!.e. sensitive to al1 colours nf the
spectrum) were commercially introduced by Wratten 8: Wainwright of
London, aRer new I.G. Farben dyestuffs had extended the sensitivity of
the photographic emulsion to red.
 A pioneer in inventing equipment for three colour p l i o t o p p h y wnc
Frcderick Eugene I w s of Pliiladelpliia, wliose various apparnnic first niade
the realization of colour photographs a comnercial proposition. In Ives's
Photochrom~sco~e camera (1891) three separation negatives were talten in
rapid succession on one plate by means of a repeating back containing red,
green and blue-violet filters. From diese, black and whire diapositives were
made by contact printing. Ui'hen laid on the Kromskop viewing instrument
(1892), containing filters in the same colours, the Kromograms appear in
perfect colour.
Ires also brought out stereo versions of these instmments, in which the
colour picturcs are seen in relief, and in 1695 inrroduced the Projection

I Kroniskop for usc with a magic lantern, which was followed a few years
later by a one-shot colour cnniera.
Prof. Gabriel Lippiiiaiiii's interference process (1S91), based oii tlie theory
of Wilhelm Zeiilxr, aroused much scientific speculation, for it produced n
dirccr n.111lra1colour picture without the intervention of filters or dyes.
whicli c m only gire cloie approximations. The phenomenon of colours pro-
duced by interrcrcnce was described by Sir Isaac Newton, and can hc seen
in, for instince, sonp bubbles, morher-of-pearl or oil on a wet road, wbicli
appear colourcd though consisting of colourless substances. A thin plioto-
grapliic plate coated witli fiiic-grain silver bromide was placed vith the emul-
sion side in contact wirli mercury. This fornied a mirror-like deposit, decom-
posing the white light into the spectmm colours by the interference of liglit
rays reflectcd by this thin film of mercury, the colours being caused by the
phenomenon of interierrnce due to the stmcture which the mercury deposir
Iias acquired. From the practical point of view Lippmann's process NIS too
complicatcd, tlie esposure cxtremely long, tlie picture difiicult to sce, aiid
impossible to rcproducc.
A turning point in practical colour pliotograpliy was tlie colour scrccn
process patented iii 1904 by rhe brotlicrs Augurrc and Louis Lunii6re. The
Autoclirome plates manufactured at thrir facrory at Lyons were not com-
iiiercially introduced until 1907, afier good panchromatic cmulsion was
nvailable. The glxs plites were coated witli ni~croscopicallysmall grnins of
starcli dyed green, red and blue. Over them a rhin film of pancliromatic
eniulrion war applicd. Thc exposure was made througli tlie glass side of tlic
plate, !.c. througli the dycd srnrch grains acring as colour filters. A&cr dc-
vclopment the place was re-exposed ro light and re-developed (reversal
procesi), resulting in a transparency composed of small specks of primary
colours giving the efiect of mixed colours, as in a pointilliste painting.
 Although the Autochrome was the first colour process to enjoy consider-
able popularity, particularly among amateurs, it had the disadvantages that
the exposure was about forty times longer than with black and white, and
that the transparencies were rather dense.
In this resume only brief mention can be made of the best-known of
the other colour processes invented before 1935. Though improvements on
previous additive or subtractive processes, al1 were too complicated and
expensive to find widespread application. Additive procerses: Dufay (1908),
Agfa colour plate (1916) introduced in film form as Agfacolor (1932),
Finlay Screen process (1929). Subtractioe processes: Sanger-Shepliard (1930),
Pinatype (1934), Uvachrom invented by Arthur Traube (1916), Duxochrom
invented by Herzog (1929), Autotype carbro process (1930), Vivex colout
prints (1932), Kodak wash-off relief (1934).
Moderii methods of colour photography are based on multiple-layer film
and coupling components. This principle was almost aimultaneously intro-
duced by Kodak and Agfa.
In Kodachrome film (1935), devisedby two American amateurs Leopold
Godowsky and Leopold Mannes, three layers of emulsion are coated on
film support, the total thickness amounting to no more than an ordinary
black and white film. The top layer is sensitive only to blue light, the
middle layer to green and the bottom layer to red. (The idea of using
substances sensitive to one colour only aras first put forward by Henry
Collen iii 1865.) AAer development the residual silver bromide in eacli
layer is re-exposed and independently developed in coupler developers
wliich deposit dye of pre-determined colours shcrever they develop silver
bromide to silver. Different coupler derelopers are therefore used for e d i
layer, and aker dissolsing away the positive silver image a subtractive
colour photograph of ycllow, magenta and cyan (blue-green) dyes remains.
The Agfacolor film introduced in 1936 was based on a similar principie,
and is not to be confused with the additive film of tlie same name intro-
duced four years earlier. The chief difference between this new Agfacolor
film and Kodacliromc was that tlie three coupling components were in.
corporated in the three emnlsion layers during maiiufacture. AAer develop-
ing to a negative and bleaching out the silver image, the reversal positive
image was produced by a single colour-forming developer in the required
subtractive colours. In America, this process was introduced as Anscocolor
in 1941.
With both Kodachronie and Agfacolor, film transparencies were obtained.
suitable for projectioii, and for reproduction. The natural desire, especially
of the amateur, was to have colour prints. Though the Agfacolor iiegative/
positive process was published in 1937, development of the system for prac-
tical use was stopped by the war and the film did not become availahle until
1950. Meanwhiie Kodak had brought out in 1942 the Kodacolor negative/
positive film in which the first part of the process (the making of the trans-
parency) is analogous to the procedure described above under Agfacolor.
Instead, hoaever, o i conrerting the negative into a positive transparency,
a negative dye image iii the complementary colours was lefi; this negative
was then printed on to paper coated with a similar set of emulsions to those
ou the original negative, and afier similar processing a positive print in the
priniary colours was obtained.
The processing vf al1 modern colour films is complicated and requires
controlled laboratory coiiditioiis aud for this reason ir performed by the
inanufacturers or their authorized agents properlv equipped for the work.
Since about 1950 leadiiig nmnufacturers of photographic materials in mani
parts of the morld have marlceted colour films uoder their own trade names.
n i e y are al1 more or less based on the Agfacolor patent which, as an enemy
invention, becanie arailnble to the allied poaers.
An exception is the Polaroid colonr film introduced by the Polaroid Cor-
pornion of Cambridge, hIassachuscrts, in 1963, for use in the Polaroid
Land ciniera. It produces a direct colour positive in one rninute.
 THE ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENTS
OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Pictures and their Makers up to 1914

TFIE D.\GCERREOTWE

Anwicn
Probnbly no other iiivcnti•áii erer captured tlie iiiiagiiiatioii oi tlie piiblic to
sucli an estent and conqucrcd thc world with sucli Iiglitning rapidity as the
dagucrreotype. W'ithin a nioiith of tlie manipulation's being made public,
D. V. Seager, an English resident in New York, on 16th September 1839
took thc first successful daguerreotype in theNew Vorld-a view of St Paul's
Church, New York. H e was immediately followed by two professors of
Nem York University, Samuel blorsc, portrait painter and invcntor of thc
electro-magnetic telegraph, and tlie scientist D r John William Draper, mlio
independeiitly of one another ex~erimented with portraiture. Alesander
S. Wolcott, a New York manufacturer of dental supplies, on 7th October
succeeded in taking a profile porrrait the size of a sijinet-rinp of Iiis partner
John Johnson. Nine days later Josepli Saxton, an official of tbc U.S. Mint,
took tlie earliest surviving American daguerreotype, a view in Philadelphia.
\Y'l~en,rlierefore, Franqois Gouraud, ageot of Daguerre and Giroux, the
niaoufacturer of his apparatus, arrired in New York on 23rd Novembcr
with the intcnrion of introducing the daguerreotype in the New Wrorld,
he found he liad Lcco forestalled. Howerer, the thirty daguerreotypes
which Gouraud eshibited in a Broadway hotel werc vastly superior to the
experimental ones so far made in the United States. According to Tbe
Knickerbocker, the French daguerreotypes were 'the rnost rernarkable ob-
jects of curiosity 2nd admiration. in the arts, that me evrr beheld. Their
exquisite perfection alrnost transcends the bounds of sober belief'. Gouraud
gave dernonstrations and lessons, sold daguerreotype outfits, and pblished
an instruction manual in biarch 1840. Independently from tliis, there appear-
ed almost sirnultaneously a brochure by D r James Chilton, a Broadway
chemist.
During the winter Volcott, with the assistance of Henry Fitz, who
possessed some koowled~eof outics, had devised a novel camera in which
a concave mirror was substituied for a lens (111.26). This shortened the
esposure to 3-5 minutes, and allowed Wolcott and Johnson to open the
world's first Daguerreian Parlor in New York a t the beginning of March
1840. .4 contributory factor to success in 'sun-drawn miniatures' was Wol-
cott's ingenious lighting system. Two adjustable mirrors outside the window
reflected the sunlight on to the sitter through a plateglass trough filled with
a solution of copper sulphate, the blue colour of which made the light more
actinic as well as protecting the sitter's eyes from the glare.
The following month Morse and Drapcr, considering their experiments
sufficiencly advanced, opened jointly a portrnit studio on the roof of the
Unirersity building, where they also gave lessons in daguerreotype mani-
pulation. The earliest good portrait to survive until modern times was talien
by Draper of his sister in June 1840 (111.43). I t measured 311sX23/r
iiiclies and the esposure was 65 seconds. The first dctailed dcscription of the
taking of photographic portraits was communicated by Draper to Tbc LOTI-
don & Edinlirrrgh Pbilorophical Magazine and published in September 1840.
By the early 'forties portrait studios abounded in American cities, and
itinerant daguerreotypists appeared in erery small town.
Prominent early American daguerreotypists include Charlcs R. Meadc,
M. M. Lawrence, Jeremiah Gurney and Matliew B. Brady, al1 in New
York. The latter from 1844 onward photograplied erery American of
distinction with the intention of forming a National Historical Portrait
Gallery. Edward Anthony in partnership with J. M. Edwards opened a
portrait studio in Washington D.C. in 1842 and photogrnphed al1 the Mem-
bers of Congress. Marcus A. Root of Philadelphia was from 1842 to 1846
in partnership with J.E. Mayall, later a leading photographer in London.
John Adams W i p p l e of Boston ir better known for a particularly success-
ful daguerreotype of tlic moon in 1851 than for Iiis portraits. Excellent
vicws, as wcll as portraits, were takcn by Albert Sands Southworth and
his partner Josiali John Hawes in Boston, where John Plurnbe. a Welsh
iinmigrant, became in 1841 prohably the first American manufacturer of
daguerrcot~peapparatus and matcrials. He also had a photographic studio
tlierc, and during the next few years opened a chain of twelve other branches
across the United States.
Most European daguerreotypes are small portraits, but in the United
States the process was frequently also used for landscapes. In July 1845 the
brotliers \Villiam and Frcderick Langenlieim. portrait photo~raphers in
Philadelphia, made a number of large panoramic pictures of the Niagara
Falls, each made up from five separate views. Charles Fontayne and W. S.
Porter three years later produced a fine panorama of Cincinnati waterfront
no less than S feet long, made up from eight dayerreotypcs each 12x9
inches. Platt D. Babbitt was granted in 1853 the monopoly for photography
on rhe American side of the Niasara Falls. When visitors stood a t the edge
of the cliE to admire the Falls he would take them unawares (111.44) and
of course they wcre always glad to buy a picture as a souvenir. Babhitt was
probably the first to specialize in this kind of tourist photography. The
bright reflection from the watcr enabled him to give an almost instan-
taneouc esposure showing the spray and clouds. The only European t o have
succeeded in phorogrnphing clouds by this dare was Hippolyte hlacaire of
Le Havre.
In Novernher 1853 rhere appeared iii New York the first photopraphic
journal in the worid, Thc Dagiierreian joi~rnal:d e v o ~ r dto the Daguerrrian
and Photogenic Arts. On the banks of the Hudson River a town grew up
round a large factory mal+ daguerreotype supplics and was appropriately
named Daguerrerille.
 At the Grmt Exhihition in London, 1851, American daguerreotypes won
universal praise for tlieir teclinical brilliance, due to special care in polishing
the silvered plate-frequently by steam-machinery driving cleaning and
buffing wheels.
The daguerreotype attained its greatest popularity in the Stntes in 1853
mlien tliree million were cstirnated to be produced. In New York City done
tliere were about a hundred studios. n i e process remained popular in the
United Stntes until the mid-'sixties, several years longer than in Europe.

Grrnt Rritnin
England was tlie only country in which the daguerreotype had becn patent-
ed. In Fehrcarp 1840 Daguerre and Isidore Niepce (Nicepliore's son) sent
to England an agent, Elzeard Desire Letault, with rhe aim of selling the
daguerreotype patent to the British Government or some public institution.
Howeaer, Lbtault returned ro Paris two months lnrer witliout having accom-
plished his object.
About this time Richard Beard, coal-merchant and patent specularor,
acquired frorn Alexaiider Wolcott the right to use bis mirror camera, wliich
was vital to Bcnrd's plan to mnke plioto~rapliicportraiture a commercial
success. H e engaged John Drederick Goddard, a science lecnirer, with the
obiect of accelerating tlie daguerreotype process with bromine (which he
learned Wolcott had erperimented with) in order to make it fast enough
for portrnirure. By 12th December Goddard had succeeded sufficiently
to make an announcement in The Litrrary Gazctte of his ability to take
portraits, and Beard went ahead with Iiis p!an for a public studio. This
mas opened on 73rd March 1S41 on the roof of the Royal Polytechnic
lnstitution in London. I t v a s tlie first ~ u b l i cphotoyaphic portrait studio
in Europc, 2nd the n o v e l t ~of having one's likeness tnken 'by the sacred
rndiancc of thc Sun' caused immcnse escitement. Crowds flocked to Beard's
rsrablisliment, and 'in rhe waiting rooms you would see the nobility and
bcauty of England, accommodating each other as well as the limited space
would allow. during hours of tedious delay'. 'Ilie average daily takings
smountcd to •’150, the chirge being one guinea for a l'/?X? inch portriir
-the size to which the picture was limited by the mirror camera. The es-
posure varied in summer from 3 seconds to 2 minutes and in winter from
3 to 5 minuter according to tlie wearher. For this reason the head-test as
emplo~edhp Sir TIiomas Lawrence and other portrait painters v a s taken
over by photograpliers, 2nd remained in use to a cerrain exrent up to the
Great War.
 Eeard's studio was circular and glazed with blue glass casting a mysterious
liglit which made people look like spectres. Thc arrangement mas more
comenient than Volcott's liquid filters. The posing chair stood on a raised
platform bringing tlie sitter closer to the light (111. 41). Herc
.%pollo's agent on earth, wlien your attitude's riglit,
Your collar adjusted, your locks in their placc,
Just seizes one moment of favouring light,
And utters tliree sentences: 'Now it's begun'-
'It's going on now, sir'-and 'Now it is done'.
And lo! as 1 h e , there's the cut of your face
On a silvery plare
CTiierring as fate,
Worked off in celestial and strange mezzotiiit
A little rcsembling an cldcrly print.
'Well, 1 never!' al1 cry: 'It is cmelly like you!'
But tmtli is unpleasant
To prince and to peasant.
The realizarioii that rhe camera revealed tlie xitter with uiicomproniisiii::
truth, dispclling cherished illusions of youth and heautv. aras disconcerting
a t fint, particularly to women. The demands of thc sitter for a good like-
ness and at the same time a beautiful portrait were-and still are-seldom
compatible. Fashionable artists, especially miniaturists. had encournyed their
sirters' wliims, and traded on deccit. Suspecting, perhaps, that Alfred Cha-
Ion had made her quite unrecognizable by excessire flatterv. the young
Queen Victoria asked her Court painter one dav whether he were not
nfraid that photography would ruin his profession. Clialon's confident
reioinder, 'Ali non. Madame! photopphie can't flatdre' mns characteris-
tic. Nevertlieleis, the heydav of miniaturc painting was past. To al1 except
the incurahlv vain the intimacy of the actual image of life was plioto-
rrnphv's strongest attraction (111. 46). It was this qlia!ity that caused
Elizabeth Rarrett to write to her friend h t a Russell
~ Mitford in 184.3: 'It
is not merely the likeness which is precious-but the association 2nd the
sense of nearness involred in the thing . . . the fact of the very shadow of
the person Iving there fixed for ever! . . . 1 wou!d rather haoe such a memo-
rial of one 1 dearly lored, than the noblest artist's work ever produced.'
The best daguerreotypists took such excellent portrnits that even the sreat
Ingrer avowed: 'It is to this esactitude that 1 woiild like to attnin. Ir is
admirable-hur one must not say so.' (111.47).
 Daperreotype portraiture proving a lucrative business, in Junc 1841
Bead bought Daguerrc's patent riglitc for thc daguerrcotype in England,
Vnles 2nd tlie Colonies. To orercome a frequent complaint against dagu-
errcotypes by people used to miniatures, Beard in March of tlie following
year pacenred a method of colouring dayerreotypes. Further studios were
soon opened by Iiim in London and tlie proriiices, and he also sold licences
for profcssional studios i i i certain towns 2nd counties. For amnteurs tlie fce
wns five guineas annually. Bcard's quickly-nrncd fortune was lost, Iiovever,
i i i screral protractcd lansuits a ~ a i n s tinfringers of liis rights aiid Iie was
declnred baiikrupt in June 1850-three years before the patcnt ran out.
Tlic mozt distin~uisheddaguerrcotypist in Britaiii w x Antoine Clnudet,
a Frciicliiiiaii who liad settled in London iii 1827 ns an importer of slieet
glass nnd glais domes. In .4ugust 1839 he learned rlie dnguerrcotypc procns
from the inventor himself 2nd purchased from Iiim a licciice to practise it in
Britain. He v a s alsn granted sole agency rights for tlie import and sale of
Frencli daperreotypes and Dasuerre's apparatus. Claudrt's indepcndcnt ex-
perimentatioii with an acceleration process led hini to succcs slightly later
rlian Goddard. After discovering that a combinatioii of ~Iilorineand iodine
vapour p a t l y increased the sensitivity of the plate, Claudet began taking
portraits professionally in June 1841 in a glass-house erccted on tlie roof of
the Roval Adelaide Gallery, a popular scientific recreation centre rivalling
tlie Polytecliiiic. This was tlie second photographic portrait studio in Europe.
Claudet was a man of superior calibre to Beard, who was mcrcly a pro-
moter. He helonged to that rare species of being equallv distingiished in the
scientific aiid artistic fields, and an inventor as well. For the first qunlity
he was elrcted a Fellow of the Royal Society; liis artisric mcrits were sunimed
up by T!,r Atbenaer<m: '\Vhnt Lawrence did with his brush, hionsieur Clau-
dct appears to do with hir lens.' (111s. 17,48). Claudct introduced the red
dark-room light, the use of painted backgrounds, and sereral instriiments,
especidl!, in the field of stereoscopy. I n 1851 he set up n 'Temple to Plioto-
graphy' in Regent Strect-thc most elegnnt rstahlislimcnt of its I<ind in Brit-
ain, designed by Sir Charles Barw, ardiitect of the Houses of P.i, r 1'iament.
John Jabez Edwin Mayall, a daguerreotvpist in Philadelphia from
1842116, opened his American Daperreotype Institution in London early
in 1847 under the pseudonym 'Professor Highschool'. Early daguerrrotypists
frequently called tliemselres 'Professor'. The technical excellence of hlayall's
portraits soon hrought him into prominence. A 24x20 inch daguerreotype
portrair re ser ved at the Science Museum, London, was probably taken by
him. for only Americans took dag~erreot~pes of such large dimensions.
 Other notcd London professional daguerreotypists include William Ed-
ward Kilburn, T. R. Williams and William Telfer.
The Science Museum, London, possesses 158 wholeplate daguerreotypes
of Italian architecture and views taken in 1840 and 1841 (111. 49). Most
of them are by Dr Alenander Jolin Ellis, philologist and rnathematician, but
some of tlie earlier ones were commissioned by him from Achille Morelli and
Lorenzo Suscipi. Ellis's own pictures bea: an exan description of subject,
date, time of day, and exposure, w X i varied from 5 to 35 rninutes. The
photographs were intended for publication as steel engravings, which, how-
ever, for some unknown reason did not rnaterialize. n i e y are the only
daguerreotype views known to have been taken by an Englishman, and the
eariiest surviving photographs of Italy.
Tlie first professional portraitist iii Scotland-wliere photograpliy was free
from patent rc5trictions-was a Mr Howie who began taking portraits in
Princes Street, Edinhurgh, in autumn 1841. The sitter liad to climb tliree
flights of stairs and a ladder through a skylight oii to the roof, where
Howie would push him into a posing chair with tlic encourngiiig observa-
tion: 'There! Now sit as still as death!'
In Ircland tlie first Daguerreotype Portrait Institution n 8 x opened iii
Dublin by a Hungarian, 'Professor' Gluckman, in 1842.
 50 'LA PATIENCE LIT LA ~ R T L T
Das Iix1.5'. C.4RICITURE BY D A U M I E R
rnou 'LE cnzaivani', 1839

Frauce
Witli Arago's revelarion of the daguerreotype manipulation, al1 Paris mas
seized with d~gucrreotypomania.An eye-witness nrrote: 'You could see in
al1 the squares of P x i s thrcc-leg~cddark-bores planted in front of churches
and palaces (Ill. JO). All tlie physicists, chemists and lcarncd men of the
capital were polisbing silaered plates, and even the better class grocers found
it impossible to den? tliemselves the pleasure of sacrificing some of their
nieans oii tlie altar of progress.' EJitioli ~ A e redition o l Dzguerre's official
ilistniction Liooklet was quickly sol11 out. Atogether no fewer than twenty-
nine editions were publislied in the next four months, in six langua,mes, not
counting a number of brochures by other people wliicli appeared in that
period.
Considering the tremendous impact [he invention made, it is surprising
that only seveoreen dapcrreotypes by the inventor himself, many of
whicli he priscnted to heads of State, have survired. They are of still-lifes
in his studio (111.lil), buildiiigs and views in Parir (111. 12), and a few
portraits taken in the mid-'iorries at his country house ar Bry-sur-Marne
ro which he retired in 1840.
In France. as elsewhere, attempts ar portraimre were immediately made,
bv D r hlfred Doniit, liead of rhe Charid clinic; Abel Reiidu, a civil serv-
ant; Susse Frkres; E. T. and E. Moiitmiret; and others. As people had to
sir imprisoned iii a posing cliair in direcr sunshine for about a quarter of
an hour they looked more dead than alive (111.li3). The only people who
could stand the ordeal with a reasonable measure of success were artists'
models, but ir was not until July 1840 tbat ~ o r r r a i t sof this kind were
menrioncd for the first time as being on view.
 As architecture, sculpture and landscapes do not depend for success on
a short exposure, N. P. Lerebours, an enterprising Parisian optical instru-
ment maker, equipped a number of artists and writers with daguerreotype
outfits of his own manufacture and commissioned them to take views in
many countries. Early in November 1839 Horace Vernet, painter of hiito-
rical battle scenes, who travelled to Egypt with Frederic Goupil Fesquet,
reponed from Alexandria: 'We keep daguerreotyping away like lions.'
Under the title Excursions Daguerriennes (1841-42) Lereboun published
fewer than one-tenth of the 1,200 daguerreotypes taken, copied as copper-
plate engravings and enlivened in many cases by the addition of figures.
Nearly as many fine architectural and landscape daguerreotypes were
taken by a single French amateur, Joseph Philibert Girault de Prangey,
during his travels thmugh Italy (111. M), Greece and the Near East in
1842-44. Some of his close-ups-possibly the earliest taken-formed the
basis of the illustrations in his book Monumentr arabes d'tgypte, de Syrie
e! d'Asie Mineur (1846).
The daguerreotype was a veritable mirror of nature. Its marvellously
clear rendering of detail and texture never ceased to arouse admiration. John
Ruskin, comparing his daguerreotype of a Venetian palace with a painting
by Canaletto of the same building, declared himself in Favour of the photo-
graph 'in whicli every figure, crack and stain is given on the scale of an
inch to Canaletto's three feet'. In 1843 he wrote enthusiastically to his
father: 'Photography is a noble invention, say what they will af !t. Anyane
who has worked, blundered and stammered as 1 have done [for] four days,
and then sees the thing he has been trying to do so long in vain, done per-
fectly and faultlessly in half a minute, won't abuse it afferwards.'
John Lloyd Stephens, an American traveller, and Frederick Catherwood,
an English artist, in 1841 revisited the lost cities of Yucatan where they had
been two years earlier. Tbe daguerreotypes which they took of niined
Mayan architecture, supplemented by camera lucida drawings, were pub-
lished as engravings in Incidents of Trauel in Yucatan (1843).
According to La Lumiere some unusual daguerreotypes were taken by a
Frenchman named Tiffcreau in Mexico in 184247. They included docu-
mentary pictures such as a Colima family preparing a meal outside their
hut, and tbe extraction of silver ore.
Come beautiful panoramic views of Paris measunng 15X4J/<inches were
taken by Friedrich Manens, a German residmg in Paris, with a panoramic
camera of his own invention (1845). Other prominent amateurs who did
excellent landscape work were the diplomar Baron Gros, and Hippolyte
Bayard, who had apparently lost confidence in photography on paper, of
n4iich he was one of the independent inventos.
Portrniture became possible in France only aRer Claudet's communication
to the Academie des Sciences on 7th June 1641 of his accelerating process
(details of Goddard's having been kept secret by Beard). Lerebours was
probably the first person in France to open a puhlic portrait studio; at nny
rate, during the second half of that year he is stated to have taken about
1.500 portraits. He was also one of [he enrliest to rake 'Acad6rnies'-nudc
studie for which there was always a demand in Paris from artists and
tourists.
Louis Bisson also opened a studio in Paris some time in 1841. Ahout 1848
he mas joined in business by his younger brother Auguste, and with the
support of a financia1 backer they were estahlished in the fashionable quarter
of the Madeleine. Henceforth until their retirement from photography in
the early 1860s their work was usually signed 'Bisson Freres'.
Other well-known French professional portraitists in the 1840s include
Richebourg, Derussy and Victor Plumier in Paris, and 1. Thierry and Vaillat
in Lyons, al1 of whom t w k up to 3000 portraits a year at prices varying
from 10 to 20 francs accordiug to size, whether tinted, and style of frame.
O n the Continent white passepartout frames were usual; in England and
America daguerreotypes were framed like miniatures in attractive velvet-
lined red morocco o r moulded plastic cases, or occasionally in hanging-
frames of the k i d used for silhouettes.
People could hardly helieve that the photographer could depict a large
group (111.55) just as quickly as a single portrait, and some early adver-
tisements drew special attention to the fact that there was no extra charge
for additional sitters in the picture. Many photographers, however, charged
more for children on account of the likelihwd of their spoiling several
plates by fidgetting. Incidentally, it was a Parisian daguerreotypist, Marc
Antoine Gaudin, who in 1843 first used the famous stock phrase to children:
'Now look in the hox and watch the dicky-bird!'

German-speaking corrntries
The keen interest of the Germans in the daguerreotype is evinced by tlie
surprisingly large numher of ten publicatioos on the process which appeared
there during 1839. In Berlin, daguerreotypes were taken within a month
of puhlication of the manipulation, by Louis Sachse, Theodor Dorffel and
Eduard Petitpierre, a Swiss. The first profesional studio in Berlin was
opened by J. C. Schall, a portrait painter whose earliest traceahle daguerreo-
type advertisement appeared on 16th August 1842. Within three weeks
competition arose from another porrrait painter, Julius Stiba. These Berlin
daguerreorypists had, however, heen preceded by another artist, Hermann
Biow, whose Heliographic Studio at Altona near Hamburg opened on
15th September 1841. Between 1646 and his early death in 1850 Biow dagu-
erreotyped royalties and celehrities in Dresden, Frankfurt, and Berlin,
where a studio was ser up for him in the Royal Palace. Here he photogra-
phed K i q Frederick William IV of Prussia, niany princes, politicians, and
 56 C. F. STELzYER.
DAGUERREOTYPE GROUP,
c. 1842

men famous in arc and scieiice. Like Urady in America, Biow planned a
National Gallery of Photographic Portraits, of whicli 126 were copied as
lithograplis and published in 1849.
For seven months from September 1842 onward Biow had as partner in
Hamburg Carl Ferdinand Stelzner, originally a miniature painter who had
studied under Isabey in Paris. Stelzner's art trnining comes out unmis-
takably in his daguerreotype portraits j111.>6j, sometimes with painted
backgrounds, and frequently tinted by his rvife, herself a professional minia-
nirist. Stelzner and Biow both took the most artistic daguerreotype por-
traits in Gemany, and indeed some of the finest of all.
They alro morded the ruinr of Hamburg following a devastating fire
on 5th-8th May 1842. Only one daguerreotype in this series survives, and
is the earliest photograph of an historic event (111.57). Unaware of t h e e
authentic picmres, The Illustrated London N e m published in its first issue
on 14th May 1842 an imaginary view of the fire based on an old print of
Hamburg in the British Museum, suitably embellished with flames and
smoke!
 nle important advance in the optics of the daguerreotype made by Petz-
val and Voigtlinder has already been referred to. Chemical acceleration by
the combined vapours of chlorine and bromine is due to Franz Kratochwila,
a Viennese civil servant, who published the process in the Wiener Zeitung
on 19th January 1841. Early in March the brothers Joseph and Johann
Natterer of Vienna were reponed to have taken portraits experimentally
wirh the Voigtlandcr camera on plates prepared according to Kratochwila's
method, which they found increased the sensitivity five times. The exposure
was 5 to 6 scconds in clear weather or 10 seconds on dull days, reinforced
by the liglit of an oil lamp. Chemical acceleration in conjunction with the
Voigtlinder camera reduccd tlie exposure to a fraction of a second out of
doors in bright weatlier. eiiabling the Natterer brothers to take instantane-
ous strect ricws with people 2nd rraffic. Whether tlie Natterers were the
first to open a professional portrait studio in Austria, or Karl Scliuh, who
came from Berlin and opened a studin in the Firstenhof, Vienna, cannot
be ascertaincd, but the date in eitlier case would certainly be 1841.

57 c . F. STCLZNER. DAUCLRREOTYPE OF RUIN5 A R O U N D T H E ALSTIR ATTER THE U R T A T

iini; oi. HAMBURG,
YAY 1842. Tln ThRLIEsT NTWS I'IIOTOCKAPH
 Johann Baptist Isenring, a carpenter and engraver in St Callen, Swiver-
land, deserves to be remembered as the first person to hold a public es-
hibition of photographic portraiu, to retouch photographs, and to attempt
to give daguerreotypes a painterly appearance by colouring them. Isenring's
four-page catalogue listing 39 portraits, in addition to still-lifes, architecture,
and so on, published in St Gallen in August 1840, ir the first of its kind. The
quality of his coarse over-painted daguerreotype portraits, in which the
pupils of the eyes were scratched in, can only be imagined, for none seems
to have survived. I t is rather doubtful that they were worth preserving.
Isenring himself cannot have been very satisfied, for it v a s only after learn-
ing of Kratochwila's chemical acceleration that he acccpted orders for
portraits from the public. Until then, he had only photographed relations
and friends. ?he novelty of having one's portrait taken provcd a grrat
success in Munich, where Isenring operated a portrait bootli at a fair i i i the
summer of 1841. The following year this itinerant pliotographer begnn
travelling around the countryside in his Sonnenwagen, the earliest photo-
graphic carriage with darkroom, living and sleeping quancrs. Altogether,
Isenring has the dubious distinction of being the first low-class photogrnpher.
Enougli has been said to show that by 1842-43 probably al1 European
capitals and large rowns (111. 58) had one or more portrait studios, and
snialler placer mere visited by itinerant photographers.
The daguerrcorype was a cul-de-sac in photography. Eacli piiture was a
unique image, and although various etching processes were devised to con-
vert the picture into a printing plate, they prored too complicated aiid
expensive for widespread use. Moreover, the daguerreotypc had otlier in-
superable disadvantages: the mirror-like sheen of the silvered place made
it difficulr to see the picture, and unless the photograph were taken through
a prism-which lengthened the exposure-the image, bcing a direct posirive,
was laterally reversed.

PHOTOGRAPHS ON PAPER

Great Britain
Talbot's first Iicensee was the miniamre painter Henry Callen, wlio opened
a Calotypc smdio in London in August 1841. H e took small porrraits in
about a minute, using them merely as a base for drawing or paintin: over.
?'he Calotype never became really popular, partly oii account of tlie
striiigenr conditions imposed by Talbot undcr his patent, partly bccauw rhe
soR grainy effect of the paper was generally considered a d i s a d ~ a n t a ~ e
compared with the brilliantly sharp dagucrreotype, and partly bccause of
its liability to fade. In the early and mid-'forties thcre were only about n
dozen practitioncrs of the Calotype, despite its inventor's efforts to popularizc
it by selling 'Sun Picturcs' through prinwellers and stationers. Talhot hoped
to recoup his family fortunes with his invention, and chis accounts for his
strict enforcement of patent rights and his interests in various commercial
ventures, considered hardly suitable in those days for a gentleman and a man
of leaming.
To demonstrate the chief advantage of his process over the daguerreotype,
which did not lend itself to publication, Talbot brought out two books
illustrated with original Calotypes. The prints were made at his photo-
graphic establishment at Reading (111. 19), started in 1843 under the
management of his former valet and photographic collaborator, Dutch-born
Nicolaas Henneman.
 Tbe Pcncil o/ t e 1 60), [he 6rst pliotographically-illustrawd
book in [he world, carne out in s i s parts d u r i n ~1844-46, and only about
a dozen complctc copics contniniiig al1 the 24 pliorographs are known. Siin
Pictlrres in Scotland. vith 23 photographs, v a s published in 1845. An ex-
planatory 'Norice to rhe Reader' in both boolis stressed the novclty of
pliotographic illustrations: 'The platcs in tlie present work are irnpressed by
the agcncy of liglit alone, without any aid wliatever frorn the arrist's pcncil.
They are the sun pictures themsel.i~cs,and not, as somc pcrsoiis hare imagiiied,
engravings in iniitarion.'
The rnajority of Talbot's pliotographs are rathcr matter-of-fact rccords,
though his work does includc a iiumber of Iiiglily artisric compositions
(111. 61), in sornc nf xhich he msy hare hati thc collalmration ni Hcnry
Collen. At any ratc, it is known that Collen's opinion prevailed when
pliotographing 'Tlie Ladder', and he rnay well llave ad\:ised Talbot oii otlier
occasions. Moreovcr, it has becn stated that somc of the pictures i i i Tbe

60 V . i i . i O X T L U O T . COYER O r
'THE PENCIL 01: NATURE', 1844.
Peiicil o j Nnture wcre takcii by Bciiiamiii Brnc;iiicll Turiier, aii nrtist n+o
became a well-known Calotypist. However, eren if Talbot lacked artistic
tnlent, he sliowcd aesthetic perception iii remarliing with regard to one of
tlic photographs iii this hooli: 'A painter's eye will often he arrested where
ordinary pcople see nothing reniarliahle. A casual ~ l e a mof sunrliine, or n
sliadow thrown ncross Iiis path, a tinie-withered oak, or a moss-covercd
stone, iiiny nwakcn 2 rrain of thoughts aiid fcelings, nnd picturcsquc imasin-
ing..'
I n n :iirtlier cflort ar Iiubliciry Talbot prcsc:ired to each of tlic 7,000 suh-
scribcrs to 7 ' 1 ~Art Llnion (jouriial) a spccimen Calotype to illustrate an
nrticle oii his proccss i i i thc June 1846 irrue. n i i s was thc iast important
work undertakcn at the Rcnding establishment, whicli was closcd the follow-
i i i ~spriii.: rvlieii 'i'albot opciied a portrait studio in R e ~ c n tStreet. London.

in Heniirninii's nniiic. niit likc an carlier attempt of Clauder to introdiicc

Cnlotypc portraits iii his dagucrreotype smdio in 1344, chis commercid
renture mas not a wccc~s,and Hcnneman later changed orer to tlie col-
Iiidioii process.
.4lthoii~liTalhot's pltcrit did not cover Scotlnnd, tlierr was surprisin~ly
uiily one professiniinl Cnlorypc studio iiortli of tlie Eorder-that of Hill
and Adnmson.
David Octarius FIill. a native of Pcrtli. was a landscape paintcr well
I<iiown iii Iiis dar. His reputntion v a s cctablished by The Land of B~irnr
(1S40) illustrated witli 61 steel en~ravinrscopied froni his paiiitin~snf
ccenes nssociared wirh the life aiid works of thc Scottish poet Robert Burns.
During Iiis Iifctime Hill cxhihited nearly 300 pictures a t the Roya1 Scottish
Academy (of whicli he wns a founder-memtcr. and secretary for forty
years) and elcewlierc. His romaiitic Iandccapes wcre much admired at tlie
time, 2nd indeed i u d g i n ~from the Iialf-dozen or so which survive, are
superior ro most Victorian paintings. Tliere ir more than a touch of hoth
Turncr 2nd Samuel Palmer in the mountainous landscape bathed in thc
golden Iight of tlie sctting sun. in a paiiiting possessed hy the authors.
\V!int cauwd tliis succcssful landccapc painter to take up photograpliic
portriture? Pi'isliinc to commemorate the disruption of rhc Cliurch of
Scotlnnd in hlay 1543 by a monumental painting including portraits of
474 ministers and proniinent lay members, Hill soon realized the difficulty
n i I i i ~rclf-imposed tnslr. Sir David Brewster, a member of the Frec Cliurch
Coiiiinitrec ancl a friend of Taltot, siigscsted taking Calotype portraits of
thc rcsi~iiincniinisters to serre as studies for tlie painting, and put Hill i i i
coucl~witli RoSert .4d.inison wlio e:.rlier that year had oprned a Calotype

h l o;. H. POX TALBOr. 'THC CHFSS 1'1 IYFRS'. CAl.OTYPT, 1942

62 DnVlo ocrnvicr IIILL mi,
ROUERT ADAMSON. JAMES N S M Y T H ,
INVENTOR OF THE STEAhl HAMMLR.
CALOTTPE. C. 1845

studio at Rock House, Calton Hill, Edinburgh. Tiie collaboration turned

out to be an ideal association. Adamson's technical skill was indispensible
to Hill, who brought to photography an artistic conception of an unusually
Iiigli order. They started by taking portraits of some of the participants in
tlie first General Asrembly of rhe iiewly-formed Free Church of Scotland.
Tlieir fame soon spread and many other distinguished people came to be
photogaphed (111. 62). Since suniight was essential, they were posed in
the porch at Rock House (ill. 63), and in many picmres an arrangemenr
of curtains and furniture conveys a convincing impression of an interior.
Most of these photographs are 6x8 inches, and tlie exposure must have
been about a minute.
Hill and Adamson often took their camera to nearby seaside villages to
photograph old stone cottages, fishing boats, groups of sailors and fisher-
folk in scenes of everyday life. Tiieir joint Opus of some 1,500 photographs
also includes architecn~ral views of St Andrews and Edinburgh, where
Greyfriars churchyard witli its ivy-clad walls and ancient monuments formed
a favourite background for picturesque groups. Curiously enougli, though
Hill was a landscape painter, rhere are comparati\~elyfew photographic
landrcapes by liim 2nd Adamson.
Coiitemporary critics were full of admiratioii for these Calotypes, whicli
look not unlike purple-brown mezzotints. On account of the grain and
rhickness of tlie paper negative, tlie Calotype gave broad effects (111. 64),
whicli suited Hill's style much better than the brilliantly detailed dagucrreo-
type would have done. The Hill/Adnmson portraits are powerful in charac-
terizarion and display a masterly sense of form and a sure instinct for bold
and simplc composition. The massing of liglit and sliade and apparent easc
of pose give rhem great charm.
After the death of Adamson at the agc of twenty-seven Hill devotcd the
remainder of Iiis life to painting. The enormous canvas Signing of thc Drrd
of Demission on whicli he worked on nnd off for twenty-three years is no
better than a gigantic 'mosaic' group, of interest only because of tlie com-
parisoii it affords with some of the HilllAdamson Calotype portraits. In
this crowded composition Hi11 portrayed liimself with sl;erchbook :iiid pencii,
whereas Adamron ir depicted ar tlic camera-man. However, thc nrtistic
failiirc of Hill'c laccr short conieback to photography with aiiotlicr coll;ib•á-

63 DAVID OCTAIrILIS NlLL

A N D ROBERT ADAMSON.
'THE BIRDC~GE'. CALOTYPE
c. 1843
65 ROGER ITVTON. DOMES OF T H t CATHFDR.4L OF THE RE(URRCCTI0N IN
THE K R E M L ~ UVAXED
. PAPER PROCESE, 1852
rator prows tbat Adnmson's r d e cnn h.irdly Iiave becii iiierely that of
tecliniciaii, i i i spite of the fsct thst Hill used to show their joinr produc-
tioiis in photogrsphic eshibitions 2nd i t the Royal Sci~tisliilc~dcniyalong-
side his paintin~sas 'Calotype portraits executed by R. Acl~msonuiidcr the
artistic direction of D. O. Hill'.
In the aurumii of 18.17 a dozen or so keen amateurs stnrtcd tlie Cnlotype
Club in London. They included Rogcr Fenton and P. H . Delnmotte, wbo
both latcr did outstanding work with the waxed pnper process, the former
during a visit to Russil (111. 6Fj in 1952, the latter af tlie C ~ s t a Palace
l
i i i Hyde Park.

In Edinburgh a similar association ir said to Iiare existed iii tlie 'iorties,

but it probably ceased before the gynaecologist Dr Thomas Kcitli took
up pliotography. He took arcliitecturil alid landscape pliotographs (111.66)
on waxed paper in and around the Scottisli capital bctwcen 1853 2nd 1856,
acliieving in thesc fields tlie s.lme Iiigh artistic levcl as Iiis friend D. O. Hill
Iiad in portraiturc aiid genre. Anotlier Scottisli landscapc pliotographer of
distinction nras John rorbcs-\Vhitc.
Calotype views 2nd arcliitectural closc-ups of linusual artistic rnerir were
takeii by John SIiaw Srnith, an Irish landowncr, during a tour through
southcrn Europe and tlie Ncar aiid Middle Cast in 1853-52 (111.67).
Srnitli and his wife ventured as far as Pctra, tliougli he was not the first ro
photograph tlie rosc-red city. n ~ a distinction
t Lcloiigs to D r George S.Keith,
hrother of Thonias Iieitii, who in 1841 accompanied Iiis father on a tour
of tlie Nexr East and tooli nbout 30 dagu~rreoty~es.
France and otl~ercoxntries
The Calotypc Iiad hccn patented in France on 29th August 1841, but tlie
only person known to use it (as well as tlie daguerreotype) was Hippolyte
Bayard, whose windniiils of hlonrniartre (111. 68) is one of his rnost
attractive pictures. In spite of Bayard's example and Talbot's public de-
monstrations in Pans in May 1843 (111.69) tbere was no demand for
photographs on paper until the publication of Blanquart-Evrard's modifica-
tion in 1847, which reduced the exposure to about a quaner of that pre-
viously needed. His process bad, however, the disadvantage of requiring the
final preparation to be carried out immediately before exposure, so that for
outdoor work a dark-tent and chemicals bad to be transporred to the scene,
as with the daguerreotype and later the collodion process.
In July 1851 Blanquart-Evrard opened a photographic printing firm
at Lille for the production of positives for book illustration, and the print-
ing of amateurs' negatives on a much larger scale than Talbot's Reading
establishment. The earliest and best-known book for which Blanquart-
Evrard's firm printed the photographs (125 in number) was Maxime Du
Though occasionally used for portraits by amateurs, the waxed paper proc-
ess was mainly employed for landscapes and architecture, being very
convenient for the travelling photographer because the paper could be
sensitized ten to fourteen days beforehand (instead of the day before as with
the Calotype) and did not need to be developed until several days afier the
picture had been taken (whereas the Calotype had to be developed the
same day).
The convenience of paper negatives, as improved by rhe French, encour-
aged many people to take up photography, and the Cociete Heliographique
was formed in Paris in January 1851%under tbe presidency of Baron Gros.
Among its founder-members were several artists and authors, above al1
Delacroix and Champfleury. During that year Gustave Le Gray, O. Mestral,
Henri Le Secq, Edouard Baldus and others used the paper process for
photographing buildings of historic importante in various districts of France
 Camp's Egypte, Nubie, Palestine et Syrie (Ill.70), the hrst instalment of
which appeared in September 1851. By his method of developing positive
copies (as is done today) Blanquan-Evrard was able •á,prinr 200-300 copies
from each negative per day, whereas with the slow printing-out paper
generally used until the tum of the century the average daily output per
negatire was restricted to two or three copies. niese developed prints had
a rather cold grey tone far less attractive than the warm purple-brown
colour of Calotypes. At the Lille printing works the photographs were
particularly thoroughly rinsed and gold-toned for permanente.
The waxed-paper process published in December 1851 by Gustave Le
Gray, a painter and photographer, was another variant of the Calotype.
Ordinary Calotype negativa were usually waxed before printing in order
to speed up the copying and to give a clearer positive, but this did not
altogether eliminate the grain of the paper. In Le Gray's process a thinner
type of paper was prelirninarily waxed, rendering ir quite transparent and
giving as fine detail as a glass negatire. Exposures were on the whole about
the same as with the Calotype, but development took one to three hours.

73 MAXIME DU CAMP. STATUI! OP !

RAMESES 11 ON THE PACADE OP THE
#
TEMPLE AT ABU SIYBEL, NUBIA.
CALOTYPE,
1849
i
for the Government Commission on Historic Monuments. Charles Negre,
a pupil of Delaroche and Ingres, took up photography early in 1851
primarily in order to make studies for liis Salon paintings (111.71) hut he
also took many arcliitectural pliotoyraphs, of Chartres Cathedral and in
the south of France. Other well-knonn photographers using the paper proc-
esses inclnde Hippolyte Bayard, Baron Humbert de Molard (Ill. 72),
Vicomte Vigier, Charles Marville and Baron Gros. Within a few years al1
tliese photographers changed orer to the collod'ion process.
In Rome Comte Flacheron was the centre of a small photographic circle,
to whicli belonged Prince Giron des Anglonnes, E u g h e Constant and
Giacomo Caneva.
 The first French photographically illustrated book, ltalie Monumentale
by Eugene Piot, commenced publication in Paris in May 1851. Later the
same year appeared Henri Le Secq's Amienr: Recueil de Photographies, and
L. A. Manin's Promenades poetiques et daguerriennes. Despite the title,
these two small guidebooks on Bellewe and on Chanrilly were illustrated
with paper photographs. Almost simultaneous with Maxime Du Camp's
Egypte was Blanquart-Evrard's Album Photographique. His Lille establish-
ment also printed Auguste Salzmann's two volume work Jerusalem, etude
et reproduction photographique de la Ville Sainte (1856).
In Spain, Charles ClifTord, an Englishman domiciled in Madrid, became
Court photographer to Queen Isahella 11. H e learned tbe waxed paper
process about 1852 and published four years later Vistas del Capricho, an
album of fifty views of the charming eighteenth-century summer palace near
Madrid (111.73). H e is, however, best linown for his large collodion photo-
graphs of scenery and ancient architecture in Spain issued in 1858 under the
title Voyager en Espagne.
Except in France, photography on paper was comparatively little used
on the Continenr. Despite the facr that in Germany two manuals were
published on Calotype portraiture, in Aachen 1841 and Quedlingburg 1842,
the Calotype was still referred to as 'a bitherto unknown process' when
taken up by Wilhelm Breuning, a Hamburg daguerreotypist, in July 1846.
Two Calotypists in Munich became prominent. Alois L6chere1, a profes-
sional portrsit photographer from 1847 onward, is especially noted for his
six pictures of the transport of the gigantic statue Bavaria from the foundry
to its position in front of the Hall of Fame in Munich in 1850 (111.74).
Franz Hanfstaengl, founder of the still-exisring art publishing firm, changed
over from lithographic to pliotographic reproduction in 1353, opening at
the same time a studio where he calotyped many celebrities.
A Dresden amateur, A. F. Oppenheim, used the waxed paper process on
a tour through Spain in 1852 and the following year in Athens, where a
local photographer, Margarite, sold large Talbotype views to rourists.
The waxed paper photographs of Dr August Jacob Lorenr, a German
traveller, were admired at photographic exhibitions in rhe late 1850s. In
1861 he published in Mannheim a volume of his photographs of Egypt, the
Alhamhra, Alpiers, and so on. This was followed by similar worlis on Sicily
and Jerusalem, where as late as 1864 he was still using waxed paper.
In Switzerland Carl Durheim of Berne, fonnerly a daguerreotypist, in
1849 changed over to the paper process, as apparently also did J.B. Isenring,
previously referred to.

73 CHARLES C L I F F O R D FOUNTAIN AND STAIRCASE AT

CAPRICHO PALACE NEAR GUADALAJARA, SPAIN, C. 1855
 A Calotype studio was opened in Vienna in October 1547 by thc portrait
painters R. Gaupmann and G. Fisdier.
The only professional Calotypist in Scandinaria aras a Danish-born
lawyer, Hans Thoger Winther, who had a portrait studio in Stockholm for
a few months in 1S42 before settling in Oslo.
The brothen William and Frederick Langenheim, leading daguerreotypists
in Philadelphia, bought Talbot's U.S. patent in 1548 but were unable to
create a demand for paper photographs in spite of their own excellent
esamples.

PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE COLLODION AhQ GELATINE PROCESSES

Ir ir impossible to judge whether a photograph has been taken on albumen,
collodion, gelatine dry plate or film negative, by looking a t the print, which
ir in most cases a contact copy on sepia-toned albumen paper lacking tlie
viiible distinctions that characterize the daguerreotype, the Calotype, and
tlie Ambrotype. In any case, such infonnation would be of interest only
from the pnrely technical point of view and has no bearing on the quality
of the picture. A rough division occurs around 1880 with the change-over
to gelatine dry plates, though many photographers continued using collodion
for another decade or so.
On its introduction in i S j l the collodion process was received with
delight, for Archer-who died in poverty six years later aged forq-four-
did not try to make money out of his invention like D a p e r r e and Talbot.
The latter even put forward the extraordinary claim that collodion was
covered by his Calotppe patent, and issued injunctions against a number
of English photographers. Eventually, a test case against Silvester Laroche
scttled the maner, and on 20th December 1S54 afier an exciting three-day
trial tlie collodion process was thrown open to the world 'amidst loud and
continued cheering' in court. Talbot dropped his application for renewal
of thc Calotype patent, knowing that it would not bring him any financia1
advantage now that the faster collodion process had becn judged free. The
daguerreotype patent had already run its term in 1853, so from the be-
ginning of 1855 photography in England war at last on an equal footing
with tlie rest of the world.
Strange as 11 may seem-in view of the manipulation being more difiicult
than previous methods-Archer's process started the first great Nave of
popularization of photography. Not only were there thousands of new-
comers to the art, but there soon arose an insatiahle dcmand from the
public for photographs of al1 kinds of suhjects, non. that one could collecr
printr that promised Freater perrnnnence tlian T'albotypes. In any case, as
we have seen, the majoriry of people were hitheno only acqualired with
daperreotypes.

Explorarion ami Topographicrrl

Photography brought rhe four corners of the wodd t o the family circle. It
sliowed them scenes so far known only through the inaccurate descriptions
of travellers or exaggerated engravings, which were now regarded with
suspicion since photograph? reveiled [he rmrh. How wildly far from realiry
some of rhe older topographical represenrarions were is shown in 111.75,
which was published in B a n l a ' A-cz and Co~nplcteSystem of Geography
(1790?).The period of phorographic realism now replaced philosophising and
romanticism. The ~ h o i eworid was seen afresh through the eyes of the
p h o t o p p h e r , who recorded fncrually. and frequentlv also artistically, the
7j rxE I:GTPTI,\N PYR.hXLIL)S. i\Ci!il\i.:YG TRC:! ~ A S S E S ' S 'XEV AND COMPLETE SYSTE!.I
O? GEOGRAPHY' (1790?). IT VAS COPIED, VITH SL!GHT ALTERATIOSS, FROM O.DAPPER'S
'IIESCHREIBUNG AFRIKAP
(DESCRIPTIONOP AFRICA), 1670

relics of ancient civilizations, familiarizing people mith the scenic and

architecmral beauty of their own and other countries, domcstic life, customs
and costumes of other iiations. 'By our fireside we have the advantage of
examining them,' wrote Clandet in 1860, 'without being exposed to the
fatigue, privation and risks of the daring and enterprising artists who, for
our gratification and instmction, have traversed lands and seas, crossed
rivers and valleys, ascended rocks and mountains wirh their Iieary and
cumbrous photographic baggage.'
John Lloyd Stephens' illustrated voluines on Yucatan (1843) inspired
Desire Charnay, a French school teacher in New Orleans, to photograph in
the same area of Mexico in 1857-58 the almost inaccessible ruined sites of
the ancient Mayan civilizarion destroyed by the Spanish conquerers c. 1500.
Dense tropical jnngle and a civil war are trying enough conditions for
photography, but probably less terrifying than the nocmrnal visit of a
jaguar in the dark-tent just as Charnay started developing! His Albzm
jotografico .Ilexicano, which appeared in Mexico in 1860, contained
25 photographs 1 3 x 1 7 inches in size.
Concurrently with Charnay, Paul de Rosti, a Hungarian political exile
afier 1848, took excellent photographs in the same district, which he pub-
lished on bis return to Budapest in 1861.
Francis Frith's finest pictures were taken during three journeys to Egypt,
Palestine and Syria between 1856 and 1863. O n his third expedition this
English traveller went further up the Nile than any photographer had been
before, proceeding by horse and dromedary beyond the Fifih Cataract about
1,500 miles from the Nile Delta. Producing these photographs, some nr lnrge
as 16x20 inches, was a feat of endurance with temperatura in the dark-
tent sometimes reaching 130' F., flies and sand adding to the difficulty.
Frith's photographs are both anistically and technically superior to Maxime
Du Camp's (111.76), and were exploited by him in a large number of
publications. He later travelled extensively through Britain and the Con-
tinent and became Europe's largest publisher of topographical views.
Francis Bedford is best known for the photographs he took in 1862 during
a tour of the Near East on which he was commanded by Queen Victoria to
accompany the young Prince of Wales.
As chief photogapher of the London Stereoscopic Company, William
England in the 1850s took thousands of pictures in many lands (111.77)
for the stereoscope-the television of the Victorian family. Afler making
himself independent in 1S63, England specialized in Alpine views for the
rest of his life.
The .4lps naturally attracted many photographers, including Ruskin,
who daguerreotyped the Matterhorn in 1849. Many of them produced
mainly views for the stereoscope, which were bought by tourists as postcards
are roday. Whilst the French photographcrs J. A. nnd C. M. Ferrier 2nd
Adolphe Braun did escellent work in this formar, Louis and Auguste Birson
became justly famous for their superb large views of the high Alps, as well
as architecrure in France and Iraly. In 1860 the Bisson brothers were com-
manded to accompany Napoleon 111 and rhe Empress Eugenie on a climbing
expedition a t Chamonix in the Savoy Alps (211.78). In July the followiog
year Auguste Bisson became the first to photograph frorn the top of Mont
Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe ( l 5 , i S O feet). TwcntY-five porters
were needed to carry his equipment, and owing to adverse weather condi-
tions the climb lasted three days. For rinsiiig rhe plates, snow had to be
melted over rhe feeble heat of oil lamps, which would hardly burn a t thai
altitude. Bisson succeeded in taking rliree nejarives on the summit, and
tlie return of the parcy was celcbrated in Chamonix with fireworks and a
sdute of guns.
Airnb Civiale had different aiins. From 1839 onward for ten years he
made with great exactnesi a record of the entire range of the Alps from
the geological point of view, which he puhlished in forty-one panoramas
in 1882.
 Whereas Alpine photographers were seldorn more than two days from
their headquaners, and could usually find shelter in a mountain hut at
night, those who photographed in remoter regions had naturally still greater
difficulties to contend with.
Philip H. Egerton, Deputy Commissioner of Kangra, in his Journal of
a Tour through Spiti to the Frontier o! Chinese Thibet (1864) describes an
arduous three-months' journey in the summer of the prwious year to in-
vestigate an alternative route for the shawl-wool trade, during which he
took the first photographs of the Shigri Glacier, and the life of the nativts
of Spiti. The same year Samuel Bourne, an English professional photo-
grapher iu Simla, made a ten-weehs' tour in the Himalayas. Ir was followed
by severa1 other expeditions, one lasting as long as nine months and requir-
ing sixty coolies to carry the equipment and other baggage. In 1868 Boume
made three exposures on the Manimng Pass 18,600 feet up, the greatest
altitude at which photographs were ever taken by the wet collodion proctss.
In thonsands of fine photographs, Bourne made known the beauties of India
ro the European public for the first time (111.79).
 Imponant topographical and erhnographical works on China, Siam and
Cambodia were published in the 1860s and early '70s by John Thomson,
a Scottish explorer and photographer who spent ten years in the Far East.
In America outstanding work was produced by the San Francisco phoro-
grapher Carleton E. Watkins, whose beautiful 21X 16 inch views of the
Yosemite Valley (111.80) made a considerable stir at the Paris Interna-
tional Exhibirion of 1867. In the same year Eadweard Muybridge's photo-
graphic activity was first mentioned in connection with his large views in
the same region. They may well llave heen uiidertaken ior Watkins, from
whom Muyhridge learned photography and with whom he was for a time
in partiiership. In 1868 he worked in Alaska on an official survey which
led to his appointment as chief photographer to the U.S. Government.
Dunng the 1870s Muybridge took hundreds of views for the Central & South
Pacific Railway and for the Pacific Mail Steamsliip Co., but nave up land-
scape photography when he embarked on rhe thorough investigation of
animal locomotion for which he is chiefly rememhered today.
One of the most famous photographers of the American West was William
Henry Ja&son. Between 1870 and 1877 Jackson accompanied eight Govem-
ment geological sun-eys and had a canyon and a lake named after him. Some
of his photographs of [he Yellowstone region, which were handed to every
member of the House of Representatives and the Senate, were instrumental
in the passing of the Act of Congress (1572) declaring this arca the first
National Park.
Timothy H. O'Sullivan, a prominent photographer during tlie American
Civil War (nearly half the photographs in Gardner'r Photographic Sketch-
book of the War are by him) took part in a Government survey of the
40th Parallel 1867-69, and in 1870 in an expedition to survey a possible
ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. In further expeditions O'Sullivan
photographed the canyons of the Colorado River, and in Arizona, where
he produced one of his finest pictures, the Canyon de Chelle (111.81).
Vittorio Sella combined ~ h o t o g r a p hwith
~ Alpinism, like his father
Giuseppe Sella, who wrote tlie first general handbook on photography
puhlished in Italy. From 1880 onward his expioits in the Alps, the Caucasus,
Alaska (1897), Equatorial Africa (the 'hlountains of the Moon') (1906) and
the Himalayas (1909), mostly as official photographer on the Duke of
Abhmzzi's expeditions, made Sella's photographs world-famous. Many of
these climbs estahlished altitude records. Sella did not, of course, at that
late date have to contend with the great difficulties of wet collodion.
Herbert Ponting as official photographer to Captain Scott's second and
last South Pole explorarion (1910-12) brought back a superb record of the
expedition and the Antarctic landscape (1!1.82/. Similar splendid docu-
mentations made by Captain Frank Hurley, an Ausrralian, on no fewer
than fire Antarctic expeditions, demanded great resourcefulness. The crush-
ing of the Endurance by ice and the rescue of the party six months later
was recorded by Hurley in highly dramatic pictures on Sir Ernest Shackle-
ton's second Antarctic expedition of 1914-16. They express berter than
words the hardships endured.

81 TivOTHY H. O'SULLI\'.~N.
THB CANYON DE CHELLE. 1873
 83 ROBEKT MACPHERSON.
CARDEN OF THE VILLA D'TSIE.
rivo!.!, c. 1857

Lnndscape
Landscape photography v a s a field in which the British particularly es-
celled (as tliey had in watercolour riews) and Roger Fenton, P. H. Dela-
motte, Charles Clifford and Robert MacPhersnn (111.83), whose work in
different fields is discussed elsewhere in this book, must be referred to in
tliis conneccion.
Henry Whitc, partncr in a London firm of solicitors, was one of the
enrliert artirtic laiidrcapc plioto~raplierraiid considered tlie best by manp
of his English and Frencli contemporaries. Lice many giffed amateurs of
tlie early period. White's work was chiefly confined to the 1850s. His close-
up of bramble and ivy (Ill. 841, and some of the nature studies taken by
tlic photographic school of the Royal Engineers, in their objective and
realistic representation bear tlie characteristics that were to be associated
with the Neue Sachlicbkeit movement seventy years later.

82 HERBERT PONTING. THE 'TFRRA NOVA' IN THE ANTARCTIC, 1912

 I n advance of their time, too, though pureiy for a technicai reason, were
the seascapes of Gustave Le Gray, who instead of the usual blank sky of
the time, succeeded in 1856 in depicting clouds and the moving waves of
the sea in large exhibition photographs (111.8J). ?'he extreme diffinilty
of depicting the bright sky in the same length exposure as the darker land-
scape was a great vexation to early photographers and led to the use of
separate cloud negativa which were printed in-a technique devised by
Hippolyte Bayard in summer 1852, and widely practised from the 1860s on.
James Mudd, a Manchester portrait photographer, in a beautiful ser of
pictures caught the fantastic scene atler a disastrous dam-burst near Sheffield
in 1864 (111.86).
Francis Bedford's views, highly praised by his contemporaries? seem today
topographical rather tlian artistic. The same criticism applies ro a certain
extent to the work of Francis Frith, George Washington Wilson of Aberdeen,
and Jama Valentine of Dundee, al1 of whom were publishers of views on
such a mass-production scale that only a small proportion of the photo-
graphs hearing their names were actually taken by them.
 The importante of Hermann Krone of Dresden lies in the technical and
cducational fields. His portraits, and in particular his views of 'Saxon
Switzerland' (1853) and towns in Saxony, have been made much of in
Germany, but are of no more than average merit ahen compared with
French and English photographs. Even in these countries, the artistic inter-
pretative landscape work of the 1850s and 63s gradually degenerated into
topographical depiction. In fact, there was a d e m h of artistic work afier
many of tlie first generation phorographers gave up in tlie 'sixties in disgust
at the sreadily grorving cornmercialization of photography.

Aichitecture
Philip iienry Delamotte, a designer and artist, during 1853-54 took a
unique series of photographs of tlie rebuilding of the enlarged Crystal Palace
i t Sydenham, from tlie lerellinp of the site ro [he opening ceremonv by
Queen Victoria on 1Cth june 1834 (111.87). The latrer is one of the earliest
instantaneous photographs of an historic occarion. Delamorte's two volumes
published in 1835 contain a total of 160 photographs forming a documenta-
tion of great arcliitectural interest as well as unuwal aerrhetic merit (111.88).
I n the follon4ng years he continued puhlishing brilliant picmres of the ex-
terior and interior of this great Victorian glass palace and its exhibitions.
$ 9 RO2EP.T >ICPF!€RIOS. R E L I I F O S ARCH O i TITESI RGYE., C. lis;
93 JAMES ANDERSON. BASE OF IRAJAN'S COLW, ROME,C. 1560
One of the leading architectural photographers of the nineteenth century
was a former Edinburgh surgeon, resident in Rome. Robert MacPherson took
up photography in 1851 and quickly won a high reputation with his fine
photographs of antiquities. H e emphasized in a striking way the moulder-
ing grandeur of these Roman subjects, and many of his picmres are poetic 1
descriptions, not mere transcriptions of the Classical scene (111. 89). Mac-
Pherson first used the albumen on glass process, and aRer 1856 the collodio-
albumen, a modification of the wet collodion process published by D r
Taupenot in September 1855. This slow 'dry' preservative process was most
suitable for interiors requiring long exposures, for ordinary wet collodion
would have dried up in ten to fikeen minutes. MacPherson explained that
in some of the Vatican sculpmre galleries where the light was poor rwo
hours were otlen required, and in one or two cases even an exposure of two
days was necessary to produce a good negative.
MacPherson's only rival was an English watercolour anist, James Anderson,
who in 1853 began raking photographs of antique sculpture in the Roman
museums, to which he later added reproductions of paintings, and views of
the Eterna1 City (111. 90), in great demand by tourists. Andenon's fim
 remained in the hands of his descendents until quite recently when the large
stock of negatives was acquired by Count Vittorio Cini and united witb
those of the Alinari brothers, Brogi, etc., in an art archive in Florence.
Leopoldo Alinari and his brother Giuseppe, originallp craftsmen in
intarsia, were encouraged to take up photography by the Florentine print-
seller Luigi Bardi, who for some years acted as their agent. Al1 their earliest
fine photographs of 1854-55, such as the Cathedrals of Florence and Pisa
and the famous bronze doors of the Baptistry in Florence, bear Bardi's
stamp, which naturally led to their attribution to hini. Later, the Alinari
brothers carried out surveps of the paintings and sculpture in the Uffizi and
other Italian art galleries.
Cado Ponti, optician to King Victor Emmanuel 11, specialized in views
of Venice, Padua and Verona, and published in the 1860s a number of
albums under the title RIcordo di Venezia, each containing twenty large
views (111.91), some by other local photographers such as Antonio Perini
and Naya.

91 crnlo PONTI. P I A Z Z A SAN

MARCO, VENICE, C.1862
 In England, Roger Fenton's fine series of cathedrnls, and classical sculp-
ture in tlie British Museum, taken shortlp ifler his Crimean War reportage,
were as much admired as his landscapes. Indeed Fenton's art training under
Paul Deliroche proved a great asset in the eleven years of Iiis photographic
career, afier which he returned to his legal profession in 1862.
In the 'fifties the painter-photographer Edouard Baldus (111.32) and the
Bisson brotliers were particularly noted for their escellent i r c h i t e c ~ r a l
work. Baldus made for the French Government in 1854 a complete survey
of the new wing of the Louvre in 1,530 detail photographs-a very modern
approacli compared with the general views usually taken in those days.
Some of these photographs were of exceptional size, 391lrX30 inches. At
the same period Charles Marville made a unique documentation of those
Parisian districts that were shortly to be swept away by Haussmann.
 Similar work was undertaken for the Society for Pliotographing the
Relics of Old London by Henry Dixon and A. & J. Boole between 1874
and 1885 (111.93). In Glasgow Thomas Annan took an interesting series
of slums for the Glasgow City Improvement Tmst during the period 1868-
1577. Some of his work goes deeper [han the recording of a picturesque
close or alley that aras due for demolition, by rhe inclusion of tlie poverry-
striclien people standing outside their ramshaclde houses (111.94).
Unamare of Baldus' grcat unpuhlished survey of the Louvre, Ferdinand
Ongania believed his monumental work on the Basilica di San Marco
(1878-S6) ro be the first pliotographic survey ever to be made of a build-
ing. In over 500 photographs printed by the heliotype process ewry note-
worthy feature of the Lirilliant esterior and gloomy interior of Sr hlark's
can be studied withour ncck-twisting or the nced for binoculars.

95 OrrICE OP TllE 'UAILY NFTS', FOUKOED

I I E N R Y DIXON. T l l E BY CHARLES IiICRI:NT,
IN ~ E E T STREET,
SNORTLY DEFORE D ~ M O L I T 1I 8~8Y
1,

94 THOMM ANNAN. GLASGOW SLUM, 1868

Portraiture and genre
With few exceptioiis, the majoriry of the professioiial portrait photographers
of the 1850s took either daguerreotypes or, after about 1854, Ambrotypes.
The latter gave the poorer clientele the possibility of having cheap portraiu
at last. Under the title 'Art Progress' Punch (London) published in May 1857
a delightful cartwn (111.91) sliowing two rival photographic portrait shops
side by side and four photographers touting for sitters, seizing a passing
woman: 'Now, Mum! Take off yer 'ead for sixpence, or yer 'ole body for
a shillin'!' This was no exaggeration.
People wanting larger portraits and more than one copy could have
S'lrX61/? inch or 1 0 x 8 inch prints made from collodion negatives, but the
demand for these arose only in the best studios, for the price varied between
•’2 and •’4, depending on size and whether the picture were handcoloured
or not.
Realiziiig the latent demand for a large number of prints cheap enougli
to give away to fnends and relations, Andre Adolphe Disd&, a well-known
Parisian photographer, devised a practica1 way of reducing production
costs by taking eighr portraits on one plate, and introduced the carte-de-
visite (111. 36). As early as A u ~ u s t1851 Louis Dodero, a Marseilles photo-
grapher, had put his portrait on his visiting cards, and at the same rime
suggested small portraits for passports, permits and so on. Though the idea
of photographic visiting cards was again put forward by two Parisian ama-
teurs, Edouard Delessert and Comte Aguado, a month before Disderi's
patent was taken out in November 1824, the curte de visite photograph did
not win much favour at first. The craze for these portraits dates only from
May 1859, when riapoleon 111 at the head of his army departing for Italy
halted his troops in tlie Boulevard des Italiens while he went into Disderi's
studio to have his photograph taken. This rather ludicrous iiicideiit was of
course ercellent publicity for Disderi, nrho became famous overnight. Al1
fasliionable Paris foiiowed the Emperor's enample, and by 1561 Disdiri was
reputed to be the richest photographer in Europe, taking •’48,CY3 a year
in his Paris establishment alone-and he also opened branclies in Toulon,
Madrid and London.
In England, too, popularization of the curte portraits introduced in 1557
began ailer roya1 approval. I n May 1S60 J. E. Mayall took curte portraits
oi Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort and their children. These were
published three months later in the K q n l AIbum, and tliis set tlie fashion
for collecting curtes of celebrities, as well as of one's friends, and putting
them in albums. Mayall frequently pliotographed the roya1 family (111.96).

96 J.E. MAYALL.
QUEEN VICTORIA AND THE
PRlNCE CONIORT, 1861
H e had a turnover of half a million curtes a year, and an estimated gross
annual income of 112,000. Even provincial studios did excellent business,
and altogether 300 to 400 million curtes were sold annually in England. No
wonder more than one Chancellor of the Excheqner seriously considered
following the example of the United States by imposing a small tax on
these pictures.
'Cartomania' was tmly international. Ludwig Angerer, who introduced
the carte de visite in Vienna in 1857, sold enormous quantities of curtes of
the Imperial family; so did Rabending & Monckhoven. L. Haase & Co. in
Berlin could not print their carte portraits of the Roya1 family and other
Pmssian celebrities quickly enough. The same can be said of Sergej L.
Lewitzky in St Petersburg and Georg Hansen in Copenhagen. In the United
States, during the Civil War, the popularity of curtes was just as great as in
Enrope. In Paris an army of photographers sprang up to exploit the boom;
no fewer than 33,000 people were stated to be making their living from the
production of photographs and photographic materials in 1861. In chis year
the number of portrait studios in London had risen from sixty-six in 1855
to over nvo hundred; in 1866 when the carte de visite craze had already
passed its peak there were 281.
Photographs of celehrities were sold at stationers' shops as picture post-
cards are today. The price of a carte was 11- to 116d according to the fame
and popularity of the sitter.
Some of the finest carte portraits were taken by Disderi and by anotber
Frenchman, Camille Silvy, who exchanged a diplomatic career for the
lucrative business of portrait pliotography. In 1859 Silvy opened a sump-
tuous studio in London giving emplogment to forty assistants. Gifled with
exquisite taste, Silvy posed his sitten gracefully in elegant interiors or
against charming painted landscape backgrounds, which earned him the
appellation of 'the Winterhalter of photography' (111.97). They are rather
in the nature of fashion-plates. With tlie Frencbman's intuitive under-
standing of the fair sex, he published a series entitled 'The Beauties of
England'-a brilliant idea, for not to be included implied that a woman was
either not pretry enough, or was not in sociery.
Swamped with orders, some inferior photographers were tempted to
serve mammon rather than art. One boasted of taking 97 negatives in eight
hours!-and it i s not to be wondered at if all attempt at characterization
is lack'ig and the poses stereotyped. In the degree to which the portrait
v a s reduced in size, its setting increased in importance, and the photo-
grapher's studio became a stage with elaborate 'properties' and pictorial
backgrounds. A glamorous efiect was what people demanded, and the
humbler their home the greater their desire for splendour; and the grander
his studio the more business a photographer could expect.
N o longer was photography an art for the privileged: it had become the
art for h e million. Approving thk democratic tendency as the first 'people's
art' The Photograpbic A7ews (London) wrote in 1861:
'Photographic portraiture is the best feanire of the fine arts for the
miiiion that the ingenuity of man has yet devised. It has in this sense
swept away many of the illiberal distinctions of rank and wealth, so that
the p o r man who possesses but a few shillings can command as perfect
a lifelike portrait of his wife o r child as Sir n o m a s Lawrence painted
for the rnost distingished sovereigns of Europe.'
When the curte de visite lost its norelty, the larger Cabinet portrait 5 ' ! 2 ~ 4
inches, introduced in England in 1866, proved a popular new formar,
rernaining in favour until the Great War.

97 CAMILLE SILVY. ChRTE DE VISITE

Or AN UNKNOVN LADY. C. 1860
 Each decade in the carte and later Cabinet period had its specially charac-
teristic accessories. I n tlie 'sixties they were the balustrade, column and
currain; in the 'sevenries the rusric bridge and stile; in the 'eighties the
hammock, swing and railway-carriage; in the 'nineties palm-trees, cocka-
toos and hicycles; and in the early twentieth cenniry it was the motor-car,
for snobs.
Concurrently with the carte de visite there were a number of photo-
graphers, hoth professionnl and amateur, whose work stands out from the
mass of stereotyped portraiture.
Nadar, Carjat, Adam-Salomon, Bertall, Mulnier and Pierre Petit, al1
Parisian photographers, are remembered for their splendid portraits of
famous people published in Galerie Contemporaine. Owing to this circum-
stance an opinion can he formed of the high artisric qualities of a number
of photographers who would otherwise he remembered only by their 'bread-
and-butter' carte and Cabinet pictures.
n i e caricaturist's ability to grasp quickly the essential characteristics of
his sitter was an asset to Nadar, Carjat and Bertall in immortalizing the
famous. Etienne Carjat's portraits of celebrities are oflen livelier than
Nadar's, as comparison of his photographs of Rossini and Baudelaire (111.
99) with Nadar's proves. Following the tradition of the daguerreotypists,
their ponraits are straightforward and realistic, striking in their simplicity.
They allow the intellecmal power of rhe sitter to speak for itself, without
the intrusion of elaborate 'propenies' which mar some of the photographs
of Antoine Adam-Salomon, a successful sculptor and part-time photographer
wliose ponraiu in the style of Old Masters occasionally strike a false note.
Adam-Salomon's tendency to mannerism and Xembrandt' lighting appealed
ro people who failed to appreciate the camera's necessarily different
approach, which indeed is evident in many of his portraits (111.98).
Gaspard Felix Tournachon, called Nadar, overshadowed al1 other French
portrait photographers, ~ a r t because
l~ he had a flair for showmanship, and
was much in the public eye as a balloonist. His studio in the Boulevard des
Capucines, painted red and with his name spreading in colossal letters across
fifty feet of wall, was the meeting place of intellectual, not aristocratic,
society, for Nadar was an ardent Republican. H e was the photographer
par excellence of the intelligentsia of the Second Empire and the Third
Re~ublic,but only the most distinguished men were taken by Nadar himself,
the general run being lee to his employees. His fines portraits include those
of Delacmix, Daumiei; Baron Taylor, Victor Hugo, and George Sand-one
of his rare ~ortraitsof a woman (111. 100).
 Nadar was a pioneer in many fields: he twk the first aerial photograph
(1858) and made a more successful series over Paris four years later, a feat
that afforded Daumier-strangely an opponent of photography-an oppor-
mnity to mock at the idea of raising photography to the height of art
(111. 101). About this time Nadar made the first underground photographs
by electric arc light from a Bunsen battery, in the catacombs and sewers of
Paris. His balloon 'Le Gbant', three times the size of any other balloon in
Europe, was a sensation in 1863. During the Siege of Paris Nadar com-
manded an observation balloon corps, and provided at his own expense a
balloon postal service to the seat of the Delegate Government at Tours, later
Bordeaux.
\%en Nadar heard that the artists later known as the Impressionists were
looking for a place to show their first exhibition (1874), with characteristic
generosity he lent them his old studio from which he had just moved, and
welcomed the sensation which the erhibition caused in the art world as good
personal publicity.
Julia Margaret Cameron deplored the shallowness and lack of individ-
uality in the curte de visite portraits of her famous friends, in which there
was no endeavour to record what she called 'the greatness of the inner as
well as the feanires of the outer man'. This aim was her resolve when at the
age of forty-eight she took up photography, which to her was a 'divine art'.
Working for her own satisfaction and not for a living, MIS Cameron could
afford to go her own way, and became a pioneer in a new kind of p r t r a i -
mre-the close-up. She had the real artist's gifl of piercing through the out-
ward appearance to the soul of the individual. Nowhere is this more striking
than in her photograph of Sir John Hershel, one of the greatest portraits
ever taken (Ill. 102). Although the impressiveness of J. M. Cameron's por-
traiu in some cases undoubtedly owes much to the strong personality of the
sitter-and this remark applies frequentlv to portraits of the famous-her
large head smdies have a boldness which is startling in its originality of
conception. A comparison of her forceful portraits of great Victorians such
as Tennyson, Carlyle, Browning, Darwin (111. 103) with the paintings of
the same sitters by the leading portrait painters G. F. Watts and Sir John
Millais is rewarding: tlie photographer scores in every case against tlie
painter. Roger Fry's claim that 'Mrs Cameron's photographs bid fair to out-
live most of the works of the artists who were her contempraries' holds
good for a great many other classic photographic portraits, which give a
tmer and more intimate impression of the men and women who lefl their
mark on this epoch, than do painted portraits.
 Reportage ponraits and photo-interviews with celebrities are a common
feanire of newspapen and magazines ioday. Few people are aware that the
first reportage ponrait was taken by Roben Howlett as early as 1857. How-
len, who, the previous year, had taken some lively pictures at the Derby to
serve as studies for William Powell Frith's well-known painting Derby Day,
photographed the launching of the 'Great Eastern' steamship, and its de-
 signer 1. K. Bmnei (111. 104) in a way that is completely modern in con-
ception.
The photo-interview was pioneered in 1886 by Felix Tournachon and
Paul Nadar for Le Journal Illurtre. The occasion was the hundredth binh-
day of the great chemist M. E. Chevreul, who greeted them: '1 was an
enemy of photography until my ninety-seventh year, but three years ago 1
capitulated.' While Nadar senior asked questions, Paul Nadar recorded the
centenarian's animated expressions and gestures (111.105) as he explained
his phiosophy on 'the Art of Living a Hundred Years'. Thirteen of the
photographs were published as half-tone blocks in this newspaper on 5th
September 1886, with Chevreul's lively answers, noted down b y a steno-
graplier, serving as captions. The experiment was repeated a few yean
later with General Boulanger.
Whereas Paul Nadar took a large series of portraits, At Home photo-
graphy, the precursor of reponage portraiture, was usually limited to three
or four. Melandri in Paris and J. P. Mayall in London were the fint in the
field with At Home portraiture of theatrical celebrities and artists in the
'seventies and 'eighties respectively. Sarah Bemhardt with her self-ponrait
bust (111. 106) is one of the liveliest and most natural photographs of the
great actress, and was as advanced in style for 1876 as her costume. ?here
is no doubt that people feel more a t ease in their own surroundings, and it is
surprising that until comparatively recent times, when the miniature camera
greatly simplified the task, so few photographers took the trouhle to trans-
pon their equipment to [he sitter's home. The photographer who inter-
viewed Sir Joseph Wilson Swan (111.107) in his laboratory in 1904 at
the time knighthood was conferred on Km, would probahly not have
achieved such an intimate and penetrating likeness with the traditional
studio portrait. This is equally true of the series of remarkable At Home
inteniews with distinguished men which V. B. Northrop published the
same year in his book Witb Pen and Camera.
Very original is the self-portrait of Dr G. B. Duchenne, founder of
electro-therapy, which he used as frontispiece to Album de Photographies
Pathologiques (1862), introducing himself, his electrization apparatus and
his patient (111. 108).
Space only permits the mention of a few other memorable portraits by
leading photographers: Napoleon 111 (1854) by Mayer & Pierson; W. E.

106 (LEFT) MELANDRI. SAMH BERNHARDT IN HER STL'DIO,

1876
107 (BELOW)
ELLlOT & TRY. SIR JOSEPH WILSON SWAN, 1904
 108 SELF-PORTIUIT OP DR G. B. DUCHENNE
USlNG HIS ELECTRIZATION APPARATUS, 1862

109 MAULL E POLYBLANK.

Iiosrnr STEPHENSON, 1856
110 IHOXAS ANNAN.
DR DAVID IIVINGSTONE.
1864

Gladstone and Roberr Stephenson (1836) (Ill. 109) by Maull 8; Poly-

blank; David Livingstone (1864) (111. 110) by Thomas Annan; Ludwig 11
of Bavaria (1867) by Josef Albert; Camille Corot (1871) (111.111) by
Eugkne Dutilleux; Rohert Louis Stevenson (1885) by A. G. Dew Smith;
Cardinal Newman (1887) by Herbert Barraud; William Morris (1889) by
Sir Emery Walker; Oscar Wilde (1890) by W. & D. Downey; Henri de
Toulouse-Laucrec (c. 1892) (111.112) by Paul Sescau, Lautrec's nighr-life
cornpanion, for whom he designed a poster (111. 113); Sir Henry Irving
as n o m a s i Becket (1893) by H. H. H. Cameron (son of J. M.Carneron);
Aubrey Beardsley (c. 1895) by Frederick Hollyer; Mark Twain (1902) and
Auguste Rodin (1903) by E. Walter Barnett; J. P. Morgan (1903) by Ed-
ward Steidien; the Arcb-Duchess Srephanie (1905) by Alice Hughes; Alice
Meynell (1908) and John Galsworthy (1911) by E. O. Hoppe.
 112 r.ii.t. iiicir. o o : ~ i r ? o n T n . u T O F ~ ! E N K I DE TOULOUSC-LAUTRIC,c . 1392

113 LITHOGRAPHIC POSTER POR PAUL SESCAU BY TOULOUIE-LAUTREC, C. 1894

 The Rev. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known as Lewis Carroll,
author of Alice in Wonderland, pursued many a celebrity wirh his camera.
bur his favourite subjects aere little girls (111. 114). He summed up his
preferente with the cryptic remark '1 am fond of children, except boys'.
Photography v a s Lewis Carroll's chief hobby from 1856 to 1880, and
though in later years he had a glass-house constructed on rop of his rooms
at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was professor of mathematics, his
best work dates from the 'fiffies and 'sixties when he used to take his
mmbersome apparams to the homes of friends and acquaintances, where
he found full scope for his inventive genius. Sometimes he composed amus-
ing anecdotal or genre scenes. The original and casual-looking poses he
arranged constimte the chief charm of his picmres. Only an amateur could
have taken such an independent coune from the usual stilted studio
portraits of children, and that is why Lewis Carroll's picmres strike us
today as so greatly superior to professional work.
Viscountess Hawarden's photographs of children, admired and collected
by Lewis Carroll, show a remarkably fresh outlook. She did not restrict
herself to chidren any more than Lewis Carroll did, and the picture of
her daughter reflected in the lookiig-glass is one of the most delightful
genre photographs (III. I I S ) of the Victorian penod.
 The same appealing naturalness and individuality which raise Lewis
Carroli's, Lady Hawarden's and many other English amateurs' pictures
above the mass of conventional professional portrairs is also evident some-
times in France, above al1 in the work of Charles Negre, the first French
photographer of genre subjects. Negre's chimney-sweep boys (111.71),
though of necessity posed, look as thougli they had been caughr by a modern
miniamre camera.
The photograph albums of Charles Victor Hugo and Auguste Vacquerie,
who found an outlet for their creative energy in photography while living
in exile with Victor Hugo in Jersey, contain a remarkable documentation
of their life there: Victor Hugo glowering with fmstration, perched on the
Rock of the Exiles, resting in the conservatory under the flowering vines,
studies of his hands, and many other unusual pictures.
Oscar Gustave Rejlander, an English portait photographer of Swedish
origin, is noteworthy for the genre pictures which he made for his own
pleasure and as studies for artists. Like a reportage photographer, Rej-
lander aimed at genuine slices of life, but owing to the technical difficulties
a t this period had to pose his subjects to give the impression of natural
scenes (111. 116). This he did with great artistry, as one would expect of
a trained painter.
William Morris Gmndy's stereoscopic genre pictures, publislied post-
humously under the title Rxral England, are little gems of pliotugraphy.
Some of them (as single picmrcs) illustratc an anthology of poetry called
Sunrhine in the Country (1861).

War Reportage
Though scenes in the war between tlie United States and Mexico, 1846-48,
and the Siege of Rome in 1849 and other historic events a t the beginning
of the Risorgimento were recorded by photography in individual p'mures.
the fint extensive war reportage was Roger Fenton's and James Robertson's
coverage of the Siege of Sebastopol during the Crimean War. The initial
phases of hostilities in the Balkans had been recorded by Karl Baptist de
Szathmari, an amateur in Bucharest, wliose photographs have unformnatel~
not survived.
Roger Fenton's 360 photographs of the Crimean War, taken in 1855, are
not very warlike by present-day standards (111. 117), but this is ex-
plained by the dual purpose of tlie undertakiiig: to se11 prints to the public,
l who would have abhorred gruesome pictures, and to give convincing proof
of the well-being of the troops after tlie disasters of the preceding winter
118 ROGER FENTON. CRIMEAN V A R , CANTINIERE AND WOUNDED MAN, 1855
which had caused the downfall of the Government. Despite their lack of
action, the photographs provide a far more convincing picmre of life ar the
front than the wide views of William Simpson, published as lithographs by
Colnaghi.
The photographic van (111.30) formed a conspicuous target and on
several occasions drew the fire of the Russian batteries. The heat in the
Crimea made working in it extremely trying. Exposures were 10-15 seconds,
bur Fenton was ver? skilful in arranging groups naturally to convey the
impression of having been taken instantaneously (Ill. 118).
Fenton was obliged to leave the seemingly endless Siege of Sebastopol at
the end of June, but James Robertson, chief engraver of the Imperial Mint
ar Constantinople, completed the reportage of this senseless campaign with
photographs of the English aud French trenches, the wrecked Russian forts
( l .1 9 and the ruins of the bombarded city irnmediatel~ a&er the
retreat of the Russians on 8th-9th Septemher 1855.

119 WAR, INTERIOR

JAMES ROBERTSON. CRlMEAN O i THE REDAN AFTER WITHDRAWAL
OP THE RUSSIANS,
SEPTEMBER 1855
 Two years later Robertson made a valuable documentation of scenes of
the Indian Mutiny in collaborarion with his partner A. Beato, who affer-
wards took gruesome photographs of the Opium War in China in 1860.
The Austro-Sardinian conflict of 1859, in which Napoleon 111 took the
field as ally of Victor Emmanuel 11, was followed by a number of photo-
graphers including Luigi Sacchi, Berardy and the Ferriers, father and son,
whose stereoscopic pictures showed not only camp life but for the first time
the horrors of war which Fenton had intentionally avoided.
I t is as organizer of the photographic documentation of the American
Civil War that Mathew B. Brady ir today remembered and honoured. Be-
lieving that 'the camera is the eye of history' Brady leff his prosperous por-
trait studios in New York and Washington in the care of employees, and
with hii statl of nineteen photographers covered almost every theatre of the
war. Many of the finest pictures were taken by Alexander Gardner, Brady's
former studio manager in Washington, Timothy H. O'Sullivan (111. 120)
and other members of the team, and only a comparatively small number
can be ascnbed to Brady himself. Nevertheless, without his farseeing plan
the war might well have remained unrecorded on the Northem side, for the
Federal Government rook no interest in the venture either before or afier
the event. Today the Civil War photographs belong to America's most
treasured and most publicized historical documents.
Iu the attack of Pmssia and Austria on Deumark in 1864 excellenr
photographs were taken by Friedrich Brandt, a Flensburg pliotographer,
and by Heinrich Graf and Adolph Halwas of Berlin.
The names of the French and German photographers of the Franco-
Prussian War are not known (111. IZI), with the exception of Disdbri,
who photographed the ruins of Sr Cloud. The same applies to the devastation
wrought in Paris during the Siege and the insurrection which began witb
the pulling down of the Vendome column and statue of Napoleon 1 on
16th May 1871 (111.122). As illustrations of man's inhumanity to man,
'The Harvest of Death' afier the Banle of Gettysburg (111.120), and the
unidentified Communards in their coffins, are as unforgettable as the recent
picmres of Sharpeville (111. 277).
During the Siege of Paris mini-photographs were first applied to a
practica] purpose. lvfessages greatly reduced in size were printed photo-
graphically on collodion pellicles, rolled into quills and attached to the
tails of carrier pigeons, which had been brought to the seat of the Delegate
Government by balloon from the capital. After arrival in Paris the messages
were projected by magic lantern (111. 123), copied by clerks, and distrib-
uted. This was a kind of forerunner of the airgraph letter service during
World War 11.
L i d y stereophotographs were taken during the Boer War (1899-1902)
for Underwood 81 Underwood, New York publishers of stereoscopic pic-
tures. There were no official photographers attached to the army, but thanks
 to private enterprise sucii 2s T j h Lhii? Gi.zp/>!r n.liicli scnt out i r r staii
photographer Reinhold Thiele, and others working on the Boer side, the
documentation of the Soutli African War v a s very extensive (111.124).
This was the first war covered by ciuernatographers, whose news-reels were
projected in London music-halls as p a n of the evening's entenainrnent.
More peaceful historic events at home and abroad were namrally also

1899 and photograpt ' '

, ..
recorded by photography, even though no picmre agencies existed before
. . ' . , .

124 REINHOLD THIEIE.

BOER V A R ,
R R l N G 'JOE
CHAMBERLAIN' AT MAGERS-
FONTEIN,
1899
of prints to the public. Photographs were sometimes copied as woodcuts in
newspapers, but photomechanical reproduction in the press only gradually
came into use in the early years of the twentieth century, despite the fact
that practica1 methods of halftone printing had been devised by Stephen
H. Horgan of New York and Georg Meisenbach of Munich in 1880 and
1882 respectively.

Social Documentation
The first documentary photographs, which unfortunately no longer exist,
were daguerreo~pesby Richard Beard of street types to illustrate Henry
Mayhew's monumental social survey London Labour and the London Poor
(1851) in which they were copied as woodcuts. In the early 1860s Cado
Ponti issued a series of photographs of Venetian street traders and beggars,
which were, however, merely intended as souvenirs for tourists.
John Thomson pmduced a kind of small seque1 to Mayhew with his
Street Life in London (1877) documenting the life and work of the poorer
classes. In contrast to Beard-as far as one can judge from the woodcuts-
Thomson de~icted people in their usual surroundings ( 1 2 126),
producing superlative pictures worthy of any modern reportage photogra-
pher. Each is accompanied by an article on the living and working con-
ditions of the subject, written by Thomson or in some cases by Adolphe
Smith, a joumalist.
Jacob A. Riis, a police-court reporter on The New York Tribune, believ-
ing that the camera is a mightier weapon than the pen for attacking the
bad conditions that lead to crime, took between 1887 and 1892 a poignani
series of photographs to point out to society its obligations to the poor
(11I. 127). With his books H o a tbe Otber Half Liver (1890) and Children
o/ the Poor (1892) Riis awakened the consciente of New Yorken and
influenced the Governor of New York State, Thwdore Roosevelt, to under-
take a number of social reforms, includiig the wiping out of notorious
tenements at Mulberry Bend. Today the Jacob A. Riis Neichbourhood
Settlement commemorates the phorographer's great work.
 Lewis Wickes Hine, an American sociologist, took up photography in
1935 in order t o highlight the plight of poor European immigrants. Three
years later he continued his sociological smdies with photographs of Pirts-
burgh iron and sreel workers. As staff photographer to the National Child
Labor Cornmittee Hine exposed shocking conditions, which resulted in rhe
passing of the Child Labor Law (111. 128).
D r ArnoId Genthe's excellent pictures of life in San Francisco's China-
rown (1897) and the devastation caused by the earthquake and fire of 1906,
are infinitely more interesting rhan his rather uninspired portraits of stage
and screen stars that made hirn one of America's most prominenr photo-
graphers aRer settling in New Ynrk in 1911.
l?') SIR RENJAMIN STONE. PS-ROA5TING T STRATTORO-ON-AVON 'MOP'. C. 1895

In 1897 Sir Benjamin Stone, hlember of Parliament for Birmingham,

founded the National Photographic Record Association with the aim of
documenting old English manners and customs, pimresque festivals and
pageants, and traditional ceremonies which he feared were in danger of
dying out (111. 129). Stone himself was the most active member of the
Association, and lei? a collection of 22,000 photographs-some dull records,
others of artistic merit, and al1 of historic value.
Nahum Lubosha, Kodak's representative in St Petersburg before World
War 1, was an enthusiastic amateur photographer, chiefly in portraimre.
Bur his most striking photographs are of life in Russia, including pic-
tures taken during one of the recurrent famines, in 1910 (111.130).
Paul Martin's snapshots of London street scenes (111.131) and of people
enjoying themselves at the seaside, taken in the 1890s, make him the first
'candid cameraman' nearly forty years before the phrase was coined. Using
a hand camera concealed in a briefcase, Martin was able to capture revealing
momenu. His 'London by Night' pictures taken in the winter of 1895-96
were the first of their kind (111. 132).
E u g h e Atget had a similar passion for documentation as Sir Benjamin
Stone, though it took a different fonn. Atget wanted to record Paris in al1
its facets, and made between 1898 and 1927 an enormous series of photo-
graphs of buildings, staircares, door-knockers, ornate stucco decorations, shop
fronts (111. 133), vehicles. During his lifetiie few people were inrer-
ested in Atget's self-imposed task, and he ended his days in extreme poveny,
leaving to postenty nearly 10,000 prints. The most publicized side of Atget's
work is his srreet life series, very similar to Thomson's and Martin's, but
his roving eye was fascinated by many things which other people pass by
as nothing remarkable (111. 192).

132 PAUL MARTIN. PICCADILLY ClRCUS AT NIGHT, 1895

subjects, taken in a fraction of a second, Macaire could conimmd as mucli
as 100 francs each. Some of his sea views mere bought by tlie marine painter
E u g h e Isabey.
Such subjecu had to be photographed from a considerable distance to
minimize the effect of movemenr. In the instantaneous stereoscopic views
taken in the late 1850s by G. W. Wilson (111.134), William England.
Adolphe Braun (111.34) and Edward Anthony, the vantage point was
usually an upper window. Valentine Blanchard photographin~ from tlie
roof of a cab in 1862 was able to snatch very lively impressions of the hustle
2nd bustle of husy London thoroughfares. Twenty-five years later Charles
A. Wilson (son of G. W. Wilson), using gelatine dry plates, took still better
pictures of larger size from inside a furniture van (111.131).
Action photographs made it possible to record and study the movernents
of animals scientifically. Best known in this field are the serial photographs
of Eadweard Muybridge, the fint man to t h i k of a photo-finish in horse-
racing. His investigation of the locomotion of animals originared in 1872
with a controversy about the leg movements of a trotting horse. His serial
photographs of horses taken for ex-Governor Leland Stanford of California
in 1878-79 with a row of twelve to twenty-four small carneras, demon-
strated for the first time movements too fast for the eye to perceive, and
eaposed the absurdity of the conventional 'rockinc-horse' attitude of gal-
loping horses' legs ir1 paintings. A t first the consecurive positions of the legs
were criricized as being ludicrous and impossible, but when Muybridge
synthesized the movement by projection on a screen even sceptics had to
admit the truth. Between 1883-85 Muybridge carried out an investigation
of animal and human locomotion in al1 forms under the auspices of the
University of Pcnnsylsanin, using up to tliirtysix cnmeras with clockwork
shutters, and gclatinc dry platcs with which lie v a s nnturally able to securc
rnucli better results. IIis nioiiumcntal work Animal Locomotion (1897) con-
tnins 781 plates and rcniains to this day t!ic most compreliensive publication
of its kind (111. 136).
Muybridge's photographic analysis lcd Prof. Etienne Jules Marey of Paris,
who had also been investigating animal inovement, to abandon his method
of chronograpliy in favour of clironopl;otography. In contrast to Muy-
bridge's battery of cameras Marep used only onc, with a disk shutter, and
recorded the consecutive phases of rnovemcnt on a single plate, to give the
impression rhat one observer following rhe morement would obtain. For the
flight of birds (111. 137) Marey devised in 1882 a pliotographic gun. Men
d a camera set up on
2nd horses in rapid movemenr wcre p h o t o ~ r a ~ l i ewith
a nioveable wagon ruriniiig on
used the new celluloid roll-film
two years later a projector, bu
oversliadowed by the better app
I t was natural tbat Thomas :
based his art o11 scientific princi
and its use to record anatomy :
periments, but v a s critica1 of
Marey's single cnmera method.
two disk sliutters, one revolving
nine or ten exposures on une plai
Eakins made an independent s
Pennsylvania, producing pictui
practically indistinguishable fra
The German photographer
through his instantaneous phot
 1882 onward. At first he t w k single photographs, four years later changed
to Muybridge's system of twenty-four cameras for chronophotography, mak-
ing chiefly photographs for military training purposes. For stroboscopic
synthesis of these picmres Anschutz constmcted the Electrotachyscope in
1887, in which the pictures were arranged round the edge of a rotating
wheel and each in tum briefly illuminated by an electric spark.
The 'freezing' of rapidly moving objects for a fraction of a second by the
sudden flash of an electric spark in a darkened room was demonstrated by
Sir Charles Wheatstone five years before the introduction of photography.
Talbot applied photography to record this phenomenon in 1851, when he
photographed a rapidly revolving wheel with a page of The Times attached
to it, and obtained a clear picture, the duration of the spark being 11100,000
second. With tliis demonstration Talbot laid the foundation of high-speed
photography.
Ernst Mach, professor at Prague University, aiid Dr Salclier of Fiumr,
in 1885-86 succeeded independently by the electric spark method in photo-
grapliing bullets with a velocity of 765 m.p.h. In 1892 Charles Vernon Boys
of the Royal College of Science, London, obrained photographs of bullets
piercing a sheet of plate-glass at ahout twice this speed. \Whilst these pioneers
of ballistic photography only recorded the rhadowr of bullets and the sound-
waves they produced, Prof. Hubert Sdiardin's photograph (111. 139) taken
at the Scientific Research Institute at Weil c. 1950, shows the great technical
advance made in this field since then.
A similar improvement in technical quality is namrally evident in the
multiple-flash photographs of splashes by Harold E. Edgerton and Kenneth
J. Germeshausen of the Massachusetts Instimte of Technology in 1933, com-
pared with the pioneer work of A. M. Worthington in England aod nieodor
Lullin in Swirzerland in the mid-'nineties, or Lord Rayleidi's photograph
taken in 1891 of a soap bubble at the moment of bursting. Shese and other
experiments made the public familiar with hiph-speed photographs and ex-
posures of one-millionth second in the mid-'nineties.
In the early years of the twentieth cenmry DI Lucien Bull, assistant of
E. J. Marey, was able by the spark method to record the wing oscillations
of insects, which were far too rapid to be successfully photographed before.
From 1933 onward Edgerton and Germeshausen extended multiple-flash
photography to the motion smdy of games: a tennis player, a diver, a baton-
thrower, and a golfer (111. 140) whose amusing parrot-like pattern of
movement was obtained with 100 flashes per second.
 Pictorial Photography
The earliest exponent of fine art photography was J. E. Mayall, who in 1845
produced a series of ten daguerreotypes illustrating 'The Lord's Prayer'. Six
years later at the Great Exhibition in London hlayall showed several com-
positions described in the catalogue as 'Dayerreotype pictures to illustrate
poctry and sentiment'-'The Soldier's Dream', 'The Venerable Bede blessing
a child', and 'Bacclius and Ariadne' measuring no less than 2 4 x 1 5 inches.
Despite Prince Albert's encouragement, Mayall abandoned art photography,
realizing probably the validity of the criticism put forward by The Athe-
naeurn: 'To us thcse pictures seem a mistake. At best, we can only hope to
get a mere naturalistic rendering. Ideality is unattainable-and imagination
supplanted by the presence of fact.'
Apart from Mayall's misguided excursions into a realm best avoided by
photography, no attempt seems to llave Leen made in tlie first fitleen years
or so of the new art to deviate froni the realistic representation of the every-
day world. Whilst it was recognizcd that this ser a limitation to photo-
graphy, perceptive people were fully aware that tliere remained ample scope
for artistic expression through selection, viewpoint, lighting and composition.
The annual exhibitions of the Photographic Society of London, founded
by Roger Fenton in 1553, stimulated pliotographers to compete with one
another in the production of pictures to be admired by the public and dis-
cussed io the press. The critics, who had hitherto onlv reviewed art exhibi-
tions, were really not quite sure whether photography were an art, a science.
a bit of each, or neither. Finding thc constant repetition of portraits, views,
and still-lifes somewhat monntonous-for exposures were still too long to
record action- they drew invidious comparisons between painting and photo-
graphy, pompously urging photographers to strive for IoRier themes than
tlie Inere reproductinn of reality', subjects that would 'fire the imagination,
instnict, purify, and ennoblc'. Photographs of historical, allegorical, literary
1
and anecdotal subjects, similar to the pictures of contemporary Academy
painters, would be the best way-so they argued-to counter the reproach
that photography was a mecb;nical art. 'For photography there are new
secrets to conquer, new Madonnas to inrent, and new ideals to imagine.
There will be pcrhaps photograph Raphaels, photograph Titians.' This con-
fusion about the aims of photo~raphyand painting led to shocking errors
of t a s e in both fields.
The idea of rnisin~photography to the exalted rcginns of High Art
attracted particularly the many former painters who found ir easier to earn
a liring with the camera than with the bnish. In 1855 William Lake Price,
a watercolour artist, astonished the world of art aiid photograpliy-and the
President of the Royal Academy, Sir Charles Eastlake, who was also Presi-
dent of the Pliotograpliic Society of London-with his 'Don Quixote' and
other compositions in the miralric style of the Academician George Catter..
mole. They heralded an unfortunate trend-photographic picture making
instead of picture taking. Whilst the art critics welcomed High Art photo-
graphy, as it was then called, those with a deeper knowledge of the photo-
grnpliic medium were convinced tliat 'photographic renderings of historical
or poetic subjects . . . give at best only the impression of a scene on the
stage'.
The most ambitious allcgorical composition in the entire historv of photo-
graphy is O. G. Rejlander's 'Two Ways of Life' (111. 141): Industry on
the right aiid Dissipation on tlie letl, with Penitence in between. This photo-
graph, as big as an easel painting (16x31 inches) was first sliown at the
Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition in 1857. Here for the first time photo-
graphs were displayed in equality with paintings, drawings, 2nd sculpture,
and Rejlander, a painter devoted to the new medium, saw in the honour
accorded to it a splendid opportunity to prore publicly that it mas possihle
to create photographs on a par with paintings. Queen Victoria admired
'The Two Ways of Life' for its moral content and bought it for Prince
Albert, who greatly appreciated tlie present and hung ir in Iiis study. Photo-
graphers were on ihe whole less partial to it. Many were shocked a t the
semi-nudity of some of the figures: in Scotland, only the respectable half of
the picture was exhibited! Others rightlv disapproved of the technique of

141 0. G. REJLANDER. 'Ttrr! T U 0 WAYS OP LIFE', 1857

concocting a photograph out of over thirty negatives, and some objections
were raised against the principle of representing an allegoT by the realistic
medium of photography. The prevailing opinion in art circles seemed to be
that this was the highest leve1 which photography could attain, and the seal
of roya1 approval namrally encouraged the production of some other pre-
tentious compositions. A few t i t l s may suffice: 'The Baron's Feast', 'The
Adventures of Robinson Cmsoe', 'A Scene in the Tower' (affer Paul De-
laroche) by Lake Price; 'The Head of St. John the Baptist', 'Iphigenia',
'Judith and Holofernes' by Rejlander.
Henry Peach Robinson's well known photograph 'Fading Away' (1858)
showing a dying girl surrounded by her grieving family was a less preten-
tious subject and enjoyed immediate success at exhibitions. It was a com-
bination print from five negatives. For the next thirry years or so Robinson
produced at least one composition picture for each annual exhibition of
the Pt
the important exhibitions in Britain and the Continent. %ese and other
compositions created the style known as 'pictorial photography'. Robinson's
method, entirely contrary to the true technique of photography, was to
build up the picture in stages. After making a preliminary sketch of the
design, he photographed individual figures, or groups of figures, cut them
out, and pasted them on the separately-photographed foreground and back-
ground (111.142). \Vhen al1 thc photographs liad been printed in, the joins
were carefully retouched and the whole picture re-photographed fnr the
final version. 'Dawn and Sunset' (111. 143), Robinson's exhibition picture
in 1885, shows his great though misapplied skill; one cannot possibly detect
tbe joins of the five negatives from which it was mnde up. But why should
anyone go such a roundabout way of building up his picturcs from a number
of negatives, instead of sirnply posing and photographing the group? This
complication was partly necessitated by the long exposure, for it was im-
possible to rely on several sitters' kecping still. In this particular picture,
moreover, the contrast between the shadows in the ronm and tlie lisht
streaming in from the window would have been too great for the negative-
material of the period to record satisfactorily. But whereas Rejlander's
method of printing in the separate pictures diren on to one large sheet of
paper was purely photographic, Robinson's technique can only be described
as 'scissors and paste-pot' o r photnmontage.
Like an infectinus disease, Picture Making by Photography (the title
of Robinson's most influential book, still reprinted during World War 1)
affected even some of the greatest photo~raphensuch as Julia Margaret
Cameron and David Octavius Hill-striking examples of how those who
reached the greatest heights of truly artistic photography could plumh the
deptlis of arrificiality and sentimentality when they strove 'to further the
development of fine art in photography'. niis was Hill's declared intention
when about 1860 he made a short comebnck to pliotography in collaboration
with A. Macglashon, an Edinburgh portrait photographer, but their achieve-
ment hardly went beyond mediocre anecdotal pictures.
Under the influence of her friend and mentor G . F. Watts, Julia hlargaret
Cameron spent much time in the misguided effort to explore the realm of
fancy, and like the Academic painters of the period, wliom sbe emulated,
produced the worst kind of Victorian trash in pictures like 'Pray God, hring
Father safely home'. Her illustrations to the Bible, Shakespeare and Tenny-
son, though compared by her contemporaries with the paintings of Old
Masters, appear ludicrous to modern eyes. In tliis rational age it is obvious
to us tliat one cannot photograph 'The Wisc and Foolish Virgins', a Sibyl,
St Cecilia, or the Annunciation, because tlie realism of the medium incvi-
tubly reduces tbe sublime to the ridiculous. Mrs Carneron 2nd her friends
did not see this. The Poet Laureate himsclf asked her to illustrate his
'Idylls of the King', witli results that are otlcn comically suggestire of
amateur theatricals.

The NEWAmateurs
With the general introduction of factory-produced rapid dry plata and
small hand cameras in the 1880s snapshooting became a popular pastirne
for hundreds of thousands of amateurs of a difieren1 calibre from tlie
English and Frencli amateurs of the early period. Tbey were on the u,liolc
people of position, who in those days learned to draw as part of their
education and therefore had a trained eye for cornposition. Morcover, the
rery difficulty of photography tended to result in carefully composcd pic-
tures. The new amateurs using simple apparatus, and mostly lacking art
training, had never heard of any rules of composition 2nd took rather free-
2nd-easy snapshots, ofien very charming like J. Bridson's picnic (1882)
(111. 144). They were fascinated that a click nf the shutter could capture
a slice of life bustling with activiry (111. 145). Oscar van Zel's snapshot
(111. 146) of figure skaters in Viema 'froze' their movement and shows
what short exposures could be attained. Degas, who disliked painting out
of doors, relied a good deal on photographs as smdies for his canvases, many
of which convey a casual snapshot-like impression. for example the 'Place
de la Concorde' with people half cut off.

146 OSCAR \-,\N ZEL. S U T I 3 6 IS V I I S I . 4 , C. 1887

 Most of the new amatcurs were contcnt to rcninin unkiiown, photograph-
ing solely for their own pleasure. For this reason the work of some of them
has oiily recently conle to liglit. For exaiuplc, Count Giuseppe Primoli cliroii-
icled Roman life both high aiid low betwceii 1885 2nd 1905 with directness
and admirable originality of vision. Similar qualities distinguisli the picturcs
of Jacques Henri Lartigue, who .zs a boy took fascinating snapshots of early
motoring and flying, and at race meetings in the years preceding the Great
War.
Many amateurs joined pliotographic clubs. U p to World War 1 Great
Britain retained its position as the country most active in photography, and
by 1900 had no fewer than 256 clubs as against 99 in the United States and
only 23 throughout the whole of the Continent. Those taliing their cue
from the Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain-the oldest societv
still i i i existente-remained uninterested in the new range of subject matter
that liad been opened up, using tlie recent technical advnnces merely to
indulge in trite pictorialism witli greater facility.
Natwralism a n d lmpressionism
By the mid-'eighties H. P. Robinson had gained such international prestige
that artiticiality was synonymous with pictorial photography. Realizing that
exhibition photography was completely divorced frorn realiy, Dr Peter
Henry Emerson urged a return to Nature for inspiration, as Courbet had
done thirry years earlier in a similar reaction against academic painting. An
admirer of the Barbizon School, and particularly of Miller, Emerson for the
next ten years photographed the life and landscape of the Norfolk Broads,
and convincingly demonstrated thar quite ordinary subjects could be imbued
with artistic quality bearing a personal stamp (111. 147). His manifesto
Naturalistic Photography (1589) was a strong attack on artificial picture-
making. Emerson's example brought about a revival of landscape photo-
graphy in England. Prominent among his followers were a number of gified
amateurs: George Davison, Benjamin Gay Wilkinson (111. 148), Colonel
Joseph Gale, Lyddell Sawyer (111. 1491, and Frank M. Sutcliffe. The two
hst-named had professional portrait studios, hut made delightful landscape
and genre pictnres for exhibitinns.
Under the influence of the first exhibition of French Impressionist paint-
ings in England in 1889, George Davison revived the old argument that a
soff photograph was more beautiful than a sharp one-an idea that had led
to heated discussions among English photographers in the 'fiffies. The follow-
ing year he exhibited the first impressionist photngraph, 'The Onion Field'
(111. ]SO), in which the imagc was slightly blurred by a combinarion of
SOR fonis and rough-surfaced papcr. Snon the desire arose ro increase the
soffness and to break u p the smooth halkones of the photograpliic image to
emphasize the Impressioiiistic effect. This met wirh smbborn opposition from
the traditionalists ~ h were
o purists in technique, a t least, and since the
artistic photographers were already dissatisfied with the recent scientific bias
of the Pliotopraphic Snciety, thcy broke away from the establishment and
,
,'
founded a secession movement in 1892. The Linked Ring Brotherhood was
formed by Davison and al1 the members of the Naturalistic school of photo-
graphy (except its founder) and, incongruous as it seerns, the old pictorialist
H. P. Robinson. Since England had a long tradition of pictorial photo-
graphy and was indeed until the 'nineties tlie chief country where it was
practised, it is not surprising that the Linked Ring group was looked up to
as the natural leader by amateur organizations that grew up in other coun-
tries about this time. Within three years the leading French, Austrian and
American art photographers had become members of the Linked Ring and
sent their pictures to annual exhibitions, the London Salon, which re-
mained the m o s important international event in photography up to 1914.
The London Salon set an example for international exhibitions of aesthetic
photography on the Continent: Vienna (1892), Hamburg (1893), Paris
(1894), Turin (1897), Berlin (1899); and the Linked Ring led to similar
secession movements, of which the most importmt was the Photo-Cecession
founded by Alfred Stieglitz in New York in 1901.
The pursuit of art unifying photographers of many nations resulted in thc
formation in 1904 of the International Society of Pictorial Photographers
under the presidency of J. Craig Annan of Glasgow.
The international status of the aesthetic movement brought in its wake
-at least in Europe-an extraordinary uniformity of style. Most pictorial
photographs were sombre in tone, grainy in texture, with broad decorative
effects, lacking in perspective. They owed as much to the art nouveau style
as to the adoption of new printing techniques. The gum bichromate, bromoil
2nd other controlled pigment processes introduced between 1894 and 1907
enabled the photographer to destroy the unique photographic qualities of his
medium. H e could omit details, alter tone values, and by manual inter-
ference with bmsh, pencil or mbber, change tlie image to such an extent
that it no longer resembled a photograph but assumed the appearance of a
painting, especially if the negative had been initially exposed to coarse
canvas. Rough drawing paper and certain pigments could make the photo-
graph look like a red chalk or charcoal drawing. Nothing flattered the
lin-de-si2cle photographer more than tlie admiring exclamation: 'niat
dosn't look a bit like a photograpli!' (111. 151), for it proved their
distinction from che mass of casual snapshooters for whom these techniques
were far too difficult. Whilst in their ambition for recognition as artists
many photographers moved further and further away from pure photo-
graphy in the prerentation of their pictures, these were-in contrast to the
earlier High Art photographs-invariahly of legitimate camera subjects. Not
infrequently photographers imitatcd the style of particular artists. 1s it De-
.....-.., ". ."
mlrhlr nr ;t Y.S-
;C
A
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nriolr.Anrn :- rhn A*.-:.n
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dancer (lll.152)? On the other hand, Drau E. Nothmann's 'In the Garden'
has the character of a Renoir without being directly indebted to him (111.
153).
The most prominent art photographers using the gum bichromate and
other controlled printing processes were, in France: Robert Demachy, C.
Puyo. I n Austria: Heinridi Kihn (IfI. 1 5 4 ) and Hans Watzek (111. 151).
 155 (RIGHT) HANS W A T Z E K .
A P E A S A M . PHOTOGRAVURE O F
A GUM PRINT. 1894
156 THEOUOR ASD
OSKAK HOPMEISTER:
GREhT-GR.4SDh!OTllER,
CUSHAPEN, AUGUST 1897.
PHOTOGRAVURE OF A GUM
PRlNT

In Gcrniany: tlic brothers nieodor and Oskar Hofmeister (111.116), Ru-

dolph Duhrkoop and Hugo Erfurth (111. 157). In Belgium: Leonard Mi-
snnne. I n Spain: Jose Ortiz Echague. In Britain: Alfred Horsley Hinton,
Alexander Keigliley (111. 158), and F. J. Morrimer. The American Edward
Steichen, then living in Paris, may also be considered to fa11 in this
European group. His imaginative composition of Rodin with two of his
greatest sculptures (111. 1S9) is an effective though rather pretentious essay
in photographic impressionism. It was made from two negatives, 'The
niinker' being printed in.
However attractive, art photography was neither art nor true photo-
graphy but a hybrid arising from a misconception of its functions, which
befuddled even the usually clear-headed Munich art critic Karl Vol1 into
proclaiming: 'Since the introduction of the y m print their results have no
longer anything in common with what used to be known as photography.
For that rcason onc can proudly say thac these photographers have broken
the tradition of the artificial reproduction of nature. They llave freed them-
selves from photography.'
 157 HUGO ERTURTI1.LADY VITI!
HAT. NEGATIVE PRINT. 1907

!SS nmxnrrorn KEIGHLEI.

THE BRIDGE. PHOTOGRAVURE
-. -~-- OF A BROMOlL PRIXT, 1906
 Wien one art copies the characteristics of another, decadence inevitahly
sets in. This had happened to art when photographic realism became the
hallmark of academic painting; it happened to photography when it aban-
doned realism in a striving for painterly effects. Now the two opponents
had come so close together that recognition was readily accorded to the new
art. At no time during its entire history has photography been held in such
high esteem by painters as during this aesthetic period of art for art's sake.
Tlie Director of the Hamhurg Kunsthalle, Prof. Alfred Lichtwark, was the
fint to open his museum doors to erhihitions of photography in 1893 and
the foilowing ten years (111. 160), a stcp whicli stmck the puhlic at first
as anomalous as holding a scientific congress in a church. This ofiicial acccpt-
ance of photography was by no means altmistic, for Liclitwark's declared
expectation was a revitalization of painting througli photography. The art-
ists of the Munich and Vienna Secessions admitred the art noirveau phoro-
graphers to their exhibitions in 1898 and 1902 respectively, and in 1899
the first exhibition of art photography in Berlin took place at the Royal
Academy.
 By no means al1 photographers of the nrt nouveau period were forgen
of painters' work or imitators of non-photographic rechniques. A number
of English photographers and practically the entire American group, witli
the exception of Steichen, liad no desire to 'free themselves from photo-
graphy'. They favoured the so6 silver-grey or sepia toned platinum paper,
or hand-made photogravures or photo-etchings. These techniques had been
chosen by P. H. Emerson as giving a slightly so6er and more artistic presen-
tation of a photograph than the usual glossy albumen or bromide prints. To
this purist group, who exhibited side by side with the 'daubers and gum-
splodgers' as Emerson dubbed them, belonged, in Britain: James Craig
Aman (111. 161), Frederick H. Evans (111. 162), Frederick H. Hollyer,
Frank M. Sutcliffe. In France: Maurice Bucquet (111.163). In America:
Alvin Langdon Cobnrn (111. 164), Frank Eugene, Gertrude Kisebier,
Clarence H. White (111. 165), Alfred Stieglitz (111. 166), and Harry C.
165 CLAREXCE WHITE.
LADY IN BLACX.
PHOTOGRAVDRE, C. 1907

166 ALFRED STIEGLITZ.

THE TERMINAL.
PHOTOGRAVURE, 1893
Rubincam (111. 167). Even tlieir pictures frequently show sok irnpression-
istic effects, with occasional contre-jour lighting, and a preferente for wet
or snowy weather.
George Bernard Shaw admitted to Helmut Gernsheim that he originally
aspired to be a Michelangelo, not a Shakespeare, but could not draw well
enough to satisfy himself (111. 168). Considering the camera a wonderful
substitute for the paint-bol he began 'pushing the button' in 1898, with
such lack of success that he made the classic comparison: 'The photographer
is like the cod, which lays a million eggs in order that one may be hatched.'
Nevertheless Shaw audaciously prophesied in the third ycar of his hobby:
'Some day the camera will do the work of Velasqua and Pieter de Hoogh,
..
colour and al1 . Selection and representation, covering ninety-nine hun-
dredths of our annual output of art, belongs henceforth to photography.'
168 GEORGE I I E R S A R D SHAV'S REPLY TO W L M U T GERNSHEIM, GIVING HlS REASON
FOR T A K I N G U P PHOTOCR.APHY, 1949
UC'liilst in his own inimitable w y Shaw tried to confirm Dclaroche's opinion
that paiming was dead, he did no& of course, expecr his remark to be taken
literally. But beiore long, a photographic Pieter de Hoogh interior made
its appearance (111.169). This was only one of many elaborate and accom-
plished imitations of Old Master paintings, in which great pains were taken
to achiere historical accuracy. From the photographic pnint of riew the

169 RiCH.iRD POLAn.

THE STYLE Or PlETER
(REI>RODL'CTIOV;
17: ALrRED STIEGLITZ. THE STEERIGE. PH070GRACKRE, 1907

technique itself was straightforward. Madonnas and saints far more convinc-
ing than M n Cameron's appeared, and even Cmcifixions, Depositions and
Entombments did not escape photographic treatment. With such aberrations
of taste the Dutch amateur photographer Richard Polak, the Americans
J. C. Strauss, F. Holland Day and Lejaren a Hiller, the Italians Ruffo and
Guido Rey, L. Bovier of Belgium, Fred Boissonnas of Switzerland and Mrs
Barton in England, won their laurels.
The man who set out to regenerate the art of true photography towards the
eiid of the century was Alfred Stieglitz. His photographs of New York streets
in the 'nineties convincingly proved that everyday scenes abound in effec-
tive pictures and that it is quite unnecessary to stoop to artifice. Stieglitz's
perception as art connoisseur was far in advance of his time. At the Photo-
Secession gallery at 291 FiRh Avenue he introduced to America, with Stei-
chen's assistance, the work nf rnany now world-famous avant-garde anists,
as well as photographers. They were also featured in Camera Work, a
prestigious quarterly which he edited during the period 1903-17. Although
a purist and an adsocate of straight photography (Ill. 170), Stieglitz showed
a surprising tolerance towards those who clnng to the manipulated print,
and whnse work was frequently as artificial as that which he was fighting
against.
In 1913 Alvin Langdon Coburn, exhibiting in London his novel birds-eye
views entitled 'New York from its Pinnacles' (Ill. 171), persuasively asked
in the catalogue: 'wliy should not the m e r a artist break away from the
worn-out conventions that, even in irs comparatively shon existente, have
begun to cramp and restrict his medium?' n i e idea of showing the world
from above was original but the impressionist softness of presentation
detracu somewhat from the inherent modernity of these photographs.
Stieglitz, Steichcn, Coburn and other members of the American Photo-
Secession exerted an undoubted influence on photographic exhibitions in
Europe, yet it must be emphasized that the self-conscious picture-making
of these small diques contributed little to the mainstream of photography.
LIen iike John Thomson, Jacob Riis, Lewis W. H h e , Paul Martin, Eugene
Atget, Benjamin Stone, and scores of amateur photograpliers totally in-
different to exhibitions and societies, used the m e r a instinctively as an
objective commentator on life, without requiring mmifestoes on the aims
of photography. They planted the seeds of modern photography well before
the first World War, thoujh the full measure of their importante only began
to find recognition with the changed outlook in the 1930s. 1914 marks the
end of an era in photography as well as in social stmcture (111. 172).

172 IDVARO VI1 ASD QLTEN ALEXANDRA, 28 JUNE 1954

173 PAUL STRAND.
SHADOV PATTERN, NEU'
YORK. PHOTOGRAVURE,
1915

Pidures and their Makers: The Modern Period

T H E REVOLUTION iN PHOTOGRAPHY
A deliberate break wirh tradirional subjecr matter and conformiry in ex-
pression is manifested in Paul Strand's photographs of 1915-16, published
by Stieglitz in the last two issues of Camera Work in 1917. Strand observed
significant forms full of aesthetic appeal in ordinary subjects such as the
shadow of a fence (111. 173) and a pile of kitchen bowls. niese photo-
graphs are in essence abstract designs and do not cal1 for surface texture and
fine detail. In another picture, 'Tbe White Fence' (111. 174), Strand in-
tentionally avoided any effecr of perspective. Other photographs in rhe
modern idiom depict ugly subjects such as a ramshackle suburban comer,
relegraph poles, and the close-up of a blind beggar woman, themes with
which Srrand jolted the onlooker back from the sophisticated dream-world
of rhe aestheric photographers to the harsh realities of everyday life, which
they ignored. Strand's text to rhese pictures reads like an advance manifesto
of the New Objectivity movernenc of the mid-1920s: 'Objectivity is of the
very essence of photography, its contribution and ar the same time its limita-
.
tion.. Honesty no less than intensity of vision is the prerequisite of a
living expression. The fullest realiarion of this is accornplished without
tricks of proceses or manipulation, rhrough rhe use of straight pliotographic
merhods.' Such objectivity was, in fact, only the long-forgorten natural
approach of the first generation of photographers.
 Whereas Paul Strand's experiments in abstraction were photographs of
recognizable objects, tbe first purely abstract photographs were a series of
'Vortographs' made in 1917 by A. L. Coburn by photographing bits of
wood, crystals and other objects through an arrangement of three mirrors
forming a triangle and resulting in multiple images (111. 176).
A t the end of World War 1 the cynicism, disillusion, and cnntempt for
established values led not only to political upheavals but also to a disinte-
gration of accepted conventions in art. Traditional niles of composition
were cast aside in a search for new ways of expression. Some young painters,
trying to mould photography to their own visual aims, diverted it from its
true functions. Christian Schad, a member of the Zurich Dada group, in
1918 made abstract designs by a technique ratlier similar to Talbot's photo-
genic drawings, by laying flat objects, strips of paper and pieces of string
on photographic paper. Tristan Tzara called them 'Schadographs'. Schad
also revived photomontage, which had been used on and off since the late
'fifiies. In Victorian photomontages cut-out photographs were either com-
bined with one another to make a new composition (as iu the case of H. P.
Robinson) or-more usually-formed part of a painted composition to pro-

174 PAUL STRAND. THE U-HITZ FEKCE. PHOTOGRAVURZ, 1915

175 ARNO HAMMACHER. TORX PAPER O N WOOD, DESIGSED B Y VALTER i i E R D E G A l
COVER OP 'GRAPHIS AEWUAL 61!62'
duce an incongnious or even surrealist efTect. Never before, however, had
photomontages been such a mad jumble as those of the Dadaists, for in their
attempt to destroy al1 visual illusion, disjointed pieces of photographs were
combined with t o r n ~ f fbits of newspaper, or stuck on canvas without appar-
ent relation to the painted parts.
In 1919 Erwin Quedenfeldt published in Dusseldorf a series of 'light
drawings'-graphic designs made with photographic materials, a method
which he considered as 'absolute photography' because it freed the photo-
grapher from the mechanicalness of tlie camera.
Two yean later Man Ray, the American Dadaist painter who had just
settled in Paris, was shown by Tristan Tzara some 'Schadographs', and then
made somewhat similar light drawings, which he called 'Rayographs', uring
three-dimensional opaque and translucent objects. In 1922 Liszlb Moholy-
Nagy, a Hungarian abstract painter living in Berlin, afier seeing some
'Rayographs' made bis own brand of 'photograms' (111.177) by placing
three-dimensional objecu on photographic plates or paper.
Al1 these techniques aimed at the transmutation of the object into a non-
representational light pattern in which merely ihe shape of the object was
reproduced without detail or tone gradation.
In 1923 Moholy-Nagy starred a class on photography at the Bairbaus, to
176 ALVIN LANGOON COBURN. 'VORTOGRAPH', 1917
177 LASZLO MOHOLY-NAGY. PHOTOGRMI, 1922
 BEFORE LERVNG THE EXHlBlTlON
'* 8 E E W
THEi WONDROUS

X RAYS The
Orentest Sclentilk Mseovey
d the Age.

"THROUCH A BLOCK OF WOOD"

A*D ALBO

%un1 mc-Mnns ~IIrlllim h."

ADMISSION
O P I N AL& DAV.
- 3d.
~ . - -

x RAY PHOTOCRAPHSTAKEN, ,?.,

178 BARLY X-RAY I'HOTOCRAPH, C. 189697

179 ADVERTISEMEXT O i X-RAY ESIIIDITION, LONDON, 1896

explore new techniques of photographic image-making on a much broader

basis than had hitherto been tried, and especially to investigate the extent
to which photography could serve painting, poster art, rextiie design, ex.-
subjecrs which were taught at this mnnt-garde school of design founded by
Walter Gropius in 1919. Techniques which had up to that time been solely
employed for scientific purposes, such as X-ray photography (111s. 178,
179), photomicrography and macrophotography, were found suitable for
producing novel designs of aesthetic ralue. The abstract artists at the Bau-
haur-Kandinsky, Klee, Feininger. Mnholy-Nagy-were intrigued by the
fascinating forms revealed under tlie microscope (111. 181). Paul Klee wrote
in 1924: 'The comparatively simple act of looking through the microscope
presenu the eye with pictures which we should al1 declare fantastic and far-
fetched if we happened upon them by chance.' Their similarity to abstract
art prompted Tbe lllustrated London Nevs to publish in hlay 1931 a
number of colour photomicrographs by hlme Albin Guillot and M. H. Ragot
 Even quite simple tedmiques su& as negative-printing (111. Ili7) (i. e.
not reversing the image to the positive), multiple images, and distortion
could result-so Moholy-Nagy pointed out-in exciting optical images, and
being the enfant terrible who aimed at a complete break with traditional
methods of picture-making, he urged his pupils to l w k a t everything afresh,
from novel viewpoints (111. 182). Moholy-Nagy made photomontages
chiefly in connection with typography, or for advertising, and called the
combination of the printed word with a photograph 'typophoto'. His hook
182 LASZLO MOHOLY-NAGY. Y I E V FROM U010 TOVER, BERLIN, 1928
Afalerei, Fotografie, Film (1925) is a forceful expore of his revolutionary
ideas on the f u m e development and union of abstract painting, abstract
photography, and abstract music-a combined art form based on optical and
aura1 impulses conveyed by colour, pliotoplastic (photograms giving a three-
dimensional effect) and electronic sound effects.
The phenomenon of partial reversal of the negative into a positive image
by the action of light. called solarization by John William Draper in 1840,
was used creatively by Man Ray in 1929 for emphasizinj a certain graphic
effect in photographs (Ill. 183).
Although much of the experimental darkroom work of the immediate post-
war period was of limited value, Moholy-Nagy's, and to a lesser estent, Man
Ray's contribution to phorography lay in extending photocraphic tech-
niques and uprooting outmoded conventions.
A search for new wnys of expression occupied some phorojraphers in
England in the following decade. Cecil Beaton, for twenty-fire years leading
photographer of fashion and celebrities for Vogue, created a new style in
portraimre, with the sitter forming part of an imaginative decor (111. 184).
The American Francis Bniguihre showed in London in 1933 Iight patrerns in
which tlie camera had been merely used to record light effects on his abstract
paper constmctions. Angus McBean, Britain's leading theatrical photo-
grapher, for many years combined surrealist fantasy with photographic
realism in his portrairs of actresses and other compositions (111s. 18J, 187)..
Other avant-garde photographers active in London in the 'thirties were
Peter Rose Pulham, a painter making surrealist photomontages, Edmiston,
an advertising photographer, and Winifred Casson, a porrrait and advertis-
ing photographer (Ill. 186), whose double exposure 'Accident' is a brilliant
evocation of horror (111. 188).
187 ANGUS YCBEAN.
SURREALIST COMPOSlTTON INCI UDING
SEIS-POITRAIT, 1949
 In France, the Dutch photographer E m i n Blumenthal and the Hungarian
Andre Kertesz, both of whom, like many other gified Continental photo-
graphers, later emigrated to the United States, shocked the public with
strange distortions in portraits and nudes (111. 189).
Fascinated by the strange and fantastic, Clarence J. Laughlin was drawn
to rhe beauty of old architecture in his home town, New Orleans, and the
abandoned mansions of cotton planters along the Mississippi, which he
photographed with poetical imagination sometimes in the surrealist vein, to
resurrect the spirit of the part (111. 190). Ir was al1 part and parcel of the
surrealist movement, and a natural parallel to contemporary art trends.
189 ANDRE KERTESZ.
DISTORTION STUDY, 1934
(REPRODUCTION)
NEW OBJECTIVITY
Of more lasting importante in the evolution of modern photography and
in direct contrast to the extremely subjective Bauhaur experimentation was
the simultaneous New Objectivity movement pioneered by Albert Renger-
Patzsch. Neue Sachlirhkeit was a term coined in 1924 by Gustav Hartlaub,
Director of the Mannheim Kunsthalle, to denote the style of severa1 German
neo-realist painters. Later it was also applied to the new realism which
found expression in photography and the cinema.
Fascinated by the beauty of everyday things, Renger-Patzsch from 1922
onward made close-ups of natural and man-made objects, isolating the
subject from its surroundings and recording it with the utmost realism and
textura1 detail. Renger-Paesdi's book Die Welt ist schon (1928) is an
rloquent proof of his contention that the aesthetic ralue of a photograph
lies just in these specifically photographic qualities (111. 191).
Like al1 movements, New Objectivity was not without foremnners. The
same idea had already occurred to E u g h e Atget, who made extended series
 192 EUCBNE ATGET.
TREE ROOTS AT ST. CLOUD,
c. 1910

of close-ups of flowen and trees (111. 192j as well as niany trchitectural

dctails; and to Edward Steiclien, whose rccent autobiograpliy includes n
number of photograplis in this style: a lotus flower, a f r o ~in a lily-pond,
nnd above al1 sonic stnclied flowcr-pots. al1 of whicli antedate h'rxe Sarli-
liclikeit hy severa1 ycars.
Rengcr-Pntzsch's straiglitformard photo~raphscame as a revelatioii. 'l.ct
lis lenve zrt to artists.' Iic wrore. 'and lrt ur try by rneanr of pliritrijirapli?
ro crenie pli<irogr.iplis th:it can s t m d d o n e on accouni of ilieir plii>tojiraphic
qunliry -wirhriur b o r r o w i ~ ifrom
~ art.' Quite indepcndeiirly Iic Iinil xrri\.ed
d t the a m r conreprion ni Peiiil Srrnnd.
NPIIPSt~rhlichkrit was a reaction ngninst senrinienrdiiy. riiminiicisni.
picturriquenesr, flaitery in portraitu~c.2nd f.~ldic.itionof any kitd. I'icrti-
rinlim wns le!? ro the pliotograpliic Salons, prettiness 2nd heaiity in the
conventional seme bclonged to rllc picrure poitc.ird. nnd .ibctrnct designc
for their own sake. to graphic nrt. The phoro~rapherar larr began to recog-
nize and pursue again the unique characteristic qualiries nf Iiir niedium witli
its alnio~tunlimited possibilities of genuine espressioii. H e was able, as
William Blake wrote,
'To sec a world i i i a grain of sand,
And a heaven in a wild flower.'
In shaping the new vision the influence of the cinema must not be over-
looked. D. W. Griffith in 'Intolerance' (1916) brought for the first time to
the screen the emotional closc-up. The horrifying realism of Eisenstein's
famous Odessa steps sequence in 'Potemkin' (1925) and the close-up of
maggots crawling on the sailor's mear, and Pabst's film 'The Joyless Street'
(1925), not only firmly established realism as a major style in the cinema,
but also had a tremendous impact upon still photography.
New Objectivity gathered momentum with Karl Blossfeld's Urformen der
Kunst (1929). The strange f o m s Blossfeld found in quite comnion plants
are extraordinary. There is evident, however, a conscious striving to aston-
ish by bringing out details, frequently enlnrgcd over life-cize to xccntuatc,
in some cases, their likeness to artefacts.
Before long, the close-up and reproduction of texture begaii to be applie~l
to prtraiture. Since the expoiients of New Objectivity were interestcd above
 194 EDU'ARD STEICHEN.
PAUL ROBESON AS THE
rwrnon jou~s.1933

al1 in everyday things. tlieir portraits were naturally of ordinary people,

not cclebrities. Erna Lendvai-Dircksen. like the Gcrman realist painter Wil-
hclm Leibl before her, dedicated herself for many ycars to portraying Ger-
man peasants in their traditional costumes. August Sander's Antlitz der
Zrit (1929) gave an unflartering portrait of a cross-section of Germany's
social structure. Helmar Lerski in Kopfe des Allrags (1931) concentrated on
everyday faces-beggars, hiwkers. industrial workers, and scrvants-feehg
thar whereas celebrities often wear a mask and strike a pose before the
camera, these unimportant peoplc gave him a chance t o make objcctive
character smdies (111. 193).
Miniacure cameras with wide-aperture lenses, inrroduced in Germany in
the mid-'twenties, made angle-shots, distortions, and novel vicwpoints com-
moii practice. When used with discretion thcy could add forcehlness to
the expression (111. 194), increase apparent height (111. 191) or diminish
apparent size. Tlic ertraordinary ~ i c t u r e sassembled by Wcrncr Graff in his
book Es Kommt drr A'cire Fotograf (1929) form the perfect guide to the iiew
vision, which now began to establish itself firmly in Germany. The classic
niles of composition and pcrspcctive devised in the Renaissance for paint-
ing were now deliberately discarded as photographers at last leamed to see
photograpbically.
Several German weekly illustrated papers and monthly magazines in tlie
late 'twcnties surprised theii readers with startling photographs featured
under such titles as 'The New Vision', 'The World from Above', 'Under the
Magnifying Glass', 'How Our Pliotographer Saw It', 'The Picture can be
Found in the Street', 'Beauties of Erery Day', 'Journeys of Discuvery with
the Camera', etc.
The possibility of publishing their pictures in magazines and books freed
photographers from their former dependence on exhibitions for fame. It
brought about a much wider division berween pliotographs made for ex-
hibitions-the old art for art's sake-2nd those intended for publication,
which were concerned with life and reality, photography's proper domain.
Germany, which had played no rOle in the development of artistic photo-
graphy until late in the nineteenth century, found herself suddenly leading
Europe, and with no hampering tradition, progress was rapid. Walter Hege's
photographs in the 1930s of Gerrnan cathedrals, the Athenian Acropolis
(111. 196) and Olympia, inspired later contributions in the fields of architec-
ture and sculpture. Kurr Hielsmer, Martin Hurlimann, and E. O. Hoppe
(111. 197) produced for the Orbis Terrarum series photographic books on
foreign countries whicb were a model for present-day publications. Orher
leading photographers ~ h spread
o the new style beyond the borders of
Germany were Adolf Lazi, Willi Zielke and Herbert Bayer, who was head
of the typography department at the Bzul~nrisbefore setrling in the U S A .
 The only coulitry outside Germany n-licrl; N r n Ubjc<:ivii; ii)ii;:i! iiiiiiic-
diate acceptance was S~itzerialid;perhaps it a-as natural that the ncm factual
style should appeal to a iiation notcd for clockwork precision and down-to-
earth exactitude, and be considered unpoetic in England 2nd France.
In the United States new realism began independently of German influence
with a small number of photograpliers, of whom Edward Steichen, Paul
Strand and Edvard Weston are tlic best known. Steiclien's early work in
tliis style hns nlready been refirrcd to. Strand began in 1926 to take close-up
plioto~raplisof ninchincry, plnnts 2nd rack foriiiations. Westoii wns a Salon

202 (nic1i.r) A N S ~ X . A D A M S ,
SAND DVNFS. OCTANO,
CALlFORXiA, 1962
romantic until, during three years' residence in Mexico, the stimulating in-
fluence of his friend the painter Diego Rivera resulted in a complete change
of style. In September 1925 Weston exhibited his first sharp objective land-
scape photographs and portraits, and after returning to California in 1927
embarked on clore-ups of unusual natural forms for which he later became
justifiably famous. Whether it were a sweet pepper (II1.200), an eroded
rock forming an abstract pattern, or Californian sand dunes, he rendered
every subject with its surface texture strongly emphasized. The contribu-
tions of Edward Weston and his son Brett, Edward Steichen, Imogen
Cunningham, Berenice Abbott, a pupil of Man Ray, and the realist painter-
photographer Charles Sheeler made a deep impression a t the imponant
International Film Sr Photo Exhibition in Stuttgart in 1929. About a year
later Ansel Adams, stimulated by the work of his teacher and friend Edward
Weston, began to devote bimself to similar subject matter (111.201), before
turning to the grand landscapes of the Yosemite Valley and other American
National Parks. for which he is todav chieflv celibrated.
 This American group did not abandon tlieir 10x8 inch plate cameras i i i
favour of tlie miniature cameras introduced in tlie 'twenties, because they
considered superlative technique just as essential as imaginative visioii. Ir1
1932 Willard van Dyke, a cinematographer, formed tlie F 64 Group with n
few other like-minded photographers, including \Veston and Imogen Cun-
ningham. They used tlie smallest diaphragm opening on their lens iii order
to obtain the greatest possible depth and sharpness from foreground to bacli-
ground, rarely making larger prints than contact copies. This was a return to
the practice of the pioneer landscape photographers three-quarters of a
century earlicr, escept that they had usually worked with much larger plates.
Inspired by tlie Westons and Adams (111. 202j, there are today in America
a number of dedicated nature photographers-U'ynn Bullock, Wlliam
Garnett, Eliot Porter and Cedric Wright-whose hrilliant work has appeared
in This is tl~eAmerican Earth (1963) by Nancy Newhall and other fine
publicahons sponsored by the Sierra Club in San Francisco.
Mention must also be made in this connection of the originators of New
Objectivity who are still active and bave published a number of books con-
taining superb photographs: Paul Strand on Mexico (1940). New England
(1950) and the Hebrides (1963); Renger-Patzsch on the Rulir and Mohne
landscape (195S), trees (1962) and stones (1965).
When Helmut Gernsheim tried to propagate New Objectivity iii Britain,
his book N m Photo Vision (1942) (111.204) met with the same kind of
hostile reception from the old guard as Die Welt ist scbon had previously.
For many years the new style found little favour outside advertising, despite
the excellent annuals hfodern Photography and the books of Ansel Adamr
and the Viennese Wolfgang Suschitzky, al1 published by The Str~dio.Su-
schitzky applied the modern realistic style to close-ups of animals (Ill. 203)
and children in a way that bad not been atrempted before. During World
U'ar 11 Gernsheim brought the same approach to the architecture and
sculpture (II1.2Ol) of historic monuments. By isolating and lighting he
intensified individual motifs and brought out significant details which iii
some cases would otherwise have remained unnoticed by the casual obsemer,
since they were otten in obscure positions.
Andrcas Feiiiinger, who lei3 Germany in the mid-'thirties about the same
time as Gernsheim, has been staff photographer of Lije for over twenty
years, specializing in suhjects calliiig for an intellectual rather tlian aii
emotional approach. An architect by training, Feininger's analytical search-
ing eye discovered many new vistas in American landscape 2nd townscape
(11!. 206) and fantnstic forms in The Anatomy o/ Natrm (1956).
 Today good straightforward photograpliy in the New Objectivity style
is the normal standard, apart from the diehard pictorialists whose banal
anachronisms still clutter the London Salon, the annual exhibitions of the
Roya1 Photographic Society and of tlie Photographic Society of America,
2nd indccd a large numher of orlier reactinnnry clubs and societies. Typical
;ia proud nore i n an Engliih cxhihirion carnlnguc as rccciit as 1960:'Viewers

will be ahle to see the continuing tradition of pictorial photography, whidi

continues largely unruffled by modern movements. This conservatism with
variations is one of the strengths of the photographic society exhibitions and
one of the facets that is periodically attacked by graphic artisu and fine
art critics.'!
CONTEMPORARY PORTRAITURE
The greatest contemporary representative of portraiture in the classic tradi-
tion is Armenian-born Yousuf Karsh, whose name will for ever remain
associated with the image he created of Si Winston Churchill (111.208)
-the most characteristic portrait expressing the hulldog determination of
the great wartime leader. No other artist succeeded so well in catching the
forcefulness of Eleanor Roosevelt, the impish, quizzical expression of G. B.
Shaw, or the Weltscbmerz of Albert Einstein. These and many other faces
of destiny phorographed by Karsli during the war for the Canadian Govern-
ment make a strong case for an International Photographic Portrait Gallery.
Smaller fry do not stand up to the same heroic treatmenr, though their
portraits too are unmirtakably stamped with Karsh's personality.
21 1( R r c W I ) ANDREAS FEIMNGER. CATERPILLAR
0 7 SFICEBLSH SVALI.OWTAIL. C. 1960
 Like the portrait painter, the studio photographer aims at obtaining in
one static picture the mosr characreristic expression, combining various
aspects of tbe sitter's personality. The reportage photographer, on the other
hand, will record a number of fleeting expressions in a set of picmres forrn-
ing a kind of serial portrait. The reportage style of portraiture, pioneered
by Felix H. Man in 1929, has today become modified inasmuch as the
photographer finally selects for use only one or two out of the great number
taken. For a picture story on a well-knowu person, readers of a magazine
would rather see the subject in a variety of places and activities, than
merely expressions and gesmres recorded during one conrersation with an
interviewer. Progressive portrait photographers, aware that the sitter is more
at ease in his usual surroundings, practise whar used to be called At Home
photography, except that nowadays the term also covers place of business,
a film or TV smdio, concert hall, club, and so on. Outstanding recent ex-
amples have been taken, among others, by Ida Kar (111.209), especially of
artists and writers, and Erich Auerbach, of musicians. Brian Seed's clever
smdy of Patrick Heron (111.212) focuses attention in a very original way
upon the abstract painter on the occasion of an award.

212 BRIAN SEEO.

rATnrcrr HERON, 1959
213 PHILII'PE H4LS.\IN.
PROPESSOR ALRERT EIN-
STEIN, 1948

Latvian-horn Philiplv 1 1sl~iii.iii.iviiii ovcr 123 i-iic ciivcr p;rriircs to Iiis

credit, has produced somc iiiiiiiortal portraitr displayiiig grcat originality
and liveliness. To Halsman, a portrait is above al1 a human document, and
he sees his greatest reward when one of his portraits becomes the definitive
image of some famous person. History will remember Einstein as Halsman
saw him (111.213). His Jump Book of famous people, on the other hand,
strikes one as hardly more than a gimmick.
Living with Pablo Picasso for several months enabled David Douglas
Duncan to build up a great composite prtrait-the best documentation that
has so far been produced on the private life of a great figure. The Private
World o/ Pablo Picasro (1958) has that air of intimacy which only famili-
arity can give. Despite his flair for acting, Picasso refrained from playing
to tlie gallery.
 Irring Penn and Richnrd Avedon are America's leading fasliion magazine
piiotograpliers today. Ziey have created a contemporary stylc for \.:oguc
and Harprr's Bazaar respectirely, as distinctive as Edward Steiclien's for
Vanity Fair in the 1920s and 30s, and Cecil Beaton's for Vogue in the 30s
and 40s. Ohservationr (1959) and Xomentr Preserved (1960) shov better
than words can describe the quality which g i ~ e stheir fasliion pliotographs
that new look, 2nd makes their colour advertiscments so eye-catching. Eco-
nomy of means, unusual viewpoints and a strong black-and-white effect create
a scnse of monumentality in Penii's portraits of Picasso and Marlene Dietrich.
The sanie strength emcrges from Avedon's Strarinsky (111.214). Occasionally,
Iiowevir, when tlic sitrer has to play-act a part assigned to Iiim, he ir
reduced to aii insignificant f i ~ r on
e the photograplier's stage.
215 TON[ SCIISEIDERS.
A i R - n t w i n IN irr. 1953

FOTOFORM
Since much of the naant-garde arr of thc Baui~arrswas stigmatized by tlic
Nazis as degeneratc. it was closcd down wlieii Hitler canie to power. Walter
Gropius and Moholy-Nagy had already lcft in 1928. To the posr-war gen-
eration in Germany most of tlie B a d a u r tcaching a a s a sealed book.
In the wavc of non-reprcscntationaI art wliicli swepr the world after
World War 11 Kandinsky, Klce aiid Feiningcr, who liad made the Bawharir
rlie spearhead of abstract art, were international idols. It ir not surprising,
rlierefore, that in the spirit of tlie times Prof. Otro Steinert, reacher a t and
larcr director of the State Art Si Craft Scliool in Saarbrucken, considered
tlie moiiient oppwtune to rcvivr tlic cntirr rangr of phnrographic image-mak-
ing cvolved by Muholy-Nacy. Uiider rlie ri~iiic'I:otolorrn', 2nd with a p o d
deal of drum-beating from art criticr, onc of whom likened the impact
of tlie first Fotoforrn cxhibition (1950) to 'an ntom bomb in the dungheap of
decadent German photograpliy', photographs wirh a graphic design or ab-
stract pattern becamc rhc rage in Germany. Come photographers discovered
that nature aboundcd witli abstract patterns if you started looking for them.
Toni Sclincidcr's air bubblc formntioii iti icc (111. 215) and Pctcr Keetmnn's
oil drops (111.216) are excellent examples. Keetman made a vxiety of
aesthetically satisfying oscillation photographs (111.217), unaware that the
first designs made with a swinging light source had been produced as early
as 1904 by C. E. Benham and published in the Januarp 1905 issue of Tbe
Photogram, London. The 'Luminograph', originally introduced for time-
and-motion study of factory workers, led Gjon Mili to ask Picasso to draw
for him a light picmre in the air. Less original, but sometimes more fantastic,
were the light patterns traced by the headlights of motor cars on photo-
graphic film, and the helicopter spiral (l11.218) by Andreas Feininger.
However, more o&en than not abstractions and graphic designs were only
conceived in the darkroom, and ir was in the namre of things that the
desired graphic e&t usually necessitated the suppression of rhe specifically
photographic qualities in order to render the subject of the photograph
meaningless. Estremists seemed to feel the same urge to 'free themselres
from photography', as some of the art nouveau gum-splodgers had done.
The quest for originality frequently led to cultivation of what had
fomerly been rejected as technically faulty, transforming the normal
image quite surprisingly: over-enlargement of a small part of a negative,
coarse grain, blurred outlines, camera-shake, double images, exaggerated
conrrast and retirulation. Man Ray in his sclf-portrait obtmned a
graphic eEect by printing from a zincographic plate (111. 219). As the
metamorphosis was caused by optical or clieiiiical methods it constinited a
legitimate broaderiiiig of pliorographic image-making. Neverrheless, Foto-
form was far too narrow a conception of photography, and fully aware of
the dangers of a cul-de-sac Steinert, himself a distinguished photographer
of great originality (111s. 220, 223), in 1951 widened the scope to Sub-
jective Photography-meaning any creatively-guided picture-making, in-
cluding reportage. 'Subjective' implied a personal expression or interpretation
by the photographer in contradistinction ro the objective outlook of Neue
Sachlichkeit.
Steinert's revolutionary eshibitions of Subjectioe Photography, and two
books based on theni, propagated the new style, which found partinilarly
receprive ground in Sweden and Japan, countries traditionally strong in
design but before 1950 practically non-esistent in the field of creative photo-
graphy. Lennart Olson, Hans and Caroline Hammarskiold (111. 222), George
Oddner, Rolf Winquist (111.221) and otherr who have won international
recognition both individually and as the Tio Group, owe their creative
impulse largely to Fotoform. Most profound was its inflnence on modern
textile design: cunain material, table cloths, and on wallpaper design.
 Though some Neue Sachlichkeit photographs could also be dassified as
Fotoform, the different approach of the two stples can be demonsrrated by
a comparison of Gernsheim's cross-section through a cucumber (111.204)
wirh Hans Hammankiold's cmss-secrion rliroupli a tree (111.224). Whilsr
the former wanted to intensify the realiry with al1 possible tone gradarion,
rhe lamer intentionaliy destroyed the half-tone in order to obtain a graphic
deign transcending the realiry of the object. Subjecu never failing to mysrify
the viewer are fissured tree bark (111.228), cracked paint (111.229) and
paper (111. 226) and cracked windows (111. 227). And while on the subject
of glass, Sir George Pollock finds an infinite variety of abstract designs in
1
235
225 RA1710)iD MOORE. ROCK POOL, 1964
225 HANS HAXMARSKIOLD.
B A R K OF A TREE, 1952
233 HARRY CALLAHAN
rmson, 1948
picturcs Gire l c ~ sclosely related to thc current rrend iii p.iiiiriq tl:nn thorc of
n number of othcr Amcricaii photographers in this ficld, forcniost among
them Aaron Siskind (111. 232) and Harry Callnlian, who for many years
jointly dirccted the photographic deparrment of the Illinois Institure of
Design (the New Bauliaiis). Quite a different abstraction, depending purely
on form, is given by Callahan's silhouctte (111. 233) and Bill Rrnndt's strange
study from Pcrspec~ierof Nirdcr (1961) (111. 234). Vcry intcrerring patrcrns
are sometimes nlso thc by-product of scientiiic investigarions as in Prof.
Schardin's photogr;iph of thc tempcraturc distribution around a Iicatcd
metal tube (111. 2351.
Hcnry Holmcs Srnith has used tlie multiple-colour dyc-trnnsfcr prociss
for crcnting abstract forrns in colour. Herbert W. Frankc in K u m t rmd
Konstrrrktion (1937) lists a grex iuaiiy techniqucs froni X-rays to ulrrdight.
 I ne icisrrrarea uariy i~e-&Sroiiowea suit, tnirty-nine J-ears airer tne reasim-
ity of printing a halfcone block alongside type liad been sa:isfactorily de-
mo~icrratcdby Stephen H. Horgm in T h e New York Dai1.v Grzphic. Even

238 IRENCH hl.\CRI~:? GIlN DETACtlXENT IlNDZR FIRE AT HFLLF OURlNG T O R L D U-hR 1. 1918
- ,

1
during the early twentietli crntury practically the only outlet the news
pliotographer had for picturcs of erents, 2nd complete rcportages of occa-
sions such as Queen Victoria's funeral nnd Edward VII's coronation, was
tlie sale of postcards.
During Vi'orld War 1 pliotograpliers were for thc first time officially at-
taclied to tlie arnied forccs, and sonic action shots under fire coniparable witli
tliose of World War 11 wcre talien (111. 239). 1-er compnrati\dy Tcw of thein
wcre publislicd in rhe press. aiid to satidy tlie growing demnnd, sers of otficial
w3r p l ~ o t o ~ r a p hwcrc
s released to tlic public iii tlie 1920s ixiEnglaiid. Frnnce
niid Gernitiiiy iii the form o[ stc~.coicopicslides and publishcd albums.
Newspapers were ;xicrcdihlY slow to ndnpt themsclves tu tlie plioto-age.
Altliougli iiurnrrous cxcellciit pliotographs of hisroric &iits liad been
niade in tlie nineteenth aiid enrly twentieth cenrury, photo-reportage
in tlie modcrn sense Legan only in tlie mid-'twenties (111.239) ~ i t htbe
introduction of the Ermanox camera and ultra-rapid plarcs. This new
equipment mnde it possil>le to seize tleeting expressions aiid moremenrs, and
evcn to take indoor photo~rapbsin poor lighting condicions. I t wns. never-
theless, a ratlier exaggerated clairn of rhe manufacturer of the Ermanox
camera to advertise: '\l'hat you see you can photoyaph', According to Hugo
ron Hofmannsrhal, D r Hnns Bohm working v i t h this camcra from a box
in tlie Josephstadt nicatrc in Viciiiia recorded for the first time the ex-
pressions and gcstures o i actors duriii; actual performances in Max Rein-
hardt's first season 3914-15. His success decided the former research clicmist
to become a professioiial stase photograplier.
The nenr technical incilitics gradually gave risc ro n new kind of photo-
graphy-a preoccupntioii witli liumaii situations (111.240). Tlie fnthers of
moderii plioto-reportngc are D r Ericli Salonion, Felis H. Maii and W'olfgniic,
Weber.
Snlomon started as a frce-lance photo-reporter iii Fcbruary 1928 after the
scnsational success of his pliotograplis of s Berlin rnurdcr trial takeii secretly
with an Ermanos coiicealed iu an attacli! case. In fact, a similar 'scoop' had
nlready becn tnnde twenty years earlier by ni1 Englisli press photograplier,
11rthur Barrett, who caught espressire close-ups (111.241) of suffragette
lenders in the dock at Bow Strect Magistrate's Court, London, witli n camera
liiddcn in Iiis top har, in wliicli he hnd cut a hole for the lens.
 Dis~atisfiedavith the traditional static portraits and groupi publislied in
tlie Bcrlincr Illwrtrirte Z c i t i q , Dr Salonion astonished the world with his
candid snapsliors of stntesmen 2nd other celelirities in unguarded moments,
espccially ar international politicd coiifereiices. Aristide Brinnd cnlled Iiim
'le roi des indiscrets' (111. 24?), for Salomon was as ingenious ar getring
into secret sessions froni which pliotographers were barred, as the China-
man whn, posing as a special envoy, boldly joined tlie roya1 procession a t
thc opening of the Grent Exliibition at tlie Crystal Palace i i i 1851.
244 (RIGHT) FELIX H. MAN. M A R C CHAGALL
A T VENCE, 1950
 Another early worlier in this ficld was the Hungarian Muncaszi, who I i e
D r Salomon worked chiefly in single pictures for the Berliner Illrstrirte.
The pioneer of the picture-story or series of related photographs of a
general event is Felix H. Man. His series o l life on the Kurfiirstendamm,
Berlin, between midnight and dawn was the first nocmrnal photo-reportage
(1929). The same year he made the first photographs of conductors (111.243),
musicians, and so on, during performances by arailable light, using an Erma-
nos. Another innovation duc to Man was the intimate picture series of
famous persoualities, beginning with 'A Day with Mussolii' (1931).
The first reportage of Wolfgang Weber, who is still active for the Kol-
nische I/lustrierte, was on the New York traffic problem, published in the
M&zchner Illustrierte Presre in February 1929.
'Dephot' (Deutscher Photodienst), an agency in Berlin founded that year
by Alfred Marx and Simon Gutmaun was until 1932 the leading enterprise
in the sphere of photo-journalism in Germany. Its two principal photo-
graphers were Umbo and Felix H. Man, the former working mainly on the
studio and advertising side, m d the latter as photo-journalist. I n 1930 they
were joined by Kurt Hubschmann (later Hutton). Others working for
Dephot were Walter Bosshard, and Harald Lechenperg who some years
later became editor of the Berliner Illurtrirte. The close association with
Stefan Lorant, who was from August 1928 Berlin editor of tlie Atund)ner
Illustrierte and became its brillianr editor-in-chief in 1930, was the main
cause of tlie rapid rise of the new photo-journalism sponsored by Dephot.
The Associated Press in Berlin, whose chief photographer was the Hun-
garian Alfred Eisenstaedt (l11.245), adopted the reportage style, and other
agencies gradudly followed suit.
Stefan Lorant laid down the aviom that the camera should be used like
the notebook of a trained reponer, to record events as they ocmr, without
trying to stop them to arrange a picmre. Ziis trend in the course of a few
years transformed the German illustrared weekly magazines, of which there
existed in 1930 no fewer than thirteen: the Berliner lllustrirte Zeittrng and
M i n h n e r Illustrierte Prerse, followed by the Kolnische Il!irrtrierte (the
rhird largest), HackeLeil, Frankfurter, Han~burger and Stuttgarter Illu-
strie~te,Die Woclte, thc Weltspiegel (tlie Sunday picture supplement of the
Brrliner Tage[llatt), Zeitbilder (the Sunday picture supplcment of the Voj-
sirche Zeitung, Berlin), Die Dame, Die Koralle, and Beyers fur Alle, Leipzig.
Through Dephot and Henry Guttmann, a journalist in Paris, rhe German
reportase style seeped into the leading French weeklies such as Illnstrntion, 1
Miroir du Monde, and a Strassburg illustrated paper, during 1929-32. The
following year three Dephot-trained Hungarian photographers, Robert Capa
and H. and Ina Bandi, transplanted the new style to Paris, where they
settled. By this time most reportage photographers had changed over to the
Leica or the Contax miniature cameras. In contrast to present-day exposures,
a little flash-back to the conditions prerailing in the eady 'thirties is
revealing. D r Salomon's and F. H. Man's indoor photographs, during the
daytime and at night, were taken bv available light at exposures varying
between Vsth second and 'Ir second, the camera mounted on a tripod. Adolf
ron Blucher in the early 'thirties took the first action shots of circus per-
formance~a t night-naturally also with relatively long erposures, carefully 1
waiting for the moment when the movement of acrobats swinging on a
trapeze, for instance, was at its dead-point.
The new photo-joumalism was brought to England by Felix H. Man and
Kurt Hutton when Stefan Loranr founded Wcekly lllurtrnted in 1934 and
four years later Picture Post, of which Man was chief photographer until
1945. Lorant emigrated to the United States in 1940, and with his h w k
Lincoln: His Lije in Photographs (1941) pioneered a nem genre in book-
publishing-the pictorial biography.
From the foregoing it becomes abundantly clear that the oft-repeated
claim that photo-reportage originated with Life completely lacks founda-
tion. Eisenstaedt, stafi photographer on this magazine from its foundation
in November 1936, like a number of other emigre photographers, merely
introduced into [he United States a style already current in Germanv for
several years. Moreover, for the first two years Eisenstaedt had to operate
with flashlight and tripod in order to satisfy the American concept of a good
photograph-pinsharpness. In fact, it mas only afier the appearance of
Picture Post in September 1938 that Life changed to the modern reportage
style.
Brassa'i's frank revelations of Parisian life (111. 249) in the early 'thir-
ties, Henri Cartier-Bresson's outstanding reportages of Spain (1933) and
Mexico (1934) (111.248), and Roben Capa's dramatic pictures of the
Spanish Civil War (1/1.21>0),firmly established reportage photography as
an art form.
 245 B R A S S ~ ~TRAMP
. SLEEPING IN THE STREET, PARIS, 1937

248 (LEFI) HENRI CARTIZR-BRESSON. MEXICAN PROSTITUTE, 1934

Ray, took up reportage photography and made an unIorsettable documen-
tation of The English at Home (1936), illustrating the great chasm divid-
ing rich and p o r in housing, education and leisure. His famous picture of
an unemployed miner searching for coa1 (111. 251) epitomizes the grimness
of the economic depression.
Also in the mid-'thirties, but in the United States, a number of photo-
graphers recording for the Farm Security Administration the appalling
conditions in depressed areas during the economic crisis produced ouutand-
ing pictures which shocked America by their starkness, for they were the
commentary of socially conscious observers on the misdeeds of their time.
Walker Evans's photographs (Ill.253), as one writer said, 'put the physiog-
nomy of the nation on your table'. The ramshackle dreariness revealed in
his photographs and those of his colleagues Dorothea Lange (111. 254),
Margaret Bourke-White, Arthur Rothstein (111. 252) and others, is a
terrible indictment of civilization in certain parts of America. M. Bourke-
 White's book You Ilaw Seen Their Faces (1937) contains haunting pictures
tliat go far beyond the mere documentation of conditions in rhe Southern
States, and especially of negro chain-pangr. Photography had become a
p w e r f u 1 wsrlp~njn aarxkcnhb thc rockl consc;eiici, rr Jii-iiL R;;i 6ijf Elme
ro realize. What Gurtave Dore accornpl~sliedin hir dramatic pen drawings of
London slnms in the 1870s can today be achieved with even greater force-
N , fulness by a photographer equal in his powen of expression to Dork.
A photographer of sensitivity cannor record poor social conditions ob-
jectively; the deeper his compassion goes, tbe greater will be the impact of
his pictures. I t is probably true that most grear reponage photographen
253 E A L K E R EYASS. AT VICKYBtiRG, PINNSYLVAYIA, 1936
cannot Iielp getting emotioiially inrolved in what thcy scc, 2nd tlieir crea-
tive ability may subtly influence our way of tliinking.
For Robert Capa it was impossible to stand aloof froiii political events
which were affecting the lives of rnillions. The iiihumaniry of man to man
and the futility of war became an obsession with him. H e hated war, and
it is ironical that he should have won recognition as the best combar photo-
grapher in the world (111.2liS). Capa photographed fire wars i i i cigliteen
years, and finally paid with his life for his courage.
Cornell Capa has like Iiis elder brothcr made humaii interest his main
theme, but in more peaceful surroundings (111.256).
Warsaw-born David Seymour, a founder-nieinber witli Carticr-Bresson
and Robert Capa of the Magnum Group iii 1947, was killed in acrion while
covering the invasion of Egypt during the Suez crisis. He made picmre-
stories in many countries (111. 257), and is particularly remembered for
Iiis compassionate pliotographs of children.
Mario de Biasi caught the violence of the avenging crowds surgiii; through
Budapesr as no other photographcr o[ the Hunc~rianrevolutioii did.
258 MARTYRS OF BFLSEN, APRIL 1945
 Thousands of pictures taken at the end of the war by the allied armies
liberating Nazi exterminarion camps (111.258) will remain for ever a
reminder of the unspeakable brutality and flagrant violation of human
rights committed by the criminals of the Thousand Year Reich.
Werner Bischof's reportages on refugees, war-scarred districts of France,
Holland and Germany, and famine in India (Ill. 260) leave no douht that
he was sick at heart at what he had to report. Some of his finest work is
contained in his books japan (1954) (111.219) and Untenuegs (1957).
Suppression of Bert Hardy's reportage on an incident in the Korean War
1 led to Tom Hopkinson's resignation as editor of Picture Post: the indictment
of the South Korean Government, an ally of rhe Western Powers, that
allowed totalitarian behaviour within its own ranks, was inconveniently
outspoken. A dramatic series of action pictures involving American troops
in Korea was taken by Life photographer David Douglas Duncan.
Eugene Smith's wonderful picmre-story 'The Spanish Village' (1950) ex-
plores the eterna1 themes of life and death in a poor community whose life
he shared for a year in order to understand their customs and be regarded
as a friend, not as an outsider. Smith's photograph of a dead man mourned
by his family (111. 261) has rhe economy of means and strong tone contrast
261 EUGENE SMITH I H E SPANISH VILLAGP, 1950
--
o i a Goya etcliing. The same power of expressioii disringuishes rhe Peruvian
and Spanish reportages of the Swede George Oddner, which are full of
images of intense human interest (Ills. 262,263). Unforgettable, toa, is Ernsr
Haas's moring picture-story of the arnval in his home-town Vienna of
rcturning prisoners-of-war froni Russia in 1946.
Coinpasiou wirli a stroriR adn~isrnrcof rhe sensacional stimpr the work
ol Archur Fellig, known ar '\Vcegcc'. Hc built up a big repuiation with hiq
candid news coverage of povcrry, crime and calarniries iii New York during
fifteen years' dose co!lahoration with the New York police as a free-lance
photographer. With iron nervcs and m01 detachment Weegee capnired
situations and emorions in which the photographer must have seemed an
intmder.
 I t is however not only wars and bad social conditions but the whole of
life which modern photography depicts more convincingly than any other
medium. Bert Hardy's many reportages while chief photographer to Picrure
Post include some memorable shots. The raconteur in a French wine cellar
has a Falstaffian quality (111. 264). To obtain unfamiliar aspects of familiar
subjects is one O! the tasks of the reportage photographer; success lies in
catching mood, atmosphere, and expression of the personalities of the people
involved. Such picmres are Elliott Erwhitt's intimate family scene (111. 2671
and Henri Canier-Bresson's classic 'Sunday on the Banks of the Marne'
(111. 269), which perfectly conveys the atrnosphere of a typical French
working-class family's ideal Sunday outing. 'lhis is only one of the mani
fine pimres in his first book Images 2 la Sauvette (1952). Kurt Huttods
'Scenic Railway' (111. 268) evokes al1 the fun of the fair, although the scene
was carefully rehearsed, which rather invalidater ir as reponage.
The Dutchman Ed van der Elsken becarne internationally known with
his book Love on the LeP Bnnk (1956)-the rather sordid story of a young
girl, who eventually returned home to Canada pregnant. More cheerful and
equally good are Leonard McCombe's Yori are Aly Love and de Carava's
The Sweet Flypaper of Life that appeared soon allerwards.
 268 KURT HCTTON. SCENlC
RAILVAY AT THE FAIR, 1938

269 HENRl CARTIER-BRESSON.

SUNDAI O N THE B A N R S OF THE
MARNE, 1938
270 ERWIN FIEGER.
O X P O M STREET,
LONDON, IN RAIN, 1959
 The American William Klein-the angry young man of photography-
produced provocative 'portraits' of New York (1956) and Rome (1959) in
a d p a m i c motion-picture style. A greater contrast to Karel Plicka's C i t y of
Baroque and Gothic (1946) can hardly be imagined. However, de gurtibur
non disputandum. Plicka concentrated on the splendid architecture and
town views of Prague, perhaps the most beautiful city in the world, and
many readers may prefer to see the unique beauty of a city rather than
dreary snatches of life common to al1 large towns.
Simpson Kalisher took railroad men as the subject for a highly stimulat-
ing book (1961) on rhe forgonen men working America's declining railway
system. The Swiss Rene Groebli highlighted the plight of Arab refugees;
Bert Hardy, the colour problem in Liverpool (111.271); Roger Mayne, the
children in Paddington slums; and Michael Petoe, starving children in the
East.
 The fact rhat a great photographer will produce fine pictures even if he
has to work in an unfamiliar field was shown during World War 11 by the
.shion magazine photographers Edward Steichen and Cecil Beaton. The
Nrmer, in command of U. S. Navy combat photography, made an out-
anding contribution. His picture of a bomber raking off from the aircrafl
carrier 'Lexington' springs immediately to mind. For Beaton the switch-
over from peace to war meant exchanging the luxurious world of Vague for
the stark reality of photographing for the Ministry of Information in London
during the Blitz and in the Near and Far East. The striking pattern of a
Durnt-out tank in the Libyan Desert (111.272) is as brilliant a war picture
as any painted by Paul Nash.
Unlike free-lancing reportage photographers, press photographers are as
a rule only identified by the name of the newspaper or press-agency for
which they work. These usually anonymous photographers frequently take
outstanding pictures, but it is only occasionally tliat a particularly dramatic
subject hecomes widely known instead of being buried in rhe picture-archive
the day afler puhlication. Historic Ecenls: 1839-1939 illustrates many great
press pnotograpns w slieim retri negiecteo picture filc
A classic news picture, indeed one of the most stnking ever taken, s h o ~
the esplnsion of the giant airship Uindenburg' on landing at Lakehun.,
New Jersey, in 1937 (111. 271;. iple that caused world-
wioe prot o e bnarperiiie, m e ~ i a i c e ,a nv
shows the gmund strewn with Africans aEer the police hred on and Idled
fitty of them (111.277). Photographers covering such evenrs require gre
prcmicr of mind and courage.
 George Rodger, a founder-member of Magnum, made expressive ~ ~ C N I S
of tribal ceremonies in Africa (111. 281). In fact, al1 the photographers
- .
belong;ng to the Magnum group (111.284), and al1 the members of the
Amencan Society of Magazine Photographers, deseme mention; so do
the Frencb photographers Roben Doisneau, Daniel Masclet, Jean Roubier,
Andre Thevenet; the Germans Robert Lebeck, Willi Beutler, Hans Huhmann,

277 MASSACRE 01: AFRICANS AT SHARPEYILLE, 1960

nnariesse, nrno nammacner. Eacn OI rnese raienrea pnorograpners, ana
many others besides, such as the Creative I'horo Group in London, ha
produced splendid pictures, but out of rhe wealth of excelleot marerial al
over the world, obviously only a small proportion can be discussed withiii
rhe limits <
bood corour pnotograpny photogra~ impiy
shooting with colour film. Compared with black and white, colour requires
ily a different rechnique but a different wav of seeing. In monoc!
iassing of lignt ana snade and ine reproau
utmost importante: in colour photography, the imapinattve use ot coiour
rarher than tmtl ,. The average photographer sees in colour only
E i N Z HAJEK-HALKE. NUI
 an additional means of bringing greater realism into his picture, and he will
1 invariably consider brightly coloured subjects ideal, since 'colour' and 'bright'
seem to him synonymous. The creative photographer, on the other hand,
uses colour to add to the significance of the subjen. This requires a fine sense
for the delicate nuancer of colour, which he uses to enhance armosphere, to
stress a mood, heighten rension, or increase the decorative effect of his pic-
Nre; or he may, like a painter, employ colour deliberately as a means of
expression. Colour and forn-and in reportage, action-have to amalgamate
to produce a harmonious composition. Ahove al], sensitive use of colour
calls for good taste and a great deal of experience, which up to now com-
paratively few photographen seem to have acquired.
Felix H. Man was a pioneer in colour reportage as well as in black and
white. The Thames at Chelsea, the first colour photograph of this kind ever
attempted successfully (1949) has Whistlerian atmospheric effects (111.246).
During 1948-51 Man applied the principles of b l a k and white photo-
journalism, without additional artificial light sources, to colour film, which
then had only about one-quarter of today's speed. H e made for Picture
Post the first important indoor colour reportage-a canonication in St Peter's,
by available light (1950). The following year he produced for Life the firsr
colour reportage at nighr-the Festival of Britain (111.247)-and the first
colour pictures by moonlight, at Monte Cado. Interviews with leading
artists shot in colour in their homes and studios were the subject of Man's
bnok Eight Eicropean Artirts (1954) (111.244). The documentary value of
such reportapes is greatly increased by the inclusion of the artist's canvases
or sculpmre.
Improved colour film and greater speed have now solved al1 practica1
difficulties in taking colour photographs. The main obstacle to the wider
application of colour in the illustration of hooks and magazines remains
today the prohibitive cost of printing. The re-creation of the colour photo-
grapher's achievement in print makes very high demands on the skill of the
hlockmaker and printer, who can make or mar the picture. The chief di%
culty is thar the opaque ~ i g m e n uof the printing ink do not correspond rery
closely with the translucent dyes used in the colour transparency. For this
1 reason a certain amount of colour-masking and hand correction is necessary

1
b
to compensate for the shortcomings of the printing colours. This accounu
for the high cost of colour printing, and, in turn, for the comparative rarity
of books illustrated entirel~or largely with colour photopraphs. Up to now,
the finest colour ~ r i n t i ncomes
~ from the presses of a few Swiss printing
1 firms.
 Emil Schulthess's superb colour documentations Antarctica (1960) and
Africa (1961) consist of nature and townscapes rather than human simations.
The exceptional impact of these reponages ofien derives from the extra-
ordinary visual quality of the subject itself. What breatbtaking close-ups
and depth of obsemation! What eerie beauty pervades the fantastic scenery!
A wonderful kaleidoscopic jigsaw emerges from these pictures, which blends
into an overall impression.
 A stimulating exploration of colour photography in the aesthetic sense,
and a perfect demonstration of its creatire possibilities, were given by
Walter Boje in Magie der Farbe (1961) (Magic with the Colour Camera)
in which a number of German photographers show unusually imaginative
use of colour and interpretation. Sorne of them deliberately depart from
realism and use both colour and subject matter expressionistically, as Cecil
Beaton firsr did in his splendid portrait of Manita Hunt (111. 1). The effect
is sometimes rather startling, as when you see Hajek-Halke's green nude
(Ill.278), or when the photographer imitates by the use of long-foca1 lenses
the focussing of the human eye, giving greater impurtance to the main
subject of the picture by blurring nearer aud more distant objects (111.270).
Blurred representation of movement, too, comes out very dramatically in
colour, as Walter Boje shows in his ballet picture (111. 273) and Brian Brake
(111.274). A number of contemporary photographers give a highly personal
interpretation with an impressionistic effect due partly to selective focussing
and partly to slow shutter speeds.
Eliot Elisofon was one of the first to advocate the deliberate alteration
of the image's colour values in keeping with the subject, by the use of filters.
He was special colour photography consultant in [he making of the film
I
'Moulin Rouge' (1952) iu order to re-create Toulouse-Lautrec's colours. In
the scill from the film (111. 285) blue and fog filters were used on the camera
to create the atmosphere of the Moulin Rouge.
Control of colour, when used with discretion, can aLo add greatly to the
aesthetic pleasure of a picture. The magazine photographer has on the whole
more latitude in this respect than the illustrator of topographical or ethno-
graphical books, where any creative use of colour would reduce the inform-
ative value of the illustrations. Emil Schulthess's Africa (1961), Wemer
Bischof's japan (1954) and orher publications (111.265), the colour docu-
mentations of Elior Elisofon, Ed van der Elsken's Bagara (1961), Rene
Gardi's Sepik (1958) and Peter Cornelius's Parir (1960) (111.207) are out-
standing examples of this kind.
Erwin Fieger's London C i t y of Any Dream (1962) is, on the other hand,
intended as a completely personal interpretarion. His brilliant abiiry to
I
handle his rheme creatively in colour is evidenr (111.270), and provided one
accepts Fieger's idea of representing a great city in snatches of its life and
amusing oddities, very much in Bidemanas' ('Izis') poetic way of rreating
Paris and Londou in black and white in the 1940s, al1 is well. Sometimes,
however, such fragmentary glinpses are uot typical of the subject and could
just as well have been taken elsewhere.
t
 Superb nature photographs in colour have been taken by Ernst Haas
(111.280), Raymond Moore (111.22J), Amo Hammacher (Ill.282), Andreas
1 Feininger (111.211), Ida Kar (111.283), the Japanese Hiroshi Hamaya
(111.279) and the American Eliot Porter, whose book In Wildness ir the
Preservation of the World (1962) is fuU of poetic pictures.
Despite the competition of numerous television channels, the U.S.A. still
I has the largest number of glossy magazines in the world. The high circula-
I
tinn of the leading ones enables them ro offer fees and oppornmities that
attract the cream of European photographers. There now remains only one
1
weekly magazine in Europe of high photographic qualiy-Paris Match,
I founded in March 1949. Vith few exceptions, the others endeavour to excite
their public with sensational picnires rather rhan satisfy them with creative
I ones. People of discernment with a taste for good photography may find
certain monthly magazines like Du (Zirich), Realites (Paris) and Magnum
r
(Cologne) more appealing. But the best of conremporary European photo-
I
graphy is now to be found in books rather than magazines, and a library
L of photo-books, despised only by philistines, is as vital to visually-sensitive
b people as good stereophonic records are ro serious music-lovers.
Select Bibliography

R e following books are recommended for further study, in addition to

those mentioned in the text. The list is not comprehensive, and within the
limits of this volume cannot do more [han serve zs an introduction to the
subject. Readers wishing to study the history and aesthetics of photography
more thoroughly are referred to the fuller bibliography given in Creative
Photography by Helmut Gernsheiin, London & Boston, 1962.

General Works
BAIER, Wolfgang: Quellendarstel-
lungen zur Gerchichte der Fotogrn-
Jie. Halle & London, 1961. 703 pp.
incl. 313 iilus.
BONI, Albert (ed.): Photographic
Literature: an lnternational Biblio-
graphical Guide to General and
Specialized Literatrrre. New York,
1962. 333 pp.
DOTY,Robert: Photo-Secession:Pho-
tography as a Fine Art. Rochester,
N.Y., 1960. 104 pp. iucl. 32 pl.
EDER. J. M.: Gerchichte der Photo-
grapbie. 4th editioii. 2 vols. Halle,
1932. 1108 pp. Illus.
English traiislatioii hv Edward Ep-
stean, New York, 1945. S60 pp.
For readers who know German ihe
well-illustrated German edition is
infinirely preferable to the transla-
tion, whidi has no illustrations. As
Eder w3s a hemist, his History is
l.irgely taken up with the descrip-
tionr of inrentions and processes,
without much consideration of the
purpose for which they were devis-
ed - the production of pictures.
FREUNO, Giselle: La photographie
en Frunce au dix-neuvibe siecle:
Essai de sociologie et d'erthetique.
Paris, 1936. 154 pp. Illus.
GERNSHEIM, Helmut: Masterpieces O\
Victorian Photography. London,
1951. 107 pp. incl. 72 pl.
cmNsHEm, Helmut: Creative Pho-
tography: 1839-1960. London &
Boston, U.S.A., 1962. 258 pp. incl.
244 illus.
GERKSHEM, Helmnt and Alison: The
History of Photography from the
Earliert Use of the Camera Obscur~
in the Eleventh Century up to 1914.
London & New York, 1955. 395
pp. plus 359 illus.
G E R N S H E ~ ~ ,Helmut and Alison:
Historic Euentr: 1839-1939.London.
1960. 254 pp. 260 illus. Puhlished
in New York, 1960 under the title
 The Recording Eye. A Hundred
Years of Great Events as Seen by
the Camera: 1839-1939.
GRUBER, L. Fritz: Groje Photogra-
phen unseres ]ahrhunderts. Darm-
stadt, 1964, 208 pp. Illus.
KEMPE, Fritz: Fe&& des lahrbun-
derts. Disseldorf & Vienna, 1964.
380 pp. plus 64 plate pages.
LECUYER, Raymond: Histoire de la
Photographie. Paris, 1945. 452 pp.
incl. approx. 500 illus.
MOROSOV, Sergej: The Art of Seeing
(in Russian). Moscow, 1963. 272 pp.
numerous illus.
NEWHALL, Beaumont: The History
of Photography from 1839 to the
Present Day. New York, 1964. 256
pp. i d 163 illus.
NLWHALL, Beaumont: On Photogra-
phy. A Source Book of Pboto
History in Facsimile. New York,
1956. 192 pp.
NEWHALL, Beaumont: The Daguer-
reotype in America. New York,
1961. 176 pp. incl. 80 plates.
NEWHALL,Beaumont and Nancy:
Masters of Photography. NewYork,
1958. 192 pp. incl. 150 illus.
PAWEK, Karl: Totale Photographie.
Olten, 1960. 150 pp. 80 illus.
POLLACK, Peter: The Pictirre His-
tory of Photography from the Ear-
liest Beginnings to the Present Day.
New York & London, 1958. 624 pp.
incl. 600 illus.
POTONNIEE, Georges: Histoire de la
Decouverte de la Photographie. Pa-
ris, 1925. 319 pp. Illus.
History of the Discovery of Photo-
graphy. English translation by Ed-
ward Epstean. New York, 1936.
272 pp.
The translation, whi& was l i i t e d
to 300 copies, la& the illustrations
of the original. Potonnihe's History
deals with the period up to 1851,
and exclusively from the French
point of view.
POTONNI~E, Georges: Cent ans de
photographie 1839-1939. Paris,
1940, 178 pp.
SKOPEC, Rudolf: Photographie im
n'andel der Zeiten. Prague, n. d.
(1964). 317 pp. incl. numerous illus.
STENGER, Eridi: Siegeszug der Pho-
tographie in Kultirr, Wissenschaft,
Tedmik. Seebrudr, 1950. 278 pp.
Illus.
STENGER, Erich: The History of
Photography, its Relation to Civili-
zation and Practice. Translated from
rhe first German edition (1938) by
Edward Epstean, Easton, 1939. 204
pp. with portraits of the inventors,
etc. The subject matter is presented
in encyclopaedic form, and largely
from the German point of view.
STENGER, Erich: Die beginnende Pho-
tographie im Spiegel von Tageszei-
tungen und Tagebuchern. 2nd en-
larged edition. Wirzburg, 1943. 138
pp. Illus.
TAPT, Robert: Photography and the
American Sccne: a Social History
1839-1889. 1st edition. New York,
1938. 546 pp. Illus. n i e best source-
book on the first half-century of
American photography.
WHITING, Jolin R: Photography ir a
Language. N m York, 1946.142 pp.
incl. illus.
Monographs on and Autobiogr'aphies of leoding Photographen
ADAMS, ANSEL: Ansel Adams. V d . 1
T l ~ eEloquent Light by Nancy NEW-
HALL. San Francisco, 1963. 175 pp.
incl. numerous illus.
ATGET, EUGENE: Atget by Camille
RECHT. Paris & Leipzig, 1930. 34
pp. plus 96 pl.
Eugsne Atget by Berenice ABBOT.
Prague, 1963. 64 illus.
AVEDON, RICHARD: 0bservationr.L~-
cerne, London & New York, 1959.
151 pp. incl. numerous illus.
BAYARD, HIPPOLYTE: Bayard by Lo
~uc.4,Paris, 1943. 30 pp. plus 48 pl.
REATON, m c n : Photobiography.
London. 1891. 62 pp. plus 32 pl.
ROORD, V.Arthur (ed.): Sun Artists.
London, 1891. 62 pp. and 32 pl.
Contains monographs on H. P. Rob-
inson, Samyer, Cameron, B. Gay
Wilkinson, etc.
~OURKE-VHITE, ?~I.%RG.\RET:
Portrait
of Myself. New York, 1963. 383
pp. incl. illus.
R R D Y , M,4THEw n.: Mr. Lincoln's
Camcraman by Roy ~ m E D m r . N e w
York, 1946. 364 pp. incl. illus.
RRANDT,B ~ L :Camera in London.
London, 1948. 88 pp. incl. 58 pl.
RRASSA~: Brasai by Henry MILLER
and massAi. Parir, 1952. 76 pp.
incl. 60 pl.
C.AMERON, J. M.: Julia Margarct
Cameron: Her Lifc and Photo-
graphic Work by Helmut GERSS-
HEIM. London, 1948. 85 pp., 55 pl.
CARROLL, LEWIS: Le& -
Carro11
Photographer by Helmur GERNS-
HETM. London & New York, 1950.
138 pp. ~ l u s64 ~ 1 .
CARTIEU-BRESSON, H.: The Photo-
graphs of Henri Cartier-Bresron by
Lincoln KIRSTEIN and Beaumont
NEWHALL. Xew York, 1947. 56 pp.
incl. 41 pl. Revised editinn Photo-
graphs by Cartier-Bresson. New
DAGUERRE, L.J.M.: L. J. M , Daguerre:
the History of tbe Diorama and tbe
Daguerreotype by Helmut and Ali-
son GEuNsmrM. London & New
York, 1956. 220 pp. plus 64 pl.
E V A ~ S FREDERICK:
, Frederiok H. Evans
by Beaumont NEWHALL. Rochester,
1964. 46 pp. incl. 19 pl.
EVANS, WALKER: American Photo-
graphs by Walker Evans by Lincolu
KIR~TEIX. New Yorh, 1938. 200 pp.
i d . 87 pl.
FENTON, ROGER: Roger Fenton, Pho-
tographer of the Crimean War by
Helmut and Alison GERNSHEIM. Lon-
don & New York, 1954. 116 pp.
plus 64 pl.
GENTHE, ARNOLD: As 1 Remember.
N.Y., 1937. 290 pp. plus 112 illus.
GERNSHEM, HELMTJT: The Man Be-
hind rhe Camera. London, 1948.
144 pp. incl. 54 i h s . Contains
chapters on Beaton, Gernsheim,
Hoppe, McBean, F. H. Man, Par-
sons, Suschitzky, etc.
HILL,D. O.: David Octavius Hill,
Master of Photography by Heinrim
SCHWARZ. London & New York,
1932. 61 pp. plus 80 pl.
HOPPE,E. O.: Hundred Thousand Es-
posures. London, 1945. 229 pp. incl.
64 pl.
HUTTON,KURT: Speaklng L~keness.
London, 1947. 88 pp. incl. 58 pl.
JACKSON, VILLIAM H.: Time Expo-
sure: un Autobiography. New York,
n. d. (1940). 341 pp. Illus.
MARTIN, PAUL: Victorian Snapshots.
London, 1939. 72 pp. plus 79 pl.
NADAR (Gaspard Felix Tournachon):
Quand j'etais photographe. Paris,
ti. d. (1899). 312 pp.
NADAR: Nadar by Rud0lf SKOPEC.
Prague? 1960. 64 pp. 11111s.
NEGRE,CHARLES: Charles Negre by
Andre JAMMES. Paris, 1963. Illus.
PENN,IRVING: Moments Preremcd.
Lucerne, London & New York.
1960. 151 pp. incl. numerous illus.
RAY, MAN: Man Ray: Photographs
1920-1934. Hertford, U.S.A., 1934.
10 pp. plus 104 plates.
RnY, MAN: Self Portrait. New York,
Paris & London, 1963. 398 pp.
Illus.
RAY, MAN: Man Ray by L. Frirz
GRUBER and MAN RAY. Gutersloh,
1962. Illus.
SALOMON, DR ERICH: deruhmtc Lcit-
genossen in unbewacl~fen Augen-
hlicken. Stuttgnrt, 1931. 48 pp. plus
112 illus.
STEICHEN, EDW,\RD:A Lile in Pho-
tography. New York & London,
1963. 249 pp. Illus.
STIEGLITZ, ALTRED: America and Al-
!red Stieglitz: a Collective Portrait.
(A symposium). New York, 1934.
339 pp. plus 32 pl.
STRAND, P . ~ U L : P a d Strand, Pl~oto-
~ r a p h s1915-1945 by Nmcy NEW-
HALL. New York, 1945. 32 pp. incl.
23 pl.
STR~ND, PAuL: P a d Strand by
VRBA. Prague, 1961. 64 pp. Illus.
WESTON,EDW.ARD: Edward Weston
by Nancy NEWHALL. New York,
1946. 36 pp. incl. 23 pl.
The Da?-Gookr o/ Edzlard R'esron
edited by Nancy NEWH.~LL. Part 1,
Rochester, N.Y., 1962.

Acknowledgernents
The major portion (213) of the illustrations in chis book are from thc
Gernsheim Collection at the University of Texas. The autbors and pub-
lishers wish to express their gratitude to the Chancellor of the Univcrsity
for perniission to publish them. Tney also thank the contemporary photo-
graphers as wcll as museums and institutions for perniicsion to reproduce
some of the illustrations.
Animalr magazine: 283
Basilius Presse: 181
Frau Eva Bollert, Staatlid-te Kunrthalle, Karlsruhe: 196
Camera Press: 208
Conde Nast Publications Limitcd. Rcproduced by courtesy of \Toque: 210
Fox Photos: 240
G e o r ~ eEastman House, Rocliester: 16. 42, 128, 162
 Gernsheim Collection, University of Teras: 2-6, 5-15, 18-23, 25-41,
44-48, 50, 52-56, 58-67, 69, 70, 72, 74-80, 83-127, 129-140, 142-149,
151-157, 160, 161, 163-174, 176-179, 182-194, 197-201, 203-205, 209,
212, 214-217, 219-224, 227-229, 231, 234-236. 238, 239, 242-244, 248,
249, 251, 259, 260, 262, 263, 268, 269, 272
Graphis: 175
Hans Harnmarskiold: 159
Imperial War Museuni, London: 258
Andre Jammes: 71
Keystone: 277
Librar? of Congress: SI, 252-254
Life: 261
Magnum Photos, Thc John Hillelson Agency: ISO, 250, 255-237,
265-267, 274, 279-281, 284
Museum fur Hamburgisdie Gesdiidite: 57
Paul Popper Ltd: S2
Radio Times Hulton Picture Librar?: 264, 271
Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain: 141, 150, 138
Mrs Saul: 241
Science Museum, London: 24, 49
Societe Frangaise de Phorographie: 51, 68
Stenger Collection: 73
The late Prof. Rohert Taft: 43
United Press International: 275
Victoria and Albert Museum, London: 7
Warburg Institute, University of London: 203
Harold White: 17, 59

In a history of this kind nrhicli brings photography as an art form to the

general pubiic in many counrries, the inclusion of picmres which the experrs
recognize as classics seemr obvious. Just as it would be difficult in a general
Iiiwxy of European painrin: ro dispense witli the most famous master-
picrch. ru ii the lhistoru o( ptinrnynphy rhere are cerraiii picrurer r l i x have
israblished rheiiirelvc< as claicicr. Tn nddiriun rlicrc are iii.uiy r x c e l h un-
lu~owiiphotograplis, and quitr a number of contemporary morks are repro-
duced herc for rhe first rime.
List of lllustrations
Italic figures indicate colour plates
1 Cecil Beaton. Martita Hunt as
'The mad woman of Chaillot',
1951
2 First published illustration of
the camera obscura, 1545
3 Nineteenth-century tent camera
obscura, of rlie type used by
Johann Kepler in 1620
4 Athanasius Kircher, portable
camera obscura, 1646
5 Johann Zahn, reflex type port-
able camera obscura, 1685
6 s'Gravesande, sedan-chair ca-
mera obscura, 1711
7 Eighteentli-century book came-
ra obscura
8 Georg Brander, rable camera
obscura, 1769
9 Nicephore Nibpce. Heliograph
of Cardinal d'Amboise, 1826-
1827
10 Nicephore Nihpce. Pencil and
wash portrait h~ C. Laguiche,
c. 1792
11 J. E. Mayall. Daguerrwtype of
L. J. M. Daguerre, 1846
12 Nicephore Niepce. First suc-
cessful photograph from nature,
1826
13 Title-page of rhe first photo-
graphic manual in the world,
July 1839, by 'F-n' (probably
Karl von Frankenstein, Graz).
A good deal of the informarion
concerning the daguerreotype
is speculative
14 Arago's official report on the
daguerreoype, August 1839
15 The Daguerreotype Song, 1839
16 Title-page of the first edition
of Daguerre's manual, pub-
lished 20 August 1839
17 W. H. Fox Talbot. Daguerreo-
type by A. Claudet, 1844
(detail)
18 Title-page of Talbot's privately
published brochure, constituting
tbe world's first separate pub-
lication on photography. Feb-
ruary 1839
19 Portable camera obscura,
c. 1810, of the type used by
Talbot and Daguerre
20 W. H. Fox Talbot. Photogenic
drawing of feathers and lace,
1839
21 Landscape photographer,
c. 1855
22 Ambrotype with half the back-
ing removed to show positive
and negative effecr, c. 1858
23 Ambrotype of Mrs. William
Blake, c. 1854
24 Daguerreotype camera with the
real of the manufacturer Gi-
 roux and Daguerre's signature,
1839
25 Complete daguerreotype outfit
26 Wolcott's mirror camera, 1840
27 'The photographer deprives the
artist of his livelihood'. Cari-
cature by Th. Hosemann show-
ing the Voigtlinder camera,
1843
28 Dark-room tent in wet collo-
dion period, c. 1875
29 Title-page of 'Photographic
Pleasures' by Cuthhert Bede,
1855. The first book caricamr-
ing photography
30 Roger Fenton's photographic
van in the Crimean War, 1855
31 Disderi's life-size portraits.
Caricature by 'Cham', 1861
32 Stereoscopic daguerreotype in-
cluding stereoscopic viewer,
c. 1852
33 J. B. Dancer's binocular stereo-
scopic camera (improved mo-
del), September 1856
34 Adolphe Braun. The Boulevard
Poissonnier, Paris, c. 1860. The
dark pattern in the road is due
to water-sprinkling
35 David A. Woodward's 'solar
camera' enlarger, 1857
36 Disderi. Unmt sheet of carte
de visite portraits of Princess
Buonaparte-Gabrielle, c. 1862
37 Magazine camera, c. 1885
38 Ross & Co.'s 'Divided' twin-
lens reflex camera with place-
changing bag (improred model),
1x95
39 'Ticka' detecrive camera taking
25 pictures on 16 mm film,
1906
Sheec of 'postage stamp' photo-
graphs with portrait of George
Washington Wilson, 1888
Withdrawn for Ibe-majeste
Ermanox camera with Ernostar
lens F 2, 1924
Louis Ducos du Hauron. View
of Angoul?me, 1877
Dr J. W. Draper. Daguerreo-
type of his sister Dorothy Ca-
therine Draper, June 1840
Platt D. Babbitt. Daguerreo-
type of the Xiagara Falls,
c. 1853
Richard Beard's studio. Wood-
cut by George Cmikshank,
1842
Daguerreotype of Sir Henry
Bessemer. c. 1848
Daguerreotype of a gentleman,
c. 1845
Antoine Claudet. Daguerreo-
type (tinted) of a lady, c. 1851
Dr A. J. Ellis. Daguerreotype
of Temple of Faustina and An-
toninus, Rome, June 1841
l a Patience est la verme des
ines'. Caricature by Daumier
from T e Cbarivari', 1839
L. J. hl. Daguerre. Daguerreo-
type of still-life in his studio,
1837
L. J. M. Daguerre. Daguerreo-
type of Notre Dame and the
tle de la Cite, Paris, 1838
'Position reputee la plus com-
mode pour avoir un joli por-
trait au Daguerreotype'. Cari-
camre by Daumier, 1844
J. P. Girault de Prangey. Da-
guerreutype of mame at portal
of Genoa Cathedral, 1842
Antoine Claudet. 'The Geogra-
 phy Lesson'. Stereoscopic da-
guerreotype 1851
56 C. F. Stelzner. Dagucrreorype
group, c. 1842
57 C. F. Stelzner. Daguerreotype
of ruins around the Alster
after the great fire of Ham-
burg, May 1842. Tlie earliest
news photograph
58 Daguerreotype of a Milanese
lady, c. 1845
59 W. H. Fox Talhot's Reading
Establishment. Calotype, 1844
60 V.H. Fox Talbot. Cover of
'The Pencil of Nature', 1844.
The first photographically il-
lustrated book
61 \V. H. Fox Talhot. 'The Cliess
Players'. Calotype, 1842
62 David Octavius Hill and Ro-
bert Adamson. James Nasmyth,
inventor of the steam hammer.
Calotype, c. 1543
63 David Octavius Hill and Ro-
hert Adamson. 'Tlie Birdcagc'.
Calotype, c. 1843
64 David Octavius Hill and Ro-
bert Adamson. Cottage at New-
liaven near Edinburgh. Calo-
rype, c. 1845
65 Roger Fenton. Domes of the
Catliedral of the Resurrection
in the Krcmlin. \Vaved paper
process, 1852
66 D r Thomas Keith. Willow
trees. Waxed paper procers,
c. 1854
67 John Shaw Smitli. Pillars of
the Great Hall of the Temple
of Karnak, Luxor. Waxed pa-
per process, 1851
6S Hippolyte Rayard. The wind-
mills of Montmartre. Calotype,
1842
69 W. H. Fox Talbot. House i i i
Paris opposite Talbot's hotel.
Calotype, May 1843
70 Maxime Du Camp. Statue of
Rameses 11 on the f a p i e of
the temple a t Abu Simbel. Nu-
bia. Calotype, 1849
71 Charles Nkgre. 'Les Ramo-
neurs'. Vaxed paper procesq,
1852
72 Baron Humbert de Molard.
Old farmhouse. Waxed paper
process, 1852
73 Charles Clifford. Founrain and
stairease at Capricho Palacc
near Guadalajara Spain,
c. 1855
74 Alois Locherer. Transport of
the colossal stanie of 'Bavaria'
from the foundry to its prerent
site in Munich. Calorype, 1850
75 The Egyptian pyramids. El>-
graving from Banke's 'New
and Complete System of Geo-
graphy' (17.. ). It was copied,
with sliglit altcrations, from
O. Dapper's 'Beschreibung Afri-
kas' (Description of Africa).
1670
76 Francis Frith. Pyramids of
Dahshoor, Lgypt, 1858
77 William England. Blondin
crossing the Niagara River,
1859
78 1-ouis and Auguste Bisson. hloiit
Blanc and the Mer de Glace.
1860
79 Samuel Bourne. n i e Scinde
River, 1864
SO Carleton E. Watkin~.Wa~hing-
ton Column, Yosemite, 1867
 81 Timothy H. O'Sullivan. The
Canyon de Chelle, 1873
82 Herbert Pontiiig. The 'Terra
Nova' in tlie Anrarctic, 1912
S3 Robert MacPherson. Garden of
the Villa d'Este, Tivoli, c. 1857
S4 Henry White. Bramble and ivy,
1857
S5 Gustave Le Gray. 'Brig upon
the water', 1856
S6 James Mudd. Dam-burst at
Sheffield, 1864
87 P. H. Delarnotte. Opening cere-
inony by Queen Victoria of
the rebuilt C r ~ s t a lPalace, Sy-
denham, 10 June 1854
88 P. H . Delamotte. Upper gal-
lery of the Crystal Palace, Sy-
denliam, 1854
S9 Robert MacPherson. Relief on
Arch of Titus, Rome, c. 1857
90 James Anderson. Base of Tra-
jan Column, Rome. c. 1860
91 Cado Ponti. Piazza Snn hlarco,
l7enice, c. 1661
92 Edouard Baldus. The Pont du
G w d near Ntmes, c. 1855
93 Henry Dixon. The office of
the 'Daily Xeas', founded by
Charles Dickens. in Fleet Street.
shortly before demolition, 1884
94 niomas Annan. Glasgow slum.
1868
95 'Art Progresx'. Cartoon in
'Punch', May 1857
96 J. E. Mayall. Queen Victoria
and rhe P r i n c Consort, 1861
97 Camille S i l y . Cartc de visite
of an unknon.11 lady, c. 1860
98 Antoine Adani-Salomon.
Charles Garnier, c. 1S65
99 Etienne Cariat. Charles Baudc-
laire, c. 1865
100 Nadar. George Sand, 1866
101 Honore Daumier. Tuadar rais-
ing photography to the height
of Arr'. Lirhograph 1862
102 Julia Margaret Carnerou. Sir
John Herschel, 1867
103 Julia Margarer Cameron.
Charles Darwin, 1869
104 Roberr Howlett. Isambard
Kingdom Brunel, 1857
105 Paul Nadar. F. T. Nadar inter-
views the centenarian M. E.
Chevreul, August 1886
106 Melandri. Sarah Bernhardt in
her studio, 1876
107 Elliot & Fry. Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan, 1904
108 Self-portrait of D r G. B. Du-
cbenne using his e!ectrization
apparatus, 1862
109 Maull & Polyblank. Rober Stc-
phenson, 1856
110 Thomas Annan. D r David
Livingstone, 1864
111 E u g h e Dutilleux. Camille
Cnror at Arras, 1871
112 Paul Sescau. Double portrait
of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec,
c. 1892
113 Lithographic poster for Paul
Sescau by Toulouse-Lautrec,
c. 1894
114 Lewis Carroll. Ella Monier-
Williams, 1866
115 Lady Hawarden. Ar rhe win-
dom, c. 1863
116 0.G. Rejlander. The milkmaid.
c. 1857
117 Roger Fenton. Crimean War,
Balaclava harbour, 1855
118 Roger Fenton. Crimean War,
cantini6re and wounded man,
1835
119 Jamcs Robertson. Crimean 131 G. W. Vilson. Greenwich Pier,
War, interior of the Redan 1857
afrer withdrawal of the Rus- 135 Charles A. Wilson. Oxford
sians, September 1855 Street, London, 1887
120 Timothy H. O'Sullivan. 'The 136 Eadweard Muybridge. Gallop-
Harvest of Death'. %e battle- ing horse, 1883-85
field of Gettysburg, July 1863 137 Prof. E. J. Marey. Flying dude,
121 Frnnco-Prussian War, German c. 1884 (reproduction)
troop train blown up by the 138 Prof. E. J. Marey. Jumping
French near Mezibres, August man, c. 1884 (reproduction)
1870 139 Prof. Hubert Schardin. Bullet
122 Paris Commune insurrection, pnssing through candle flames,
rhe fallen VendVme Colunin, and the sound waves caused
16 May 1871. The bearded by it. c. 1950
man in second row is Gustave 140 Harold E. Edgerton. Multiple-
Courbet flash photograph of the golfer
123 Copying pigeon poit d i ~ ~ a t c h c s Deiinis Shute, c. 1935. 100
during the Siege of Paris, fladies per second
1870-71 141 0. G. Rejlander. 'The Two
124 Reinhold Thiele. Boer War, fir- Wars of Life', 1857
ing 'Joe Chamberlain' at hlag- 141 H. P. Robinson. Studv for a
ersfontein, 1899 composition picrure, c. 1860
125 JohnThomson. 'Ha'pcnny Ices', 143 H. P. Robinson. 9 a w n 2nd
Italian ice cream seller in Lon- Sunset', 1585 (detail)
don, 1876 141 J. Bridson. Picnic, c. 1882
126 John Tbomson. Junkshop in 143 International Exhibition, Paris,
London. 1876 1889. EiFFel Tower and Troca-
127 Jacoh Riis. 'Bandits' Roost', dho
New York slum, 1888 146 Oscar van Zel. Skating in
128 Lewis V. Hine. Carolina cot- Vienna, c. 1887
ton mili, 1908 147 P. H. Emerson. Gathering
129 Sir Benjamin Stone. Os-roasr- water-lilies, 1885
ing at Stratford-on-Avon'Mop', 148 B. Gay Wilkinson. Sand duncs.
c. 189s Original photogravure. c. 1890
130 Nahum Luboshez. Famine in 149 Lyddell Sawyer. The Castle
Russia, 1910 Garth, Newcastle. Original
131 Paul Martin. Street accident in photogravure. 1888
London, 1895 150 Georpe Davison. 'The Onion
132 Paul Martin. Piccadilly Circus Field', 1890 (reproduction)
at night, 1895 151 Lacroix. Park-sweeper. Photo-
133 E u s h e Atget. Basket and gravure of a y r n print, c. 1900
broom shop in Paris, c. 1910 152 Robert Demachy. 'Behind the
 Scenes'. Photogravure of a gum
print, 1904
153 Frau E. Nothmann. 'In the
Garden'. Photogravure of
a gum print, c. 1897
154 Heimich Kuhn. Venice. Gum
prinr, 1897 (reproduction)
155 Hans Watzek. A peasant.
Photogravure of a gum print,
,1894
156 Theodor and Oskar Hofmeister:
Great-grandmother, Cuxhafen,
August 1897. Photogravure of
a gum print
157 Hugo Erfurth. Lady with hat.
Negative print, 1907
158 Alexander Keighley. TheBridge.
Photogravureof a bromoil print,
1906
159 Edward Steichen. Auguste
Rodin with his sculpture of
Victor Hugo and 'The Thinker'.
Gum print, 1902
160 Title-page of exhibirion cata-
logue, Hnmburger Kunsthalle,
1899
161 J. Craig Annan. The painter
and etcher Sir William Stranc.
Photogravure, c. 1900
162 Frederidr H. Evans. Aubrey
Beardsley. Platiiium print,
c. 1895
163 Maurice Ducquet. 'Effet de
Pluie'. Paris, c. 1899
164 Alvin Langdon Coburn. Reflec-
tions. Photogravure, 1908
165 Clarence White. Lady in blak.
Photogravure, c. 1907
166 Alfred Stieglitz. The Terminal.
Photograwre, 1893
167 Harry C. Rubincam. Circus
rider. Photogravure, 1905
165 George Bernard Shaw's reply
to Helmut Gernsheim, giving
his reason for taking up photo-
graphy, 1949
169 Richard Polak. Photograph in
the style of Pieter de Hoogh,
1914 (reproduction)
170 Alfred Stieglitz. The Steerage.
Photogravure, 1907
171 Alvin Langdon Coburn. 'The
Octopus', New York. Photo-
gravure, 1912
172 Edward VI1 and Queen Alex-
andra, 28 June 1904
173 Paul Strand. Shadow pattern,
New York. Photogravure, 1915
174 Paul Strand. The White Fence.
Photogravure, 1915
171 Amo Hammacher. Torn paper
on wood, designed by Walter
Herdeg as cover of 'Graphis
Annual 61'62'
176 Alvin Langdon Cohurn.
'Vortograph', 1917
177 Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. Photo-
gram, 1922
178 Early X-ray ~hotograph,
c. 1896-97
179 Adrerrisement of X-ray ex-
hibition, London, 1896
180 Ernst Haas. Poster, 1959
181 ~ h o t o m i c r o ~ r a p from
h 'Form
in Art and Nature' by Georg
Sdvnidt and Robert Sdlenk,
Basle, 1960
182 Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. View
from radio tower, Derlin. 1928
183 Man Ray. Solarized portrait,
1931
184 Cecil Beaton. ?he actress Diana
Wynyard, 1935
185 Angus McBean. Self-portrait
(four exposures), 1946
186 Wnifred Casson. Surrealist
photograph, c. 1935
187 Angus McBean. Surrealist com-
position including self-porrrait,
1949
188 Winifred Casson. 'Accident',
c. 1935
189 Andre Kertesz. Distortion
study, 1934 (reproduction)
190 Clarence J. Laughlin. 'Elegy
for Moss Land', 1947
191 Albert Renger-Patzsdi. Driv-
ing-shaft of a locomotive, 1923
192 Eughe Atger. Tree roots at
St. Cloud, c. 1910
193 Helmar Lerski. Metal-worker,
1930
194 Edward Steichen. Paul Robeson
as The Emperor Jones, 1933
195 Albert Renger-Patzsch. Tower
of the Hofkirche in Dresden,
1923
196 Walter Hege. Ionic Capital
from the entrance to the Pro-
pylaea Athens, 1929
197 E. O. Hoppe. Brooklyn Bridge,
1919
198 Hugo Erfurth. Kathe Kollwitz.
Oil pigment print, c. 1925
199 Howard Coster. G. K. Chester-
ton, 1928
200 Edward Weston. Sweet pepper,
1930
201 Ansel Adams. Pine-cone and
eucalypms leaves, 1933
202 Ansel Adams. Sand dunes.
Oceano, California, 1962
203 Wolfgang Suschitzky. Two
camels, 1938
204 Helmut Gernsheim. Sectioii
through a cucumber, 1935
205 Helmut Gernsheim. Thomas
niynii (d. 1682). Detail
from monument in West-
minster Abbey, 1942
206 Andreas Feininger. Oil derricks,
Signal Hill, California
207 Peter Cornelius. Canal
Sr-Martin, Paris 1958
208 Yousuf Karsh. Sir Pi'inston
Churchill, 1941
209 Ida Kar. William Scott, 1961
210 Eliot Elisofoii. Louis Armstrong
211 Andreas Feininger. Caterpillar
of spicebush swallowtail.
c. 1960
212 Brian Seed. Patrick Heron,
1959
213 Philippe Halsman. Professor
Albert Einstein, 1948
214 Richard Avedon. lgor Stra-
vinsky, 1958
215 Toni Schneiders. Air-bubbles iii
ice, 1953
216 Peter Keetman. Oil drops,
1956
217 Peter Keetman. Oscillations,
1950
218 Andreas Feininger. Navy res-
cue helicopter taking off at
night, 1957
219 Man Ray. Self-portrait 1948.
Photozincograph
220 Prof. Orto Steinert. Call-up
notice, Paris, 1950
221 Rolf Winquist. Gertrud Fridh
as Medea, 1951
222 Caroline Hamniarski6ld. Fish-
ing-net, 1950
223 Prof. Otto Steinert. Inter-
hangeable Forms (negative
montase), 1955
224 Hans Hammarskiold. Sectioii
through tree, 1951
221 Raymond Moore. Rock pool,
1964
226 Raymond Moore. Decayed
ceiling, 1964
227 Clarence J. Lzughlin. Window,
1963
228 Hans Hammarskiold. Bark of
a tree, 1952
129 Brett \Veston. Craked paint,
1954
230 Heinz Hajek-Halke. Light
patterns, 1960
231 Sir George F. Pollock. Vitro-
graph, 1964
232 Aaron Sisskind. Wall partern,
1960
233 Harry Callahan. Eleanor, 1948
234 Bill Brandt. Nude, 1958
235 Prof. Hubert Schardin. Temper-
ature distriburion around a
heated metal be, c. 1950
236 Norman Tudgay. 'Clichf-
verre', 1955
237 Gyorgy Kepes. Light-dran.ing,
1950
138 Frencli machine gun detachment
under fire at Helly during
World War 1, 1918
239 The revolr of the masses. 'Red
Thursday' demonstrztion in
Paris, 1925
243 James Jarche. At the Serprn-
cinc., H .~ d ePark. London.
c. 1925
241 Arthur Barrett. Suffragette
leaders in dock at Bow Street,
London, on 24 October, 1908.
Christabel Pankhurst, Mrs
Drummond, Mrs Pankhurst
242 Dr Erich Salomon. Arisridc
Briand pointing at Salomon at
a banquet ar the Quai d'Orsay
in 1931, saying 'voili le roi des
indiscrers'. On Briand's left is
Heriot
243 Felix H. Man. Igor Stravinsky
conducting at a rehearsal, 1929
244 Felix H. Man. hlarc Chagall
at Vence, 1950
245 Alfred Eisenstaedt. Ethiopian
soldier, 1935
246 Felix H. Man. The Thames at
Chelsea, 1949
247 Felix H. Man. The Fe5tival of
Britain, 1951
248 Henri Carrier-Bresson. Mexi-
can prostitute, 1934
249 Brassai. Tramp sleeping in the
srreet, Paris, 1937
250 Roben Capa. Death of a Re-
soldier, Spanish Civil
War, 1936
251 Bill Brandt. Coal-searcher n t
East Durham, 1936
252 Arthur Rothstein. Home of
Postmaster Brown, Old Rag,
Virginia, October 1935
253 Walker Evans. At Vicksburg.
Pennsylvania, 1936
254 Dorothea Lange. Seasonal farm
labourer's family, 1935-36
255 Robert Capa. Allied landing on
Normandy beaches, 6 June 1944
256 Cornell Capa. Talmudic teach-
er, Israel, i955
257 David Seymour. Spanish Civil
War. Air raid on Barcelona,
1936
258 Martyrs of Belsen, April, 1945
259 Werner Bischof. Shiiito priests
in the courtyard of hleiji shrine,
Tokio, 1931
260 Werner Bischof. Faminc in
Madras. 1951
261 ~ngene'smith. The Spanish
village, 1950
262 George Oddner. Morber Earrh.
Pem, 1955
263 George Oddner. Spain, 1952
264 Bert Hardy. 'Le raconteur',
1948
261 Werner Bischof. Bolivian boy,
1954
266 Brian Brake. Monsoon, 1962
267 Elliott Erwhitt. Family scene,
1953
268 Kurt Hutton. Scenic Railway
at the fair, 1938
269 Henri Cartier-Bresson. Sunday
on the Banks of the Marne,
1938
270 Erwin Fieger. Oxford Street,
London, in rain, 1959
271 Bert Hardy. The colour prob-
lem in Liverpool, 1949
272 Cecil Beaton. Remains of a tank
in the Libyan Desert, 1942
273 Walter Boje. T h e Tides', ballet
with music by Stravinsky, 1958
274 Brian Brake. Indian women on
swing, 1962
275 Sam Shere. The 'Hindenbnrg'
disaster at Lakehurst, New Jer-
sey, 6 May 1937
276 Andreas Feininger. Jupiter
rocket and the mwn, c. 1960
277 Massacre of Africans at
Sharpeville, 1960
278 Heinz Hajek-Halke. Nude,
1959
279 Hiroshi Hamaya. Autumn
trees, c. 1960
280 Ernst Haas. Moss, 1959
281 George Rodger. Initiation cere
mony, Africa, 1956
282 Amo Hammacher. Reeds in
the Camargue, 1963
283 Ida Kar. Fish, 1963
284 Bruce Davidson.
London life,
1964
281 Eliot Elisofon. 'Moulin Rouge',
1951
lndex of Names
The numbers in italio refer to the platr! ;. When knovn, datrr have Leen xiven o\
prrronr connected with photography.

Abbot, Berenice (b. 1898) 213 Atget, E u g h e (1857-1927) 152,190,204,

Abbruzzi, Duke of 104 256. 133,192
Academie des Beaux-Am, Paris 22 %e Arhenaeurn' 66
Acadernie des Sciences, Paris 22,28,74 Auerbah, Erid, (b. 1911) 224
Adams, Ansel (b. 1902) 213, 214. 201, Avedon, Richard (b. 1923) 226. 214
202
Adam-Salomon, Antoine (1811-1881) Babbirr, Plart D. 61. 44
121. 98 Bacon, Roger 10
Adamson, Robert (1821-1847) 82,84,85, Baldus, Edouard (b. 1820) 92, 114, 115.
87. 62, 63,64 92
Aguado, Comte Olyrnpe 116 Bandi, H. 252
Albert, Prince Consort 117, 161, 162 Bandi, Ina 252
Alberr, Josef (1825-1886) 133 Bankes, Thomar 97
Alexandra, Queen 172 Barbaro. Daniello 12
Alhazen 10 Bardi, iuigi 113
Alinari, Giuseppe (1836-1890) 113 Barnadc. Osknr (1879-17361 50
Alinari, Lwpoldo 113 ~ a r n e t < ~ a. l r e (1862-1434)
r 133
Amboise, Cardinal d' 19,21. 9 Barraud, Herbert 133
American Society of Magazine Photo- Barrctr, Arthur 246. 241
graphers 278 Barrctr, Elizabeth (Browning) 64
Anderson, James (1813-1877) 112. 90 Barry, Sir Charles 66
Andriesse, Ernrny 279 Barton, Mrs. 188
Angerer, Ludaig (1827-1879) 118 Bmdelaire, Chxrles 121. 99
Anglonner, Prince Giron des 93 Bauer, Fran7. Andreas (Francir) 21
Annan, James Craig (1864-1946) 172, Bauhaur 194, 195, 204, 209, 227
182. 161 B d a u r . Nevr illlinois lnstitute of
Annan, Thomas (1829-1887) 115, 133. ~ e s i ~ 241,
n ) 242
91, 110 Bayard, Hippolyre (1801-1887) 27, 28,
Anschiitz, Ottomar (1846-1907) 157,158 74, 90,93, 108. 68
Anthony... Edward (1818-1888) 60, 154 Bayer. Herbert (b. 1900) 2C9
Arago, Francoir Jean Dominique ~eirdR ; i d i u d 62, 64, 66, 74, 146
(1786-1853) 22,26.28,69. 14 Bcardsley, Aubrey 133. 162
~ r c h e r ,~ r e d e r i c kScott (1813-1857) Btaro, A. 142
32,33,96 Beaton, Cecil (b. 1904) 19R, 226, 273.
Armstrong, Louis 210 276,287. 1,184,272
'Thc Art Union' 82 Be&, R. & J. 48
Bedford, Francis (1816-1994) 99,108
Benham, C.E.229
Bennett, Charles (d. 1927) 36
Bhrardy 142
Bereck, Dr. Max (b. 1886) 50
'Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung' 247,250
'Berliner Tageblatt' 250
Bernhardt. Sarah 129. 106
Bertall 121
B e r t s h Adolphe (d. 1870-71) 45
Beutler. Willi 278
'~epers'fur Alle' 250
Biasi, Mario de 260
Bidermanas ('Izis') 287
Bingham, Robert J. 32
Biow, H e m a n n (1810-1850)75,76
Bischof, Werner (19161954) 263, 287.
. .-~
219.260.261
- Callahan, Harry @. 1912) 241. 233
Bisson, Auguste (b. 1826) 75,99,101,
114. 78
Bisson, Louis (b. 1814) 75,99,101,114. Cameron, Julia Margaret (1815-1879)
78
Blake, William 206
Blandmd. Valentine 11831-1901) 154
Blanquart-Evrard, Louis Desire (1802- Capa, Cornell (b. 1918) 260. 216
1872) 34,90,91,94
Blossfrld, Karl 206
Bludier, Adolf von 252
Blumenthal, Envin 202
Bohm, Hans (1890-1950) 246
Uoissonnas, Fred (1858-1947)185
Boje, Valter 284. 273
Boole, A. & J. 115
Bosshard, Walter 250
Boulangcr, General 129
Bourke-Whire, Margarct 256,257
Bourne, Samuel (1834-1912) 102. 79
Bouton, Charles-Muie 22
Bovier, L. 188
Boys, Charles Vernon 158
Brady, Mathem B. (1823-1896)60,76, Chagall, Marc 244
142,143
Brake, Brinn 287. 266,274
Brande 26
Brander, Georg 8
Brandt. Bill ib. 19051 241.256. 234.211 'The Chemirt' 32
Brandti ~ r i e d r i h(1823-1891)lf3
Brassxi (b. 1899) 253,256. 249
Braun, Adolphe 99, 154. 34
Breuning, Wilhelm 94
Brewster, Sir David (1781-1868) 43,53,
82
Briand, Aristide 247. 242
Bridson, J. 167. 144
Brogi 113
Browning, Robert 124
Bruguihe, Francis (1880-1945)198
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 129. 104
Bucquet, Maurice (d. 1921) 182. 163
Bull, Lucien 158
Bullock, Wynn 214
Buonaparte-Gabrielle, Princess 36
Burgess, John 35
Durnr, Robert 82
'Camcra Work' 189,191
Cameron, Henry Hersdiel Hay 133
124,164,166,188.102,103
Canaletro (Antonio Canale) 72
Caneva, Giacomo 93
Capa, Robert (1913-1954)252,253,260,
250,2I1
Carava, de 268
Cirbutr, John 36
Cardano, Girolamo (1501-1576) 11
Cnrjat, Etienne (1828-1906) 121. 99
Carlyle, niomas 124
Carroll, Lewis (Rev. Charles Lutwidge
Dodgson) (1832-1898) 136, 137. 114
Cartier-Bresson, Henri (b. 1908) 253,
260,268. 248,269
Cnsson, Winiircd 200. 186, 188
Cxherwood, Frederick 72
Cattermole, George 162
Cerariano, Cerare 10
Chalon, Alfred 64
Chzmpileurp (Jules Franpis Felir
Hurron) 92
Charnay, Desire (1828-1915) 98
Cbesterton, G. K. 199
Chevalier, Charles 20,38
Chevreul, Michel-Eugene 129. 105 Delessert, Edouard 116
ChiIton, James 59 Demachy, Roberr (d. 1937) 174. 1J2
Chisholm, Alexander 17 'Dephot' 250,252
Churchill, Sir Winston 221. 208 Derussy 75
Cini, Count Vittorio 113 Dietrich, Marlene 226
Civiale, Aime (1821-1893) 131 Disderi, Andre Adolphe (1819-c. 1890)
Claudet, Antoine Frangois Jean (1797- 46,116,117, 118, 143. 31,36
1867) 66,74,82,98. 17,4#, 11 Dixon, Henry 115. 93
Clerk-Maxwell. Sir Tames (1831-18791 Dodero, Louis 116
52,53 Doisneau, Robert 278
Clifford, Charles (d. 1863) 94, 107. 73 Dome, Alfred (1801-1878) 71
Cobum, Alvin Langdon (b. 1882) 182, Dore, Gustave 257
189,190,192, 164,171,176 Dorffel, Theodor 75
Collen, Henry 53, 56, 79, 81 Downey, W. & D. 133
Constant, Eugkne 93 Draper, John William (1811-1882) 59,
Comelius, Peter 287. 207 60,198. 43
Corot, Camille 133. 111 Draden Albuminpapier
. . Fabrik 34
Cosrer, Howard (1885-1959) 211. 199 'Du' 289
Courbet, Gustave 169. 122 Duboscq, Louis Jules (1817-1886) 43
Creative Photo Group 279 Du Camp, Maxime (1822-1894) 91.94,
Cros, Charles (1842-1888) 54 99
Cunningham, Imogen (b. 1883) 213,214 Duchenne, Guillaume Benjamin Amant
(18061875) 131. 108
Dada 192,194 Ducos du Hauron, Louis (1837-1920)
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande (1787- 53, 54. 42
1851) 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, Duhrkoop, Rudolph (1848-1918) 178
36, 59, 62, 66, 69, 71, 96. 11, 16, 24, Duncan, David Douglas 225,263
11..52- Durheim, Carl 94
' R e Daguerreian Joumal' 61 Dutilleux, Eughne 133.111
'The Daily Graphic' 145 Dyke, Willard van 214
'The Daily Mirror' 244
D i e Dame' 250 Eakins, Thomas (184+-1936) 157
Dancer, John Benjamin (1812-1887) 43. Eastlake, Sir Charles (1793-1865) 162
3.
. 3 Easrman, George (1854-1932) 48, 49
Danri, Egnatio (1536-1586) 12 Echague, Jose Oniz 178
Danvin, Charles 124. 103 Edgerton, Harold E. (b. 1903) 158. 140
Daumier, Honoie 121, 124. 50,13, 101 Edward VII, King 99,245. 172
Davidson, Bnice 284 Edwards, J. M. 60
Davison, George (18561930) 169, 171, Egerton, Philip H. 102
172. IIO Einrtcin, Albcrt 221,225. 213
Davy, Sir H u m p h y (1778-1829) 17 Eirenstaedt, Alfred (b. 1898) 250, 253.
Day, F. Holland 188 241
Deckel, Friedrich 52 Eisenstein. Seriei M. 206
Degas, Edgar 167,174 Elisofon, Elio; 287. 281
Delacroix. Eurine 92.121 Elliot & Frv 107
Ellis, ~ l e x a n d e rJohn (1814-1890) 68.
. . 49
Delaroche, Paul 23, 93, f14, 163, 187 Elsken, Ed van der (b. 1925) 268, 287
Emerson, Peter Henry (18561936) 169, Gardner, Alexander (1821-1882) 142
182. 147 Garnett, William 214
England, William (d. 1896) 48, 99, 154. Garnier, Charles 98
77 Gaudin, Marc-Antoine (1804-1880) 75,
Erfurth, Hugo (1874-1948) 178, 211. 153
117, 198 Gaupmann, R. 96
Erwhitt, Elliort 268. 267 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (1778-1850)
Eugene, Frank 182 22-
-

Eughnie, Empress 101 Genthe, Arnold (1868-1942) 149

Evans, Frederick Henry. (1852-1943)
. George IV, King 21
182. 162
Evans, Walker (b. 1903) 256. 213
Farm Security Administration 256
Feininger, Andreas (b. 1906) 214, 227,
229,289. 206,211
Feininger, Lyonel 195
Fenton, Roger (1819-1869) 39, 40, 87,
107, 114, 139, 141, 142, 161. 30, 61,
117,118
Ferrkr, J. A. 99,142
Ferrier, C. M. (1811-1889) 32,99, 142
Fesquet, Frfderic Goupil 72
Fieger, Erwin 287. 270
Fischer, G. 96
Firz, Henry (1808-1863) 59
Fireau, Hippolyte (1819-1896) 26
Flacheron, Comte 93
Fontayne, Charles 60
Forbes-white, John 88
Fotoform 227,233,235
Frank, Robert 279
Franke & Heidecke 51
Franke, Herbert W. 241
'Frankfurter Illustrierte Zeitung' 250
Frederick William IV, King 75
Fridh, Gertrud 221
Frisius, Reiner Gernma (1508-1555) 10
Frith, Francis (1822-1898) 98, 99, 108.
76
Frith, William Powell 128
Fry, Peter Wickenr (d. 1860) 33
Fry, Roger 124
F. 64 Group 214
Gale, Joseph (d. 1906) 171
Galsworthy. John 133
Gardi, Rene 287
Gerber, Friedridi (1797-1872) 26
Germeshausen, Kenneth J. 158
Gernsheim, Helmut (b. 1913) 186, 214,
235,277. 204,201
Girault de Prangey, Joseph Philibert
(1804-1892) 72,153. 1 4
Giroux, Alphonse 36,59
Gladstone, William Ewart 133
Glukman 68
Goddard, John Frederick (c. 1795-1866)
62,66,74
Godowsky, Lwpold (187k1938) 56
Goodwin,Rev. Hamibal(1822-1900) 36
Gouraud, Francois 59
Goya, Francisco 265
Graff, Werner 207
Graf, Heinrim 143
gravesa san de, G. J. 6
Griffith, David Lewelyn Wark (1875-
1948) 206
Groebli, Rene 272
Gropius, Walter 195,227
Gros, Baron (d. 187G71) 72,92,93
Grundy, William Morrir (1806-1859)
139
Guillot, Mme. Albin 195
Gurney, Jeremiah 60
Gutmann, Simon 250
Guttmann, Henry 250
Haar, Ernst (b. 1921) 265,289. 280
Maase, L., & Co. 118
'Hackebeil' 250
Hajek-Halke, Heinz (b. 1898) 242, 287.
230,278
Halsman, Philippe (b. 1906) 225. 213
Halwas, Adolph 143
Hamaya, Hiroihi 289. 279
'Hamburger Illustriene Zeitung' 250
Hammacher, Arno (h. 1927) 279,289.
171.282
Hammarskiuld, Caroline (b. 1930) 233. Hughes, Alice 133
222
Hammarskiuld, Hans (b. 1925)
, 233,235.
. Hugo, Victor 121,139. 159
224,228
Hanfstaengl, Franz (1804-1877) 94
Hansen. Geora 118
'Harper'r Bxzaar' 226
Harrlaub, Gusrav 204
Hasselblad, Victor 51
Hauer, Hans 12
Haussmann, Georges Eugene 114
Hawarden, Viscountess (1822-1865)
137,139: 115
Hawes, Josiah John (d. 1901) 60
Hege, Walter (1893-1955) 209. 196
Helmholtz, Hemann Ludwig Ferdi-
nand ron 52
Hcnnernan, Nicolaas (b.1813) 80,82
Herdeg, f alter 17J
iicron, Pnrrid: 224. 212
Herschd, Sir John Frederick William
(1792-1871)26,27,31,45,124.102
Herzog 56
Hielscher. Kurt (1881-1948) 209
Hill, David Oct&ius (180211870) 82,
84.85.87.88.164. 62.6364
. .
~iller, 188
Hine. Lewis Wicker (1874-1940), 149.
. Joly, Charles Jarper (1864-1906)54
190, 128
Hinton, Alfred Horslry (1863-1908) 173
Hitler, Adolf 227
Hofmannrthal, Hugo von 246
Hofmeister, Oskar (1871-1937)178. 116
Hofmeister, Theodor (1868-1943) 178.
1J6
Hollyer, Frederick H. (1837-1933) 133, Keetman, Peter (b. 1916) 227,229. 216.
182
Hoogh, Pieter de 186,187. 169
.
H6okcr.. Thomas 279
Hopkinron, Tom 263
Hoppe, Emil Otto (b. 1878) 133,209
197
Horgan, Srephen H . 146,244
Howie 68
Howlett, Robert (d. 1858) 128. 104
Hubmann, Hans 278
Hueo.
" , Charles Victor 1182G18711 139
Hunt, Martita 287. 1
Hurley, Frank (c. 1885-1962) 104
Hurlimann, Martin 209
Hutton, Kurt (formerly Huhschmann)
(1893-1960) 250,252,268.268
'The Illustrared Daily News' 238
'The Illustrated London hrews' 76,197
'Illustration' 250
Impressionists 124,171
Ingres, Jean Dominique 93
lnternational Sociery of Pictoria!
Phorographers 172
Iming, Sir Henry 133
Isabella 11, Queen 94
Isabey, Eughe 154
Isabey, Jean Baptiste 76
Irenring, Johnnn Bnptirt (17961860)
79,94
Ives, Frederick Eugene (18561937) 55
'Izis', see Bidernunas
Jackson, Williarn Henry (1843-1942)
104
Jarche, James 240
Johnson, John 59,60
'Le Journal Illurtre' 129
Kalisher, Simpson (b.1926) 272
Kandinskv, VTassilv 195,227
Kar, Ida (b. 1908)'224,289.209,283
Karrh, Youtuf (h. 19C8) 221. 208
~ i r c b & , ~ r r r r u d c(IRSZ-I~~O
t8Z
217
Keighley, Alexander (1861-1947) 178.
159
Keith, George S. 88
Keirh, Thomas (1827-1895) 87,88. 66
Kennedy, Presidenr John F. 244
Kennett, Richard (1817-1896) 35
 Kepes, Gyorgy 242. 237
Kepler, Johann (1571-1630) 13. 3
Kertesz, Andd (b. 1894) 202. 189
Kibble, John 42
Kilburn, B7illiam Edward 68
Kircher, Athanasius (1601-1680) 13. 4
Klee, Paul 195, 227
Klein, William (b. 1925) 272
T h e Knickerbocker' 59
Kobell, Franz von (1803-1875) 28
Kollwitz, Kithe 198
'Kolnisdx Illustrierte Zeitung' 250
'Di? Koralle' 250
Kratochwila, Franz 77,79
Krone, Hermann (1827-1916) 111
Kuhn, Heinrich (18661944) 174. 1Sb
Lacroix 111
Land, Edwin H. 52
Lange, Dorothea (b. 1895) 256. 214
Langenheim, Frederick (1809-1879) 32,
60.96
~
,
~
~
Langenheim, William (1807-1874) 32,
60,96
Laroche, Silvester 96
Lartigue, Jacques Henri (b. 1896) 168
Laughlin, Clarence J. (b. 1905) 202.
190,227
Lawrence, M. M. 60
Lawrence. Sir Thornas 62, 66
Lazi, Adolf 209
Lebeck, Robert 278
Lechenperg, Harald 250
Le Gray, Gustave (1820-1862) 32, 91,
92,108
Leibl, Wilhelm 207
'Leipzi~erStadtanzei~er'23
L e k i t r e , Augusrin 6angios (1797-
1870) 19
Lendvai-Dircksen. Erna (1884-1962)
207
Leonardo da Vinci 10
Lerebours, N. P. (1807-1873) 38, 72, 7.1
Lerski, Helmar (1871-1956) 207. 193
Le Secq, Henri 92,94
Letault, Elzeard Desire 62
Levy-Roth 50
Lewis, Williarn (1714-1781) 17
Lewitzky, Serjej L. (1819-1898) 118
Lichtwark, Alfred (1852-1914) 180
'Life' 253,263,283
Linked Ring 172
Lippmann, Gabriel (1845-1921) 55
'The Literary Gazette' 62
Livingsrone, David 133. 110
Lkherer, Alois (1815-1862) 94. 74
'Thc London & Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine' 60
London Salon 172,217
London Stereoscopic Company 99
Loranr, Stefan 250,252
Lorent, August Jacob (1813-1884) 94
Luboshez, Nahum (1869-1925) 150. 130
Ludwig 11, King 133
Lullin, Theodor 158
Lumihre, Auguste (1862-1954) 55
Lumikre, Louis (1864-1948) 55
'La Lumihre' 72
'Luminograph' 229
Macaire, Hippolyre 61,153, 154
McBean, Augus (b. 1905) 200. 181,187
McCombe, Leonard 268
Macglarhon, A. 164
Mach, Ernst (1838-1916) 158
Maddox, RichardLeach (18161902) 34
Midler, Johann Heinrich (1794-1874) 27
Magnum Group 260,278
'Magnum' 289
Man, Felix H. (b. 1893) 51, 224, 246,
250,252,283. 243.244.246.247
. . .
Mannes, Lcopold (1899-1964) 56
Marey, Etienne Juler (1830-1904) 156,
157,158. 137,138
Margarite 94
Martens, Friedrich (1809-1875) 72
Martin, Adolphe Alexandre (1824-1886)
34
Marrin, L. A. 94
Martin, Paui (1864-1942) 150, 152
131,132
Marville, Charles 93,114
Marn, Alfred 250
Masclct. Daniel 278
 Maull 81 Polyblank 133. 109 Napolwn 111, Emperor 101, 117, 131,
Mayall, John Jabez Edwin (1810-1901) 142
60,66, 117, 118, 161. 11,96 Nasb, Paul 276
Mayall, J. P. 129 Nasmyth, James 62
Mayer Br Pierson 131 Natterer, Johann (1821-1900) 77,153
Mayhew, Henry 146 Natterer, Joseph (1819-1862) 77, 153
hlayne, Roger 272 Naya 113
hfeade, Charla R. 60 Nhgre, Chades (1820-1879) 93, 139. 71
Meisenbach, Georg (1841-1912) 146 'Neue Sachlichkeit', see New Objectirit~
Melandri 129. 106 Newhall, Nancy 214
Melhuish, A. J. 39,48 Neaman, Cardinal 133
hlestral, O. 92 New Ohjectirity 107, 204, 205, 206,
Meynell, Alice 133 207, 212, 214, 217, 235, 239
Mili, Gion 229 Nevton, Sir Isaac 55
Millair, Sir John Everett 124 'The New York DaiIy Graphic' 244
hlillet, Jean Franqois 169 'The New York Tribune' 148
'Miroir du Monde' 250 Niepce, Claude (1763-1828) 17,21
Misonne, Leonard (1870-1943) 178 hriepce, Isidore (b. 1795) 22, 62
Mitford, Mary Russell 64 Niepce, Joseph Nicephore (1765-1833)
Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo (1895-1946) 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 36.
194,195,197,198,227,242. 177,182 9,10,12
Molard, Baron Humberr de (d.1874) 93. Niepce de Saint-Victor, Abel (1805-
72 18701 31
Monckhoven, see Rabending Nnrthrup, W.B. 131
Monti, Paolo 279 Nothmann, Frau E. 174. U3
Montmirel, E. T. 71
Montmirel, E. 71 Oddner, George (b. 1923) 233, 265.
Moore, Raymond (b. 1920) 239, 289. 262,263
221,226 Olson, Lennarr 233
Morelli, Achille 68 Ongania, Ferdinand 115
Morgan, J. P. 133 Oorthuys, Cas 279
Morris, T. 45 Oppenheim, A. F. 94
Morris, William 133 O'Sullivan, Timothy H. (c. 184&1882)
Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (1791- 101,142. 81,120
1872) 59, 60
Mortimer, F. J. (d. 1944) 178 Pabst, G. W. 206
hludd, James 108. 86 Palmer, Carnuel 82
Muncaszi 250 Pankhursr, Emmeline: Pankhurrr,
'MundIner Tllustrierte Prene' 250 Christabel 241
Mussolini, Benno 250 'Paris Match' 289
Parkes, Alexander 36
Muybridge, Eadweard (183W1904) 103,
Penn, Irving (b. 1917) 226
104, 155, 156, 157, 158. 136 Perini, Antonio 113
Petitpierre, Eduard (1789-1862) 75
Nadar (Gaspard Felix Tournachon) Petoe, Michael 272
(18~L1910)121, 124, 129. 100, 101, Petzval, Josef Max (1807-1891) 38. 39,
105 n
Nadar, Paul 129. 101 Photograms 194

3 11
'The Photogram' 229 Rey, Guido 188
Thoto~raphicNotes' 47 Richebourg 75
Photographic Society of America 217 Riis, Iacob A. (1849-1914) 148,190,
Photographic Society of London, 25i 127
see Royal Photographic Society. Risner, Friedrich (d. 1580) 13
Photo-Secersion 172,189,190 Rivera. Dieeo 213
Picasso, Pablo 225,226,229 ~ o b e n i o n ,yames 139, 141,142. 119
'Picture Post' 252,253,263,266,283 Robeson, Paul 194
Piot, Eugene 94 Robinson, Henry Peach (183&1901)
Plicka, Karel 272 163, 164, 169, 192. 142, 143
Plumbe, John (1899-1957)60 Roche, Tiphaigne de la 9
Plumier, Victor 75 Rodger, George 278. 281
Polak, Richard (b. 1870) 188 Rodin, Augurte 133,178
Pollock, Sir G e o r ~ eFrederick (b. 1930) Roiter, Fulvio 279
235,239. 231 Roorevelt, Eleanor 221
Ponti. Carlo 113. 146. 91 Roosevelt, Preaident Theodore 148
~ o n t i k ~ ,e r b e (1871-1935)
i 104. 82 Root, Marcus A. 34,60
Porta, Giovanni Battista della (1538- Roos 8: Co. 48
1615) 10,ll Rossini, Gioachino 121
Porter, Eliot 214,289 Rosti, Paul de (1830-1874) 98
Porter, W. S. 61 Rothstein, Arthur (h. 1915) 256. 212
Price, William Lake (d. 1896) 161, 162, Rubincam, Harry C. 186. 167
163 Rudolph, Paul 39,52
Primoli, Count Giuseppe (1852-1927) Ruffo 188
1A!2
&"" Rurkin, John (1819-1900) 72,99
Pulham, Peter Rose 200 Roubier, Jean 278
'Punch' 116 Royal Photographic Society of Great
Puyo, C. (1857-1933)174 Britain 161,162, 164,168,171,217
Royal Society, London 21,26, 27, 28
Quedenfeldt, Erwin (b. 1869) 194
Quina, A. 43 Sacchi, Luigi 142
Sachse, Louis (1798-1877) 75
Rabending & Monckhoven 118 Salcher 158
Ragot, M. H.195 Salomon, Erich (18861944) 51, 246,
Ray, Man (b. 1890) 194, 198, 213, 229, 247,250,252. 242
256. 183,219 Salzmann, Auguste 94
Rayleigh, Lord (1842-1919) 158 Sand, Georgc 121. 100
Rayographs 194 Snnder, August (18761964) 207
Readc, Rev. Joreph Bancroft (1801- Sawyer, Lyddell (b. 1856) 171. 149
1870) 26, 27, 31 Snxton, Joreph 59
'RCalir&' 289 Schad, Christian (b. 1894) 192
Reinhardt, Max 246 Schadographs 1942
Rejlander, Oscar Gustave (1813-1875) Schall, J. C. (1805-1885) 75
139. 162. 163. 164. 116. 141 Schardin, Huberr (b. 1902) 158,241.
~ e n d ; , ~ b e 71.
l 139
Renper-Patzsch, Albert (b. 1897) 204, Scheele, Carl Wilhelm (1742-1786)
205, 214. 191, 191 16,17
Renoir, Pierre Auguste 174 Schneiders, Toni (b. 1920) 227. 215
Schott, Karpar (1608-1666) 13
Schuh, Karl (d. 1865) 77
Schuh, Gotthard 279
Schulthess, Emil (b. 1913) 285, 287
Schulze, Johann Heinrich (1687-1744)
15, 16, 17
'S&weizerisdier Beobachter' 26
Schwenter, Daniel 12
Scott, Roben 104
Scott, William 209
Scager, D. W. 59
Seed, Brian 224. 212
Seguier, Baron 37
Sella, Giuseppe 104
Sella, Virtorio (1859-1943) 104
Senebier, Jean (1742-1809) 16
Sescau, Paul 133. 112, 113
Seymour, David (1911-1956) 260. 217
Shackleton, Sir Emest 104
Shaw, George Bernard (18561950) 186,
187, 221
Sheeler, Charles (b. 1883) 213
Shere, Sam 275
Shute, Dennis 140
Silv, Camille 116
Simpson, William 141
Siskind, Aaron (b. 1908) 241. 232
Skaife, Thomas 43
Smith, Adolphe 148
Smith, A. G. Dew 133
Smith, E u ~ c n e(b. 1918) 263. 261
Smith, George P. 50
Smith, Henry Holmes 241
Smith, John Shaw (1811-1873) 88. 67
Southvonh, Albert Sandr 60
Sparling, Marcur 39
Svencer. T. B. 39. 48
~;anford,-~eland 155
Steichen, Edward J. (b. 1879) 133, 178,
182, 190, 205, 212, 213, 226, 273,
276. 159. 194
Steinert, Orto (b. 1915) 227. 220, 223
Steinheil, Carl Augurt von (1801-1870)
28, 37
Stelrner, Carl Ferdinand (c. 1805-1894)
76. 16, 57
Stephanie, Arch-Duchess 133
Stephenr, John Lloyd 72, 98
Stephenson, Robert 133
Stevenson, Roben Louis 133
Stiba, Julius (d. 1851) 75
Stieglitz, Alfred (1864-1946) 172, 182,
188, 189, 190, 191. 166, 170
Stone, Sir Benjamin (1838-1914) 150,
152, 190. 129
Strand, Paul (b. 1890) 191, 192, 205,
212, 214. 173, 174
Straog, Sir William 161
Strauss, J. C. 188
Stravinskv, Iaor 226. 214. 243
'The tud dio' 214
Sturm, Johann Christoph (1635-1703)
13
'Stuttgarter Illustriene Presse' 250
Suhjective PhotographV 233
Suschirzky, Wolfgang (b. 1912) 214.
---
Jn z
Suscipi, Lorenzo 68
Susse, FrCres 71
Sutcliffe, Frank M. (1859-1940) 171,
182
Sutton, Thomas (1819-1875) 47, 52
Swan, Sir Joreph Wilron (1828-1914)
131. 107
Szathmari, Karl Baptist de 139
Talbot, William Henrp Fox (1800-
1877) 27, 28, 30, 31, 79, 80, 81, 82,
90, 96, 158. 17, 18, 20, 19, 60, 61, 69
Taupenot, Dr. 112
Taylor, Baron 121
Telfer, William 68
Tennyson, Alfred Lord 124, 166
Thevenet, A n d d 278
Thiele. Rheinhold 145. 124
Thierry, 1. 75
Thomsan, Jahn (1837-1921) 103, 146,
148, 152, 190. 125, 126
Tiffereau 72
'The Times' 158
Tin, Toni del 279
Tio Group 233
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de 133, 287.
112, 113
Traube, Arthur 56
Tudgay, Norman 242
Turner, Benjamin Bracknell (1815-
1894) 82
Turner, Joseph Mallord William 82
Twain, Mark 133
Tzara, Tristan 192, 194
Umbo 250
Vaillat 75
Valentine, James 108
Van Eyck.
. . -Ian 23
'Vaniry Fair' 226
Vaquerie, Auguste (1819-1895) 139
Irelasqua. D i e ~ o186
Veme;, ~ o r a c e "72
Vicror Emmanuel 11, King 113, 142
Victoria, Queen 43, 64, 99, 117, 162,
245. 96
Vigier, Vicomte 93
Vitrographs 239. 231
Vitruviur Pollio 10
Vogel, Hermann Wilhelm (18361898)
-i1.
'I'ogue' 198,226
Voigtlinder, Peter Wilhelm Friedrich
(1812-1878) 38,39,52,77. 27
Voll, Karl 178
Vorrographs 192. 176
'Vossische Zeitung' 27,250
Walker, Sir Emery (1851-1933) 133
Watkins, Carleton E. 103. 80
Watts, George Frederick 124, 164
Watzek, Hans (1848-1903) 174. 155
Weber, Wolfmna 246, 250
Wedgwood, josi& 17
Wedewood. Thomas 11771-18051, 17..
18y26, 30'
'Weegee' (Arthur Fellig) @. 1900) 265
'Weekly Illustrated' 252
'Weltspiegel' 250
West, Francia 36
Weston, Brett 213, 214, 239. 229
Weston, Edward (1886-1958) 212, 213,
214, 239. 200
Wheatstone, Sir Charles (1802-1875)
158
Whipple, John Adams (1823-1891) 60
White, Clarence H. (1871-1925) 182.
165
White, Henry (1819-1901) 107. 84
Wilde, O s a r 133
Wilkinson. Beniamin Gav 11857-19271
~,- . - .. - .
Wilson, Charla A. (1865-1958) 155.
.-.
i35
Wilson, George Washington (1823-
1893) 108, 154, 155. 40, 134
Winquist, Rolf (b. 1910) 233. 221
Winterhalter, Charles Xavier 118
Winther, Hans Theger (17861851) 96
'Die Woche' 250
Wokott, Alexander S. (1804-1844) 38,
39, 59, 60, 62, 64. 26
Woodward, David A. 45. 31
Worthington, A. M. 158
Wratten & Wainwrighr 54
Wright, Cedric 214
Wynyard, Diana 184
Young, Thomas 52
Zahn, Johann (1641-1707) 14. 1
Zeiss, Carl (181M888) 39
'Zeitbilder* 250
Zel, Oscar van 167. 146
Zenker, Wilhelm 55
Zielke, Willi 209
The World of Art Library
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