Date: 11-11-2021

Experiment 5

Series Resonance
Aim: Find resonant frequency (fr) and current at resonant condition for a given circuit using Orcad
software and verify with manual calculations.

Apparatus required:
SL Component Name Range Quantity
no.
1 Resistors 10 Ω 1
2 Inductor 0.1 H 1
3 Capacitor 0.01 µF 1
4 AC Voltage source 100V 1
5 Ground 0V 1

Analysis Type: AC Sweep/Noise

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
The resonance of a series RLC circuit occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal
in magnitude but cancel each other because they are 180 degrees apart in phase.

Series RLC Circuit

In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the inductor
becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The
point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit, and as we are
analysing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a Series Resonance.
Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also in radio
and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of the
different frequency channels. Consider the simple series RLC circuit below.

From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance is
increased the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the frequency
approaches infinity the inductors reactance would also increase towards infinity with the circuit
element acting like an open circuit.
However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to zero,
causing the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is
“Proportional” to frequency and is small at low frequencies and high at higher frequencies and this
demonstrated in the following curve:
Inductive Reactance against Frequency
The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line
linear curve. The inductive reactance value of an inductor increases
linearly as the frequency across it increases. Therefore, inductive
reactance is positive and is directly proportional to frequency ( XL ∝ ƒ )
The same is also true for the capacitive reactance formula above but
in reverse. If either the Frequency or the Capacitance is increased the
overall capacitive reactance would decrease. As the frequency
approaches infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to practically zero causing the circuit
element to act like a perfect conductor of 0Ω.
But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the capacitors reactance would rapidly increase
up to infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance, becoming more like an open circuit
condition. This means then that capacitive reactance is “Inversely proportional” to frequency for any
given value of capacitance and this shown below:

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The Reactance value of a
capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly
decreases as the frequency across it increases. Therefore,
capacitive reactance is negative and is inversely proportional to
frequency ( XC ∝ ƒ -1 )
We can see that the values of these resistances depends upon the
frequency of the supply. At a higher frequency XL is high and at a
low frequency XC is high. Then there must be a frequency point
were the value of XL is the same as the value of XC and there is. If
we now place the curve for inductive reactance on top of the curve for capacitive reactance so that
both curves are on the same axes, the point of intersection will give us the series resonance
frequency point, ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.

Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.
Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the effects of the
two reactances, which are opposite and equal, cancel each other
out as XL = XC. The point on the above graph at which this happens
is were the two reactance curves cross each other. In a series
resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be calculated
as follows.
 
We can see then that at resonance, mathematically the two reactances cancel each other out as X L –
XC = 0. This makes the series LC combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current
flow in a series resonance circuit being the resistance, R.
In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series
RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at
resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value
of the resistance and therefore:  Z = R.
Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only to the
resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic impedance” of
the circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies) or   XL (typically at
low frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.

Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit

Note that when the capacitive reactance dominates the
circuit the impedance curve has a hyperbolic shape to itself,
but when the inductive reactance dominates the circuit the
curve is non-symmetrical due to the linear response of XL.
You may also note that if the circuits impedance is at its
minimum at resonance then consequently, the
circuits admittance must be at its maximum and one of the
characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that admittance
is very high. But this can be a bad thing because a very low
value of resistance at resonance means that the resulting
current flowing through the circuit may be dangerously high.
We recall from the previous tutorial about series RLC circuits that the voltage across a series
combination is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. Then if at resonance the two reactances are equal
and cancelling, the two voltages representing VL and VC must also be opposite and equal in value
thereby cancelling each other out because with pure components the phasor voltages are drawn at
+90o and -90o respectively.
Then in a series resonance circuit as VL = -VC the resulting reactive voltages are zero and all the
supply voltage is dropped across the resistor. Therefore, VR = Vsupply and it is for this reason that series
resonance circuits are known as voltage resonance circuits, (as opposed to parallel resonance
circuits which are current resonance circuits).

Series RLC Circuit at Resonance

 
Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided by
impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the circuit
current at this frequency will be at its maximum value of V/R as shown below.

Series Circuit Current at Resonance

 
The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the current
is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response starts at near to
zero, reaches maximum value at the resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and then drops again to
nearly zero as ƒ becomes infinite. The result of this is that the magnitudes of the voltages across the
inductor, L and the capacitor, C can become many times larger than the supply voltage, even at
resonance but as they are equal and at opposition they cancel each other out.
As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also known
as an Acceptor Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its minimum so easily
accepts the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.
You may also notice that as the maximum current through the circuit at resonance is limited only by
the value of the resistance (a pure and real value), the source voltage and circuit current must
therefore be in phase with each other at this frequency. Then the phase angle between the voltage
and current of a series resonance circuit is also a function of frequency for a fixed supply voltage and
which is zero at the resonant frequency point when: V, I and VR are all in phase with each other as
shown below. Consequently, if the phase angle is zero then the power factor must therefore be
unity.
Procedure:
1. Search for ‘Capture CIS Lite’ and open the software
2. File -> New -> Project…
3. Write the name of the project (say Exp5), select ‘PSpice Analog or Mixed A/D’, select the
desired location where you want to save your file, and then click on ‘OK’
4. Select ‘Create a blank project’ and click on ‘OK’
5. Schematic window opens, now select the ‘Place part’ from the toolbar at the right side of
the screen
6. Go to ‘Libraries’ -> ‘Add Library’ -> Select all the files (Shortcut key: Ctrl + A) -> ‘Open’
7. For resistors, type “r” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at ‘R/ANALOG’ from
the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need one resistor. So place the resistor on the
schematic window by clicking the left button of the mouse. After placing the resistor, right-
click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
8. For resistors, type “l” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at ‘L/ANALOG’ from
the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need one inductor. So place the inductor on
the schematic window by clicking the left button of the mouse. After placing the inductor,
right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
9. For resistors, type “c” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at ‘C/ANALOG’ from
the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need one capacitor. So place the capacitor on
the schematic window by clicking the left button of the mouse. After placing the capacitor,
right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
10. For the direct current source, type “vac” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at
‘VAC/SOURCE’ from the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need one AC voltage
source. So place the AC voltage source on the schematic window by clicking the left button
of the mouse. After placing the AC voltage source, right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or
Esc).
11. Arrange the circuit elements by selecting and dragging them as per the Circuit Diagram
given. If you want to rotate the resistor or change the direction of the current of the direct
current source, select the circuit element by left-clicking and click on ‘Rotate’.
12. Select the ‘Place wire’ from the toolbar at the right side of the screen. Connect the circuit
elements terminal-to-terminal (Make sure the wire does not cross through the circuit
element as a short circuit will occur, resulting in wrong observations). After connecting,
right-click and click on ‘End wire’ (or Esc).
13. Change the values or/and name of the circuit elements by double-clicking on it. Write down
the desired value and click on ‘OK’
14. Select the ‘Place ground’ from the toolbar (7th row, 1st column) at the right side of the
screen. The following selection is made my default (‘0/CAPSYM’ below the ‘Symbol:’, select
‘CAPSYM’ and ‘Design Cache’ under ‘Libraries:’) Enter the desired name of the ground and
click on ‘OK’. Place the ground on the schematic window, at the bottom of the circuit. After
placing the ground, right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc). Circuit design is over.
15. To place the name of the circuit diagram. Click on ‘abc+’ button (Place text) present at the
bottom of the toolbar. Write down whatever you want to display along with the circuit. We
can change the Font colour, style, size and orientation.
16. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘New Simulation Profile’
17. Give the same name as the project name ‘Inherit From:’ none then click on create
18. A ‘Simulation Settings’ window will open. Under the ‘Analysis’ tab. Select ‘AC Sweep/Noise’
under ‘Analysis Type:’. Under ‘AC Sweep Type’ select ‘Logarithmic’. As the source frequency
is of the order 103 Hz (i.e., 1kHz) the resonant frequency also must be of the same order. So,
Set the ‘Start Frequency:’ to “1k”, ‘End Frequency:’ to “50k” and ‘Points/Decade:’ i.e.,
increment to “1k” and then click on ‘OK’
19. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘Run’
20. A window opens in the task bar with a black graph which shows 100% at the right bottom
corner of the screen. This means simulation is done
21. Beside the Voltage button ‘V’ there are four markers. Click on ‘Current Marker’ and place on
the joint between the wire and any of the circuit elements (i.e., Resistor/Inductor/Capacitor
as in series connection, same current is flowing through each element) which is light red in
colour, and click on ‘Esc’
22. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘Run’
23. In the other window we will get a graph. ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Display’
24. To get the maximum value in the graph, ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Peak’
25. Click on ‘Mark Label’ (present in the 3 rd row, last button) to get the x axis (f r) and y axis (Imax)
value
Manual Calculati ons:
Simulation results:

Table:
Manual Results Simulations Results
fr = 5.0355 KHz fr = 5.0350 KHz
Imax = 10 A Imax = 9.674 A

Conclusion:
The purpose of this experiment was to verify that “In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency
point were the inductive reactance of the inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive
reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called
the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit and maximum current flows through the circuit
at this frequency”. We can see from the above table that the manual results and simulations results
are almost the same, so the purpose was met.

Name: Surjosnath Guha Thakurta

Roll no.: 21BDS0177
 Date: 18-11-2021

Experiment 6

Simulation of Transformer
Aim: To simulate the transformer on step-up and step-down modes using ORCAD software and find
the input and output voltages in both simulation and analytical calculation.

Apparatus required:
SL Component Name Range Quantity
no.
1 Transformer L1 = 2000 H, L2 = 20 H 1
L1 = 20 H, L2 = 2000 H 1
2 Voltage Source Vm = 200 V, f = 50 Hz 2
3 Resistors 0.1 Ω 2
100 kΩ 2
10 x 108 Ω 2
4 Ground 0V 2

Analysis Type: Time domain (Transient)

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:

Transformers
 Transformer is a static electromagnetic device designed to transform AC energy from one
voltage level into another voltage level without altering the energy level (considering zero
power loss).

 Application: Transformers play a major role in electric power engineering and are a
necessary part of the electric power transmission and distribution network.

 Construction: A transformer consisting of two electrical circuits which are magnetically

coupled by a common ferromagnetic core (silicon steel laminations) and permits a
“transformation” of the voltage and current between one circuit and the other.

 One coil is termed the primary winding which is connected to the supply of electricity, and

 the other the secondary winding, which may be connected to a load.

Working principle:
 A transformer operates on the principles of mutual inductance, between two inductively
conducted coils.

 When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage Vp is applied to the primary
winding, a small current—called the no-load current I0 —flows, which sets up a magnetic flux
in the core.

 This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils (N 1 and N2 turns,
respectively) and induces in them e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction.

 The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by

dϕ
E=N
dt
=4.44fϕ mN volts
  In an ideal transformer, the rate of change of flux is the same for both primary and
secondary and thus E1/N1=E2/N2, i.e. the induced e.m.f. per turn is constant.
 Assuming no losses, E1=Vp and E2=Vs. Hence
 Vp/N1 = Vs/N2 or Vp/Vs = N1/N2
 Vp/Vs is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turns ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of the
transformer.
 When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current Is flows.

Procedure:
1. Search for ‘Capture CIS Lite’ and open the software
2. File -> New -> Project…
3. Write the name of the project (say Exp6), select ‘PSpice Analog or Mixed A/D’, select the
desired location where you want to save your file, and then click on ‘OK’
4. Select ‘Create a blank project’ and click on ‘OK’
5. Schematic window opens, now select the ‘Place part’ from the toolbar at the right side of
the screen
6. Go to ‘Libraries’ -> ‘Add Library’ -> Select all the files (Shortcut key: Ctrl + A) -> ‘Open’
7. For resistors, type “r” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at ‘R/ANALOG’ from
the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need three resistors. So place the three
resistors on the schematic window by clicking the left button of the mouse. After placing the
resistors, right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
8. For the transformer, type “xfrm_linear” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at
‘XFRM_LINEAR/ANALOG’ from the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need two
transformers. So place the transformers on the schematic window by clicking the left button
of the mouse. After placing the transformers, right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
9. For the direct current source, type “vsin” under the ‘Part’ search bar and then double click at
‘VSIN/SOURCE’ from the ‘Part List’. In the given circuit diagram we need one AC voltage
source. So place the AC voltage source on the schematic window by clicking the left button
of the mouse. After placing the AC voltage source, right-click and click on ‘End mode’ (or
Esc). In this voltage source, double click on ‘VOFF’ and change the value to 0. Similarly, set
‘VAMP’ to 200, ‘FREQ’ to 50 and ‘AC’ to 0.
10. Arrange the circuit elements by selecting and dragging them as per the Circuit Diagram
given. If you want to rotate the resistor or change the direction of the current of the direct
current source, select the circuit element by left-clicking and click on ‘Rotate’.
11. Select the ‘Place wire’ from the toolbar at the right side of the screen. Connect the circuit
elements terminal-to-terminal (Make sure the wire does not cross through the circuit
element as a short circuit will occur, resulting in wrong observations). After connecting,
right-click and click on ‘End wire’ (or Esc).
12. Change the values or/and name of the circuit elements by double-clicking on it. Write down
the desired value and click on ‘OK’
13. Select the ‘Place ground’ from the toolbar (7th row, 1st column) at the right side of the
screen. The following selection is made my default (‘0/CAPSYM’ below the ‘Symbol:’, select
‘CAPSYM’ and ‘Design Cache’ under ‘Libraries:’) Enter the desired name of the ground and
click on ‘OK’. Place the ground at the bottom of the circuit. After placing the ground, right-
click and click on ‘End mode’ (or Esc).
14. To set the values of L1 and L2, double click on TX1 (the transformer). A new window opens,
click on ‘Pivot’, a tabular list appears. Now, change the ‘L1_VALUE’ to 2000 and ‘L2 _VALUE’
to 20. Then click on ‘Apply’. Go back to the circuit diagram by clicking on ‘PAGE1*’ tab
15. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘New Simulation Profile’
16. Give the same name as the project name (Exp6 in our case), ‘Inherit From:’ none then click
on create
17. A ‘Simulation Settings’ window will open. Under the ‘Analysis’ tab. Select ‘Time domain
(Transient)’ under ‘Analysis Type:’, change the ‘Run to Time:’ (for how much time you want
to run the simulation) to 60ms (T=1/f=1/50=20ms, 20ms*3=60ms is the Time period for
three cycles)
18. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘Run’
19. A window opens in the task bar with a black graph which shows 100% at the right bottom
corner of the screen. This means simulation is done
20. Beside the Voltage button ‘V’ there are four markers. Click on ‘Voltage Marker’ and place
two voltage markers, one on the input side and the other on the output side and click on
‘Esc’
21. In the other window we will get a graph. ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Display’
22. To get the maximum value in the graph, ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Peak’
23. Click on ‘Mark Label’ (present in the 3 rd row, last button) to get the x axis and y axis value.
From the table below we can see that the Max Y in green (Input Voltage) is 197.290 and the
Max Y in red (Output Voltage) is 19.719
24. Now, copy the entire circuit and paste in a different location of the schematic window.
25. The only thing we need to change is the inductor values. So, nocw click on ‘TX2’ and change
the ‘L1_VALUE’ as 20 and ‘L2_VALUE’ as 2000 and click on ‘Apply’
26. Remove the voltage markers from the previous (Step down circuit) and place the two
voltage markers in the pasted circuit (Step up circuit). Place one marker on the input side
and the other marker on the output side.
27. Go to the main menu then ‘PSpice’ -> ‘Run’
28. In the other window we will get a graph. ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Display’
29. To get the maximum value in the graph, ‘Trace’ -> ‘Cursor’ -> ‘Peak’
30. Click on ‘Mark Label’ (present in the 3 rd row, last button) to get the x axis and y axis value.
From the table below we can see that the Max Y in green (Input Voltage) is 197.290 and the
Max Y in red (Output Voltage) is 1.9709K
Manual Calculati ons:
Simulati on results:

Step Down :-
 Step Up :-

Table:
Manual Results Simulati ons Results
Step down: Step down:
Input Voltage: 200.000 V Input Voltage: 197.290 V
Output Voltage: 20.000 V Output Voltage: 19.719 V

Step up: Step up:

Input Voltage: 200.000 V Input Voltage: 197.290 V
Output Voltage: 2.0000 KV Output Voltage: 1.9709 KV
Conclusion:
The purpose of this experiment was to show that “Transformer is a static electromagnetic device
designed to transform AC energy from one voltage level into another voltage level without
altering the energy level (considering zero power loss).“

We can see from the above table that the manual results and simulations results are almost the
same, so the purpose was met.

Name: Surjosnath Guha Thakurta

Roll no.: 21BDS0177