Animal Biodiversity

For

1* Level Biotechnology Students

Prepared By
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Fathy Abouel-Nour
Professor of Immune-Parasitology
(Parasitology & Invertebrates), Zoology Department,
Faculty of Science, Mansoura University

2021 / 2022
 Biodiversity (Biological Diversity)

Definition:

The term BIODIVERSITY was first coined by the entomologist E.O. Wilson in
1986. A neologism from biology and diversity, it refers to the variety of life on the
planet.

* There is no single standard definition for biodiversity.

Definition of Biodiversity

Biodiversity, an abbreviation of the phrase biological diversity, is a complex

topic, covering many aspects of biological variation.

In popular usage, the word biodiversity generally refers to all the individuals

and species living in a particular area.

If we consider this area at its largest scale—the entire world—then

biodiversity can be summarized as “life on earth.”

However, scientists use a broader definition of biodiversity, designed to

include not just the organisms themselves but also the interactions between them, and

their interactions with the abiotic (nonliving) aspects of their environment.

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of life on earth at all its levels, from
genes to biogeographic regions, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that

sustain it.

Biodiversity ‘Biological diversity'' may be defined as the totality of different

organisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form.
 The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as the variability
among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial,

marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are
a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

* Natural diversity is synonymous with biological diversity.

* To the scientist, natural diversity has a variety of meanings. These include:

1) The number of different native species and individuals in a habitat or

geographical area;

2) The variety of different habitats within an area;

3) The variety of interactions that occur between different species in a habitat;
and
4) The range of genetic variation among individuals within a species.”

* Biodiversity is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region.

* Biodiversity can be divided into three hierarchical categories:

- Genes,

- Species, and
- Ecosystems

That describes quite different aspects of living systems and that scientists measure in
different ways.
Biodiversity may be considered at three levels:

1- Genetic diversity,
2- Species diversity, and

3- Ecosystem diversity

Genetic Diversity: The different forms of a single gene found in an individual and the

variation of genes and chromosomes between individuals.

Organismal Diversity: Variation in the anatomical, physiological, and behavioral

characteristics of individual organisms.

Population Diversity: Variation in the quantitative and spatial characteristics of

populations, such as the numbers of individuals present and the geographic range of

the population.

Species Diversity: Variation in the number and phylogenetic diversity (or

evolutionary relatedness) of species present in an area.

Community Diversity: Variation in the ecological interactions between organisms,

populations, and species that share an environment and the different types of

communities that are formed.

Ecosystem Diversity: Variation in the interdependence of biotic communities and the

abiotic (non-living) aspects of the environments in which the biotic communities are

found.

Landscape and Seascape Diversity: Variation between landscapes and seascapes,

based on the different types of ecosystems they compose.

Biogeographic Diversity: Variation of the evolutionary history of the biota of a
region (and hence the current species diversity) is related to the geological and

geographic history of that region or landscape.

Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity: refers to the differences in genetic make-up between distinct

species, as well as the genetic variations within a single species. This is the least

visible and, arguably, least studied level of biological diversity.

Genetic diversity is the variety present at the level of genes. Genes, made of DNA, are

the building blocks that determine how an organism will develop and what its traits
and abilities will be. This level of diversity can differ by alleles (different variants of
the same gene, such as blue or brown eyes), by entire genes (which determine traits,

such as the ability to metabolize a particular substance), or by units larger than genes

such as chromosomal structure.

The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents

the raw material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species or

population means a greater ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes
in the environment. Less diversity leads to uniformity, which is a problem in the long
term, as it is unlikely that any individual in the population would be able to adapt to

changing conditions. As an example, modern agricultural practices use monocultures,

which are large cultures of genetically identical plants. This is an advantage when is

comes to growing and harvesting crops (for example all the plants can be harvested at

once), but can be a problem when a disease or parasite attacks the field, as every plant

in the field will be susceptible. Monocultures are also unable to deal well with
changing conditions.

Within species, genetic diversity often increases with environmental variability,

which can be expected. If the environment often changes, different genes will have an

advantage at different times or places. In this situation genetic diversity remains high
because many genes are in the population at any given time. If the environment didn't
change, then the small number of genes that had an advantage in that unchanging

environment would spread at the cost of the others, causing a drop in genetic diversity.

Since the gene is the fundamental unit of natural selection, and thus of evolution, some

scientists argue that the real unit of biodiversity is genetic diversity. However, species
diversity is the easiest one to study.

Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of living species within a geographic area.
(A species may be defined as a group of organisms which are able to interbreed freely

under natural conditions to produce viable offspring). Species diversity may be

measured using the following characteristics:

I. Species richness - the number of species within a particular sample area.

Species evenness - this refers to the evenness in number of individuals of each species
in the area. E.g. for two sample areas X and Y, there are two species, a, and b. In X,

there are 92 individuals of species a, and only 8 of species b, while in Y, there are 50
individuals of each species.
If species richness only was used to account for species diversity in X, the
diversity might seem lower than Y (although both have the same number of species),

because almost all the individuals encountered would be from only one species.

Species evenness in conjunction with species richness is thus a more useful indicator
of species diversity, because it takes into account rarer species.

II. Relative abundance of species of various categories - (the categories might

include size classes, tropic levels, taxonomic groups, or morphological types).

For example, an area with a greater number of closely related species is not as diverse

as the same area with the same number of species which are not closely related. An

illustration of this point would be an island with two species of birds and one species
of lizard — this island would be more diverse than an area with three species of birds
and no lizards.

Therefore, species diversity can be assessed in terms of the number of species or

the range of different types of species an area contains.

Current estimates for the total number of species in existence vary from 5 million to

nearly 100 million. About 1.7 million of these species have been identified to date. A
complete and current inventory of species is impossible because many invertebrates,
microorganisms and lower plants (the three most diverse life-forms) have not yet been

identified and named.

There has been a definite bias towards describing large organisms, those that are

considered attractive or appealing (such as flowering plants and butterflies), those

most closely resembling humans (vertebrates, especially mammals), and those that

have a direct impact on human activities (such as pests). Organisms that can be studied

without complex procedures or expensive equipment have also taken precedence, as

have those which are relatively easy to locate. This, however, underestimates the

importance of microorganisms including algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses,

which are vital to life on Earth. So far, less than 3-5 percent of microorganisms have
been described.

The species level is generally regarded as the most appropriate for considering

the diversity between organisms.

This is not because species diversity is more important than the other two types,

but because:

I. Species diversity is easier to work with.

Species are relatively easy to identify by eye in the field, whereas genetic diversity

requires laboratories, time and resources to identify, and ecosystem diversity needs

many complex measurements to be taken over a long period of time.

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II. Species are also easier to conceptualize and have been the basis of much of the
evolutionary and ecological research that biodiversity draws on.

Species are well known and are distinct units of diversity. Each species can be

considered to have a particular "role" in the ecosystem, so the addition or loss of single

species may have consequences for the system as a whole. Conservation efforts often

begin with the recognition that a species is endangered in some way, and a change in
the number of species in an ecosystem is a readily obtainable and easily
understandable measure of how healthy the ecosystem is.

Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity encompasses the broad differences between ecosystem types,
and the diversity of habitats and ecosystem processes within each ecosystem

type. Ecosystem diversity deals with species distributions and community patterns, the

role and function of key species, and combines species functions and interactions. The
term "ecosystem" here represents all levels greater than species: associations,
communities, ecosystems, and the like.

A familiar example is the variety of habitats and environmental parameters that

constitute the San Francisco Bay-Delta ecosystem: grasslands, wetlands, rivers,

estuaries, fresh and salt water." Ecosystem diversity is harder to measure than species

or genetic diversity because the "boundaries" of communities -- associations of species

-- and ecosystems are elusive. Nevertheless, as long as a consistent set of criteria is

used to define communities and ecosystems, their numbers and distribution can be

measured."

"There is much more to biodiversity than the numbers of species and kinds of

ecosystems. Ecologist Jerry Franklin portrays ecosystems as having three primary

attributes: composition, structure, and function.

1- Ecosystem components are the inhabiting species in all their variety and richness.
Many different species, gene-pool abundance, and unique populations are what most

people think of when they hear the term "biodiversity". But there is much more to

consider.

2- Ecosystem structure refers to the physical patterns of life forms from the
individual physiognomy of a thick-barked Douglas-fir to the vertical layers of
vegetation from delicate herbs to tree canopies within a single forest stand. An
ecosystem dominated by old, tall trees has a different structure than one comprised of

short, quaking aspen. There is more structure in a multilayered forest (herbs, shrubs,

young trees, canopy trees) than in a single sagebrush grassland, prairie, or salt marsh.

3- Ecosystem functions are hard to see in action. "You can't hug a biogeochemical

cycle," says one ecologist. But without the part of the carbon cycle where small

invertebrates, fungi, and microorganisms work to break down wood fiber, the downed

logs in an ancient forest would never decay. Natural disturbances also play a role.

Wildfires release nutrients to the soil, weed out weak trees, and reset the successional

clock. The energy of falling water creates spawning beds for salmon even while it
carves a mountain's bones. Plants breathe oxygen into the atmosphere. Ecological
processes create landscapes and diverse environmental conditions out of life itself.

Ecosystem components, structures, and functions are all interdependent. To

understand biodiversity, one has to think like a mountain and consider not only the

biotic elements of plants, animals, and other living beings, but also the patterns and

processes that shape volcanoes and forests."

"Biodiversity is not simply the number of genes, species, ecosystems, or any

other group of things in a defined area. A definition of biodiversity that is altogether

simple, comprehensive, and fully operational (i.e. responsive to real- life management

and regulatory questions) is unlikely to be found. More useful than a definition,

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perhaps, would be a characterization of biodiversity that identifies the major
components at several levels of organization.

Composition, structure, and function determine, and in fact constitute, the

biodiversity of an area. Composition has to do with the identity and variety of elements

in a collection, and includes species lists and measures of species diversity and genetic
diversity. Structure is the physical organization or pattern of a system, from habitat
complexity as measured within communities to the pattern of patches and other
elements at a landscape scale. Function involves ecological and evolutionary

processes, including gene flow, disturbances, and nutrient cycling."

Difficulties in Examining Ecosystem Diversity

I. The enormous range of terrestrial and aquatic environments on earth has been

classified into a number of ecosystems. Major habitat types include tropical rain

forests, grasslands, wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves. Measuring changes in the

extent of ecosystems is difficult, because there is no globally agreed classification of

ecosystems. Thus, ecosystems can be considered on different scales.

II. Transitions between them are usually not very sharp. A lake may have a very sharp

boundary between it and the deciduous forest it is in, but the deciduous forest will shift

much more gradually to grasslands or to a coniferous forest. This lack of sharp

boundaries is known as "open communities" (as opposed to "closed communities,”

which would have sudden transitions) and makes studying ecosystems difficult, since
even defining and demarcating them can be problematic.

III. Species contained within a given ecosystem vary over time.

IV. The classification of the earth’s immense variety of ecosystems into a manageable
system is a major scientific challenge.
 Studies of ecosystem diversity are carried out on different scales: from one
ecosystem to an entire region containing many different ecosystems. Regions

containing a great variety of ecosystems are rich in biodiversity, but individual

ecosystems containing endemic species also make a significant contribution to global

biodiversity.

Some of the world's richest habitats are tropical moist forests. Although they
cover only 7 percent of the world's surface, these areas contain at least 50 percent, and
possibly up to 90 percent of all plant and animal species. Isolated islands such as

Jamaica are often rich in endemic species.

Another aspect to this level of diversity is biogeographic diversity which refers to the
distribution of species within habitats or ecosystems.

Why is biodiversity important?

Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including

humans. Each species of vegetation and each creature has a place on the earth and

plays a vital role in the circle of life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and

depend upon one another for what each offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil

enrichment.

Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to

preserve the web of life that sustains all living things. In his 1992 best-seller, "The
Diversity of Life," famed Harvard University biologist Edward O. Wilson -- known as
the "father of biodiversity," -- said, "It is reckless to suppose that biodiversity can be

diminished indefinitely without threatening humanity itself."

The complex web of inter-dependent ecosystems which constitute life on Earth

includes us. We are part of that web and are entirely dependent on clean air, fresh

water and healthy food for our survival. Some people would argue that as the species
at the top of the food chain capable of acting on the planet's ecosystems to create
profound change, we have a responsibility to act as stewards of the planet, protecting

nature for its own sake and ensuring our consumption levels are sustainable.

Others take a more utilitarian approach and argue that we should protect nature

on the basis of the present and potential use of elements of biodiversity as biological

resources, and focus on maintaining the biosphere in a state which supports human
life. While some may prefer the 'nature for nature's sake’ approach, many of the
individuals, organizations and corporations whose activities are putting the planet's

ecosystems under immense pressure are more responsive to utilitarian arguments

framed in concrete and measurable terms.

Current corporate accounting systems tend to ignores costs to nature, and look
only at the short-term economic benefit of development to a small group of

individuals. This incentivizes indifference to the environment, at best and maximum

exploitation for profit, at worst. In order to counteract this, scientists have been

working on the development of clear and transparent ways of assigning a monetary

value to some of the ecosystem functions on which we depend, such as the activity of
bees and other pollinators, the treatment of water and purification of waste, or the
carbon sequestration and climate regulation role of plants, in particular tropical

rainforests.

These are known as ‘ecosystem services’. The methodology for measuring their

value was set out in the United Nations 2004 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
(MA), and they are the basis of much of the work of the TEEB project - The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity - which has the following goals: To draw

attention to the global economic benefits of biodiversity, to highlight the growing costs

of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, and to draw together expertise from

the fields of science, economics and policy to enable practical actions moving forward.

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Threats to Biodiversity
These include:
- The unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, including plants, animals and

marine species.

- The loss, degradation or fragmentation of ecosystems through land conversion for

agriculture, forest clearing etc.

- Invasive non-native or ‘alien’ species being introduced to ecosystems to which they

are not adapted i.e. where they have no, or not enough, predators, to maintain an

ecological balance.

- Pollution
- Climate change

The first two have taken place throughout human history, although not on the
current scale. The introduction of invasive species is certainly facilitated, if not caused,

by the level of international transport and traffic of goods of our trade system. The

latter two are definitely products of an industrial age.

Where is biodiversity and how can we measure it?

Biodiversity is everywhere. It occurs both on land and in water, from high

altitudes to deep ocean trenches and it includes all organisms, from microscopic

bacteria to more complex plants. Although many tools and data sources have been
developed, biodiversity remains difficult to measure precisely. According to the

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the total number of species on Earth ranges from

five to 30 million and only 1.7—2 million species have been formally identified.

But we do not need precise figures and answers to devise an effective understanding of

where biodiversity is, how it is changing over space and time, what are the drivers
responsible for this change, its consequences for ecosystem services and human well-
being, and the available response options.

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 There are many measures of biodiversity. Species richness (the number of
species in a given area) represents a single but important metric that is valuable as the

common currency of the diversity of life—but to fully capture biodiversity, it must be

integrated with other metrics.

Why we need biodiversity

The benefits that we gain from biodiversity go far beyond the mere provision of raw
materials.
Our food and energy security strongly depend on biodiversity and so does our

vulnerability to natural hazards such as fires and flooding. Biodiversity loss has

negative effects on our health, material wealth and it largely limits our freedom of
choice. As all cultures gain inspiration from or attach spiritual and religious values
to ecosystems or their components — e.g. landscapes, trees, hills, rivers or particular

species - biodiversity loss also strongly influences our social relations.

Why is biodiversity in crisis?

The escalating extinction crisis shows that the diversity of nature cannot support

the current pressure that humanity is placing on the planet.

Every day species’ extinctions are continuing at up to 1,000 times or more the natural
rate. The extinction of individual species, but also habitat destruction, land conversion

for agriculture and development, climate change, pollution and the spread of invasive
species are only some of the threats responsible for today's crisis.

Facts
Coral reefs provide food, storm protection, jobs, recreation and other income

sources for more than 500 million people worldwide yet 70% of coral reefs are
threatened or destroyed.

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 With current biodiversity loss, we are witnessing the greatest extinction crisis
since dinosaurs disappeared from our planet 65 million years ago. Not only are these

extinctions irreversible, but they also pose a serious threat to our health and wellbeing.

What are the main threats to biodiversity?

Threats to biodiversity are numerous and human activity is responsible for most of

them.

1- Habitat loss and degradation affects 86% of all threatened birds, 86% of the
threatened mammals assessed and 88% of the threatened amphibians.
Introductions of Invasive Alien Species that establish and spread outside their normal
distribution. Some of the most threatening invasive species include cats and rats, green

crabs, zebra mussels, the African tulip tree and the brown tree snake. Introductions of

alien species can happen deliberately or unintentionally, for example, by organisms

“hitch-hiking” in containers, ships, cars or soil.

2- Over-exploitation of natural resources. Resource extraction, hunting, and fishing

for food, pets, and medicine.

3- Pollution and diseases. For example, excessive fertilizer use leads to excessive
levels of nutrients in soil and water.

4- Human-induced climate change. For example, climate change is altering

migratory species patterns, and increasing coral bleaching.

What about climate change?

Biodiversity loss and climate change are very closely related issues.

Biodiversity is strongly affected by climate change so we need to make additional

efforts to minimize the negative influence of other factors, such as over-exploitation,

habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, and the spread of invasive alien species. This

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way we can ensure that ecosystems are less vulnerable and more resilient to the
increasing threat posed by climate change.

But climate change can also largely benefit from conserved biodiversity and

particularly healthy ecosystems when these are placed at the very centre of the efforts

to tackle climate change.

Through:

* absorbing and storing carbon in a range of terrestrial and marine ecosystems, such as
forests, peatlands and other wetlands, biodiversity contributes to climate change

mitigation- by storing carbon dioxide.

Biodiversity also helps people to adapt to climate change through providing the

ecosystem services which reduce their vulnerability and enhance their adaptive

capacity to change.

This includes the coastal protection provided by coastal mangrove forests from

flooding and coastal erosion caused by sea-level rise and more powerful storms.

Facts
Since 2000, 6 million hectares of primary forest have been lost each year.
In the Caribbean region, hard coral cover has declined from 50% to 10% in the last

three decades.
35% of mangroves have been lost in just 20 years.

From time immemorial, nature has fed us, cured us, and protected us. But today the

roles have switched. We need to feed nature, we need to cure it and protect it if we
want to secure a healthy and prosperous future for our children.

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 ANIMAL TAXONOMY

ANIMAL TAXONOMY:

It is the branch of Zoology concerned with:

* The description,

* [dentification,

* Nomenclature, &

* Classification of animals.

Arrangement of things in our life is necessary when things are numerous and varies.

Taxonomists have three major goals:

1- To identify all species of animals.

2- To evaluate the evolutionary relationships among animal species,

3- To classify them on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

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 History of Classification

1- Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Classify animals according to:

A- Their way of living,

B- Their habitat,

C- Presence or absence of blood,

D- Their body parts and

E- The type of food.

2- John Ray (1628-1705)

One of the most famous naturalists of his time, Ray's work began to bring order

to the study of species. Ray's use of total morphology to classify organisms would

become a powerful tool in the hands of evolutionary biologists trying to infer

evolutionary relationships.

Ray began to use classification to address questions in physiology, function, and

behavior.

He was the first to identify species.

Species is the basic unit for classification and it is a group of individuals has

similar morphological characters and can mate among each other's but cant reproduce
or mate with another different species and if it happened they produce sterile hybrids

(sterile individuals).

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 3- Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)

* Carl Linnaeus is often called the Father of Taxonomy.

* His system for naming, ranking, and classifying organisms is still in wide use

today (with many changes).

* His ideas on classification have influenced generations of biologists during and after

his own lifetime, even those opposed to the philosophical and theological roots of

his work.

* He classifies animals on the bases of structures and published the principles of

current classification scheme. 3 principles:

1- He divided animals into 7 taxonomic ranks: Species, Genera, Family, Orders,

Classes, Phyla and Kingdom.

2- He established the Binomial nomenclature which means that each species has a
name composed of 2 words. The first is the genus name and the second is the

species. The two words should be written in italic letters.

Examples:

The scientific name of human beings: Homo sapiens

The Egyptian toad: Bufo regularis - The house fly: Musca domestica

3- Latin Nomenclature

a- Common names: each country has its common names for well-known animals.

Even in one country there are local names for a species. Thus a species may have

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many names and counted as many animals that make confusion between people of
different nationalities or even within one country.

b- Scientific names: Binomial nomenclature. Linnaeus adopted the use of two names

for each species, the genus name and the species name. These words are from Latin or

Latinized form because Latin was the language of Scholars and universally

understood. The generic name is usually a noun.

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 Basic characteristics of animal classification

1- Number of body cells: acellualr & cellular.

2- Organization: Mesozoa, Parazoa & Eumetazoa.

3-Germ Layers: Diploblastica & Triploblastica.

4- Coelom: Acoelomata, Pseudocoelomata & Coelomata.

5- Symmetry, asymmetry, radial, bilateral.

6- Segmentation, 7- Appendages, 8- Skeleton, 9- Sexes.

The Classification of animals

All living organisms have been divided into groups with similar

characteristics. These groups have been subdivided further until organisms that have
identical traits are classified under the same genus and species.

-A. Animal Kingdom: This is a large group of organisms with similar features. The

higher animals, including man, are placed in this kingdom. Can be split up into main
groups,
Vertebrates (with a backbone) and Invertebrates (without a backbone).
- The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy.

- In order to study living things, scientists classify each organism according to its:

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species

e To date there are five kingdoms:

1- Animalia, which is made up of animals;

2- Plantae, which is made up of plants;

3- Protista, which is made up of protists (single-celled creatures invisible to the

human eye); The kingdom is further divided into two subkingdoms:

(a) Subkingdom EUCARYOTA. Eucaryotes are characterized by a_nuclear
membrane separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm (true nucleus), DNA that is

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grouped into units called chromosomes, multiplication accomplished by mitosis, and
energy produced in structures called mitochondria. Some examples are protozoans and

fungi.
(b) Subkingdom PROCARYOTA. The procaryotes are characterized by no nuclear
membrane (therefore, there is no organized nucleus); no chromosomes; no mitosis; no

mitochondria. Some examples are bacteria and blue green algae.

4- Fungi, which is made up of mushrooms, mold, yeast, lichen, etc; and

5- Monera, which is made up of the three types of bacteria.

- B. Phylum. A phylum is a major division of a kingdom.
- C. Class. The name of the Class should end in "a.".
- D. Order. Several orders may be contained within a Class. Name ends in "ea.".
- KE. Family. The family's ending is "ae.".

- KF. Genus. The genus name may have various endings. The first letter of the
genus is capitalized and the name is underlined. The first letter may be used as
an abbreviation.
- G. Species. The species' name may also have various endings. All letters are

small case and the name is underlined. However, the species' name should never
be abbreviated.

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 The classification Scheme

Kingdom Protista: Protozoan Phyla (acellular organisms).

Kingdom: Animalia: (Cellular organisms)

- Mesozoa (no tissues)

- Parazoa (no true tissues)

- Eumetazoa (true tissues):

A- Diploblastica (Cnidaria)

B- Triploblastica:

i- Acoelomata (Platyhelminthes)

ii- Pseudocoelomata (Nematoda)

ili- Coelomata: (Annelida- Arthropoda- Mollusca- Echinodermata- Chordata)

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 Kingdom: Protista
Protozoa

Protozoa are subdivided based upon their means of locomotion.

The Basic characteristics of Protozoa

1- Proto = first, Zoa = animals

2- Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes.

3- They are relatively large & some are visible with the naked eye. Generally
microscopic.

4- May have both sexual and asexual reproductive phases. Asexual by binary fission or

budding, sexual by conjugation or syngamy.

5- They occupy a vast array of habitats & niches.

6- Can be both free-living (can live outside of a host) or parasitic (colonize host cell

tissues).

7- May have one or more nuclei.

8- Solitary or colonial.

9- Typically lack cell walls.

10- Encystment occurs under unfavorable conditions or during reproduction.

11- Complex life cycles and diverse.

12- Exhibit a great variety of shapes, spherical, oval and elongated, but often more or
less flattened are most common.

13- Locomotary organelles are: pseudopodia, flagella and cilia, while some protozoans
(Sporozoa) are without locomotary organelles.

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14- The fresh water free-living forms have a contractile vacuole which regulates the
osmotic pressure by removing the soluble waste matter.

15 - Nutrition may be holozoic, autotrophic, saprozoic or by pinocytosis.

16 - The cytoplasm is differentiated into an outer ectoplasm and an inner endoplasm.

17 - Respiration and excretion take place through general body surface by diffusion.
Respiration is aerobic or anaerobic.

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 Traditional Classification of Protozoa:

The traditional four phyla classification, based largely on movement, includes

the following groups:

1- Phylum: Mastigophora: Flagellates — use flagella: Flagellates are protozoa that

move by means of flagellar action. Some flagellates have their flagella attached in a

structure called an undulating membrane.

2- Phylum: Sarcodina: Amoebae — uses _pseudopodial structures, flowing

cytoplasm. Amoebas are protozoa that move by employing pseudopodia, which are

membrane covered cytoplasmic extensions. Many amoebas employ their pseudopodia

to engulf food.

3-_ Phylum Apicomplexan (Sporozoa) : bending, creeping or gliding: Sporozoa

have no pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia, and therefore do not move. The sporozoans are

parasitic spore formers. Plasmodium, the cause of malaria, is a sporozoan.

4- Phylum: Ciliophora: Ciliates — use cilia: The ciliates are protozoa that move by
means of cilia action. Recall that the difference between eukaryotic flagella and cilia is
one of size and number. Cilia are small and numerous; flagella are large and few.

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 Amoebas
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa (Acellular or Unicellular)
Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum: Sarcodina
Superclass: Rhizopoda
Class: Lobosea (Lobosa)

Order: Amoebida
Family: Endamoebidae

1- Amoeba proteus - 2- Entamoeba histolytica - 3- Entamoeba coli - 4- Entamoeba

gingivalis

1- Amoeba proteus

Widely distributed — freshwater (ponds — pools — lakes - slow streams). Often in

shallow water on the underside of aquatic vegetation, also found in damp soils.

Structure: irregular, colorless, constantly changing its shape by sending out and
withdrawing finger-like processes, the pseudopodia, broad or cylindrical with blunt
rounded tips.

- In the endoplasm there are also a large nucleaus with endosome, contractile vacuole,
food vacuoles and mitochondria.

Plasmalemma
Contractile
vacuole Food vacuoles

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eo = @ y Hyaline §
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Mitochondria ae
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Endoplasm Hyaline cap
Biurets and
triurets

Structure of Amoeba proteus

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Locomotion:

By pseudopodia: Pseudopodia are project from any point of the advancing end which

is then spoken as the anterior end.

Contractile vacuole:

- It is a single large clear water-filled space lying towards the posterior end.

- Not fixed — circulate in the endoplasm.

-It arises near the hind end and grows in size probably by fusion of a number of
smaller vacuoles.

- The vacuole fills rhythmically with fluid and then discharges it to the exterior.

-It mostly a hydrostatic organ so it regulates the osmotic pressure, harmonizes the
tension between the protoplasm and the surrounding water and regulates the weight
of the animal also.

@ Excess
@
water enters
contractile vacuole
Water enters i
due to osmosis ee

The cycle
is repeated

" ntl Contractile

: —— vacuole swells

Contractile vacuole
bursts and expels water

Contractile vacuole
moves to edge of cell

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Nutrition & Digestion

-It feeds on the solid organic substances, algae, bacteria, other protozoans, small

rotifers and nematodes (zootrophic or holozoic).

- Digestion takes place in the food vacuoles inside the endoplasm.

- The protoplasm secretes enzymes into the food vacuole causing digestion of all the
contents.

- Egesting of undigested particles occurs at no fixed point, no special opening.

lysosome Phag ocytosis Bacteria gets

engulfed
nucleus by amoeba

“pseudopods
Amoeba
waste

phagosome phagolysosome products

Digestion of bacteria
and nutrient absorption Post-digestion stage
Diagram showing feeding and digestion process in Amoeba

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Reproduction in Amoeba:

By the following:

1- Binary fission: This binary fission is transverse and occurs during favorable
conditions of food and temperature.

2- Multiple fission: Occurs in unfavorable conditions.

- The Amoeba secretes a cyst formed of two layers for protection.

- Inside the cyst the amoeba divides numerous times forming many small ones.

- When the favorable conditions return back the cyst wall absorbs water and rapture

releasing small amoebae to the outside.

3-_Sporulation: This is a multiplication of Amoeba without encystment during

unfavorable conditions.

- Spores are formed internally.

- The nuclear membrane ruptures and the nucleus breaks into several small parts.

- Each part acquires a nuclear membrane forming a new nucleus.

- The new nuclei surrounded by some cytoplasm forming amoebulae within the

parent body.

- Each Amoebulae is surrounded by a spore case to form a spore.

- Finally the parent body disintegrates and about 200 spores are set free from each

parent.

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 2- Entamoeba histolytica
Habitat:
It lives as a parasite in the upper part of the large intestine of man.
Feeding Habit:
It feeds mainly on the tissues of the intestinal wall and often produces sever
ulcers and abscesses.
Structure:
The mature parasite is known as trophozoite. It has one pseudopodium.
It contains circular nucleus with endosome and food vacuoles containing tissue

fragments, erythrocytes, leucocytes and ingested bacteria.

Stages of Life Cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

Reproduction & Life Cycle of E. histolytica
E. histolytica reproduces normally by a process of simple binary fission (asexual

reproduction).

The infective stage is the Mature Cyst with 4 Nuclei.

excystation

@ passed in feces
CYST ¢@ resistant
infective
TROPHOZOITE

encystment @ feeding
@ motile
@ replication

Encystation:

1- Trophozoites start forming precyst and condensed to a spherical mass

2- Cysts are formed by secretion of tough cyst wall.
3- Food inclusion formed as glycogen and chromidial bars.
4- Two consecutive mitotic divisions take place forming 4 nuclei.
5- The inclusion body and chromidial bars start to be less clear and may
disappear.
6- The fully formed 4-nucleated cyst passed in semi-formed or formed stool
to outside the human body.

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 Encystation
when dehydrated
in bowel lumen
Passed in eS Sey
ISS Discharges
cernoes undigested food

Precyst
Passed in 2¢33> Condenses to
semi-formed \es5 © spherical mass

Cyst
Secretes tough
cyst wall

‘Gy, Food inclusions

a ) —glycogen
=~ —Chromidial bars

Two consecutive mitoses

— produce 4 nuclei

Glycogen and chromidial bars

—less conspicuous
—may disappear
Passed in semi-formed
or formed stool

Diagram showing Encystation (Encystment) of Entamoeba histolytica

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Excystation of Entamoeba histolytica:
1- Cyst wall disruption,
2- Ameba emerges,

3- Nuclear division (4—8),

4- Cytoplasmic division (8 Amoebula),

5- Trophozoites colonize large intestine, feed on bacteria and debris, replicate by
binary fission.

§GO9 HOO
ee —o.,

Diagram showing excystation of Entamoeba histolytica: forming of 8

new Amoebula after one division of the 4 nuclei
 3- Entamoeba coli

Habitat:
It is a parasite found in the colon of the human beings (large intestine).

Feeding habits:
It is harmless and feeding on bacteria, particles of undigested food and other

debris but never on blood cells or other lining tissues of the host.
It has two pseudopodia.

Reproduction & Life Cycle of E. coli: It has two forms:

1- Trophozoite and
2- Cyst with 8 nuclei (infective stage):

Life cycle of E. coli: Trophozoite encyst to form cyst with 8 nuclei (encystment)
which is released outside with feces of the host & swallowed by another Host, in the

intestine, cyst dissolved and release of 8 amoebulae (excystement) giving small

trophozoites which undergo feeding & growing to form adult trophozoite.

4- Entamoeba gingivalis
It is commonly known as mouth amoeba

inhabits the mouth between teeth.

Food vacuoles containing leucocytes and bacteria.

It has one pseudopodium.
This species doesn't form cyst (NO CYST STAGE).
it is directly transmitted from one human mouth to another contact.

Trophozoite is the infective stage.

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 Comparison among the 3 species of Entamoeba:

E. histolytica E. coli E. gingivalis

Buccal cavity (roots

Habitat Large Intestine Large Intestine
of teeth

Trophozoite contains Bacteria Contains Bacteria

Contains Bacteria
(food vacuole) & RBCs & fecal matter

Mature Cyst | Present Present Absent

Nuclei 4 8 | ween nee =

eating food or eating food or

a a. By direct contact of
drinking water drinking water
Mode of trophozoite from
contaminated contaminated
Infection mouth of one person
with the mature | with the mature
to another
cyst cyst

pathogenicity | Pathogenic Non-Pathogenic | Non-Pathogenic

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Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum: Mastigophora

Class: Phytomastigophora

Order: Euglenida

Euglena viridis

Habitat:

It is common, solitary and free-living in freshwater.

Morphology and structure of Euglena viridis:

1- It is elongated and spindle-shaped.

2- The anterior end is blunt, while the posterior end is pointed.

3- The body is covered by pellicle.

4- Anteriorly there is a cytostome leading to cytopharynx and a reservoir.

5- A large contractile vacuole lies near the reservoir.

6- Also there is a flagellum emerges from the cytopharynx and cytostome.

7- The flagellum has 2 roots at the side opposite to that of the contractile vacuole. Each
root has a basal granule.

8- The endoplasm contains nucleus, chloroplasts, paramylum granules, myonemes and

stigma or eye-spot near the reservoir.

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Locomotion in Euglena: There are 2 ways of locomotion:

1- Euglenoid Movement: it is very slow, by peristaltic waves of contractions and
expansions pass over the entire body from the anterior to the posterior end, the animal
moves forward. This is by the action of myonemes.

2- Flagellar movement: it is a fast movement by the flagellum which forces the water

on both sides of the body. Each force on one side composed of effective stroke and
recovery stroke. The result is that the animal moves in a zigzag manner along its own
axis.

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Nutrition

1- It is accomplished either by holophytic or saprophytic or by both.

2- The chief mode is holophytic where the food is manufactured photosynthetically by

chloroplasts as in plants.

3- Saprophytic or saprozoic nutrition is in the absence of sunlight, where the animal

absorbs some organic substances in solution from decaying matter in the

environment through its general body surface.

Osmoregulation

1- Osmoregulation is achieved by the contractile vacuole which empties its contents in

the reservoir then to the outside through the cytostome.

Excretion and respiration:

1- Take place by simple diffusion through the body surface.

Sensitivity:

1- Is achieved by the eye-spot which is sensitive to light (phototactic).

Reproduction:

1- Euglena reproduces asexually by longitudinal binary fission in favorable conditions

2- and multiple fission which occurs by encystment under unfavorable conditions.

Position of Euglena Why Euglena is considered as an animal?

Euglena shows some characters of plants such as:

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1- Chloroplasts with chlorophyll and

2- Holophytic nutrition

But Euglena is regarded as an animal due to the following facts:

1- Its pellicle is made of proteins and not cellulose as in plants.

2- It has a contractile vacuole not found in plants.

3- Its nutrition through holophytic as is also through saprozoic nutrition.

4- Longitudinal binary fission takes place which does not occur in plants.

5- Presence of myonemes,

6 presences of eye-spot,

7- Presence of cytostome and

8- Presence of cytopharynx.

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 Phylum: Apicomplexa

Class: Sporozoa

Order: Eucoccidia

Suborder: Haemosporidia

E.g. Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malaria, Plasmodium falciparum

1- Plasmodium is an important protozoan parasite of man causing malaria which is

one of the widespread diseases of man.

2- It has two hosts:

A. man as intermediate host and

B. the female Anopheles mosquito as a primary host (Final = Definitive).

3- Mode of infection (Transmission):

By biting of infected female Anopheles injecting the infective stage

(Sporozoites) which is present in the salivary glands of the female Anopheles

into the blood of the human being.

4- The vector of the plasmodium is the female Anopheles.

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 Phylum: Ciliophora

Class: Oligohymenophorea (Oligohymenophora)

Subclass: Hymenostomata

Order: Hymenostomatida

e.g. Paramecium caudatum

Habitat:

It is a free living in freshwater,

Structure:

1- Microscopic,

2- The anterior end is blunt and the posterior end is somewhat pointed or cone-shaped.

3- The wider part is just below the middle.

4- It has a pellicle entirely covered with cilia.

5- Trichocysts are embedded in the ectoplasm.

6- There are two nuclei; one small micronucleus and large macronucleus,

7- There are many food vacuoles,

8- There are two large contractile vacuoles (each one situated near one end of the body

close to the dorsal surface).

9- On the ventral surface there is oral groove leading to vestibule ending by cytostome

which lead in the endoplasm by cytopharynx or gullet.

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Locomotion in paramecium: By two ways:

A) Body contraction:

The body has elasticity, it can squeeze itself through a passage narrower than its
body, after which the body assumes its normal shape.

B) Ciliary locomotion:

It is the main method, where the cilia can beat forwards or backwards enabling

the animal to swim anteriorly or posteriorly.

Reproduction: Paramecium reproduces asexually by transverse binary fission and

sexually by conjugation.

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 Phylum Porifera

General Characters:

1. Sessile.

2. Mostly marine (98%) and some are fresh water.

3. Primitive multicellular animals with cellular grade of organization.

4. Free living aquatic, mostly marine, sedentary forms either solitary or colonial.

5. Body with a large number of incurrent pores called ostia leading into a spongocoel
through a system of canals, Spongocoel opening out by one or two large excurrent
pores called oscula.

6. Canals and spongocoel are lined by flagellated cells called choanocytes or collar

cells.

7. Body wall with two layers of loosely arranged cells and a mesenchyme in between.

8. Body has an endoskeleton made up of spicules. Composed of calcareous or silicious

spicules or spongin fibres.

9. Digestion is intracellular.

10. Respiration and excretion by simple diffusion.

11. Reproduction by asexual (external or internal buds) or sexual methods.

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The phylum is divided into three classes.

Class Class Class

Characteristics
Calcarea Hexactinellida Demospongia

Marine or
Habitat Marine Marine
fresh water

Made up of
Made up of Made up of
Spicules spongin fibers
calcium carbonate | Silica
or absent

- Euplectella
- Spongilla
- Sycon (venus flower basket)
Examples -Euspongia
- Leucosolenia - Hyalonema
(bath sponge)
(Glass rope sponge)

Types of sponge:

There are three main types of canal system in sponges.

1- The simplest form is Asconoid, here the canals run straight through the sponge

body and all the choanocytes line the central large space called the 'spongocoel'.

The water enters the ostia, is drawn through to the spongocoel and leaves through a
single large osculum.

2- Slightly more complicated are Syconoid sponges; externally they are fairly similar

to asconoid sponges except that their body wall is thicker. The canals are branched
however and do not allow the water to flow straight through in to the spongocoel.

Instead the water flows a twisted route through a number of canals some of which

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 are lined with choanocytes before being expelled into the spongocoel and out
through the osculum.

3- Most modern sponge species are Leuconoid. In leuconoid sponges the canal system
is more complicated again with the canals being longer and more branched, they

lead to special chambers whose walls are lined by choanocytes, there are no
choanocytes in the canals. There is no real spongocoel just a central exit canal

leading to the osculum.

Respiratory and excretory Systems:

Sponges have no respiratory or excretory organs; both functions occur by

diffusion in individual cells.

Regeneration:

Sponges have remarkable powers of regeneration; a small piece of a sponge

can regrow a complete new organism. In some species, this includes particles small
enough to pass through a cloth strainer.

Skeleton of sponge:

Sponges have skeletons. There are two main components of a sponge skeleton, a

protein called spongin which forms a tough fibrous network throughout the sponge

and normally works in conjunction with the spicules. Spicules are non-living

aggregates of a chemical nature, secreted and made from either silica or calcium

carbonate as calcite or aragonite. These spicules are important in the classification.

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Reproduction and life cycle:

Sponges are able to reproduce sexually or asexually.

1- Asexual reproduction of sponges is through budding.

e Many freshwater sponges also form small structures known as gemmules, which
are made up of amoebocytes surrounded by a protective coating consisting of

organic material and layer of spicules. These may function as a means of surviving

harsh conditions that may kill the adult sponges that gave rise to them. When the

environment becomes less hostile, the gemmule resumes growing.

2- Sexual reproduction:

1- Most sponges are monoecious, having unisexual reproductive units of both

sexes appearing on the sponge.

2- An organism that produces both eggs and sperm is known as a hermaphrodite.

Some species have separate sexes.

3- Sperm are formed from choanocytes.

4- Oocytes derive from choanocytes in some sponges and archaeocytes in others.

5- Sperm are released into open water. Some sponges have oviparous fertilization
where sperm and eggs meet in open water.

6- In other species, sperm are taken into the bodies of other sponges and fertilized
inside; this is known as viviparous fertilization.

7- Self-fertilization rarely, if ever, occurs in species that produce both sperm and

eggs in the same organism.

8- Eggs develop into an immature, free-swimming larvae. These larvae, known as

amphiblastula, It will eventually attach to an object and undergo a

transformation to the sessile, adult form.

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 Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

Phylum Cnidaria (formely known as coelenterata) includes about 9000 species.

Coelenterates (Gr. koilos, hollow + enteron, gut) are the simplest of eumetazoans.

They include the Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones and corals.

General characters of cnidarian:

1. Radially symmetrical, diploblastic multicellular animals with a tissue grade of

organization.

2. Aquatic, freshwater or marine solitary or colonial forms which may be free

swimming or sedentary.

3. Body has a mouth at the oral end which leads into a spacious cavity called

gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron.

4. Presence of long, hollow structures called tentacles used for locomotion and food

capturing.

5. Presence of peculiar type of cells called Cnidoblasts, nematocysts or stinging cells

in the ectoderm, especially in the tentacles, used for offence and defense.

. Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular.

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7. Respiration and excretion by simple diffusion.

8. Presence of a network of nerves spread all over the body. Nervous system is

primitive and formed of a network of nerve cells and fibres throughout the body.

. Many forms exhibit polymorphism, wherein different types of individuals are

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present in a colony for different functions. These individuals are called Zooids.

10. Reproduction asexually (external budding) or sexually (formation of gametes).

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11. Reproduction is by both sexual and asexual means. Fertilized eggs may develop
into a larva called planula.

12. An alternation of generations or metagenesis is found in the life history i.e. the
asexual polyploid generation alternates with the sexual medusoid generation

13. Formation of skeleton.

The phylum is divided into three classes:

Characteristics | Class: Hydrozoa | Class: Schyphozoa | Class: Anthozoa

Fresh water
Habitat Marine Marine
or marine

Polypoid
Body Form Medusoid Polypoid
or Medusoid

Hydra, Obelia, Sea anemone

Physalia Aurelia
Example Fungia
(Portuguese man | (Jelly fishes)
of war) & other Corals

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Types of polypoid and medusoid forms found in Cnidarian polymorphism:

Polypoid forms:

e Gastrozooid: involved if feeding and prey catching

e Dactylozooid: sensory function

e Tentaculozooid: protection of colony.

e Gonozooid: reproduction

One class of Cnidaria, namely the Anthozoa consists of only polypoid forms (Corals).

Medusoid forms:

- Medusoid forms are found both in the Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa, but the latter is

exclusively medusoid.

- In Scyphozoa and Cubozoa, the medusoid form is dominant in the life cycle and the

polypoid is restircted to a small, sessile stage.

- The Medusa are produced from the medusa buds liberated from the ruptured
gonotheca and resembles a bell or inverted umbrella with convex side upwards and
mouth at the centre of the concave surface.

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 Hydra

Hydra is tiny, reaching a maximum of only about 30 mm long when fully extended.

They are microscopic.

Habitat:

The Hydra can be found in freshwater ponds and slow-moving rivers, where
they usually attach themselves to submerged plants or rocks.

Morphology and structure of Hydra:

1- A structure called a basal disc on the bottom of the tube-like body secretes a sticky
substance which helps Hydras to attach themselves to a solid base.

2- Hydra are carnivorous and feed mainly on small crustaceans like water fleas

(Daphnia) and small worms.

3- They have a number of different types of stinging cells, called nematocysts, on

their tentacles. The prey gets all tangled up and unable to move. A second kind of

nematocyst, which may have barbs or spines on it, is also fired into the prey. This

releases toxins into the prey which paralyse it.

Reproduction:

Hydra reproduces in two ways depending on the season.

1- The first, asexual method, involves budding new individuals from the body wall.

This is the usual method of reproduction in warmer months.

2- As it begins to get colder, sexual reproduction may start to take over.

- Most Hydra species have individuals which are either male or female.

- Eggs are produced in the outer body wall of female Hydra and are fertilised by

sperm released into the water by neighbouring male Hydras.

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 - Some species of Hydra are hermaphrodite, with each individual having both

male and female reproductive organs.

Nervous system:

- The Hydra has the simplest nervous system in the animal’s world, organized as a
sparse network of neurons diffused on the whole body, without the presence of a brain

or of ganglia.

Locomotion:

For the locomotion, the Hydra utilizes four different methods.

1- The first consists in a serious of somersault movements:

- keeping the foot anchored to the substratum, the Hydra bends the body to
touch a support with the tentacles. Now it releases the foot, does with the body a
complete turn around and anchors again the foot further on, and then releases the

tentacles. This repeats with a series of somersaults.

2- A second mechanism Walking:

- Consists in anchoring the tentacles to the substratum, releasing the foot. Now

the Hydra walks on the tentacles, using them as legs.

3- The third type is the fluctuation:

- Possible thanks to the capacity of the Hydra’s foot to secrete a gas bubble that
remains attached to the foot and serves as floater. Now, the Hydra is transported

by the water currents.

4- The fourth type is the sliding movement as it releases the basal disc and secrete a
mucous substance that allow it to slide on the substratum to move from a place to
another one.

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Regeneration:

The Hydra has the most developed regenerative capacities in the whole animal

kingdom. The amputated head as well as the foot grow again in a few days and also
small segments of the trunk reproduce a complete individual in a few days. In this

way, one only Hydra, dissected in several parts, can produce numerous new

individuals.

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mee —
Movement in Hydra: 1- Sliding, 2- Somersault,
3- Walking and 4- Fluctuation

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 Phylum Platyhelminthes

General Characters of Platyhelminthes:

1. Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic true multi-cellular animals with organ grade of

organization.

2. Free living (aquatic or terrestrial) or parasitic (ecto- or endoparasites).

3. Body is dorso-ventrally compressed, leaf like.

4. A body cavity is absent. Space between body wall and alimentary canal is filled

with mesenchyme (connective tissue).

5. Digestive system is incomplete. Anus is absent.

6. Respiration by simple diffusion.

7. Excretion with the help of specialised cells called flame cells or solenocytes.

8. Nervous system is ladder-like consisting of a brain and a pair of longitudinal nerves

connected by many transverse nerves.

9. Reproduction is usually by sexual methods. Majority of the forms are bisexual

(hermaphrodites). Development is direct or indirect.

10. Body is triploblastic.

11. They have blind sac body plan.

The phylum is divided into three classes:

Characteristics | Class Turbellaria | Class Trematoda | Class Cestoda

Ecto or
habit and habitat | free living aquatic Endoparasites
endoparasites

Digestive
Present Present Absent
system

Fasciola
Taenia saginata
Liver fluk
Examples Planaria Ever VES) Taenia solium
Schistosoma
(Tape worm)
(Blood fluke)

Planaria
What is a planarian?
These small, free-living flatworms are found under rocks in the fresh water. They are
classified in the phylum Platyhelminthes and in the class Turbellaria.

General characters:
Body: Body is elongated, cylindrical and dorso- flattened.

Body division: It is divided into anterior head and posterior body.

Head: It is triangular containing auricles (ear like) and eyes or ocelli (semicircular,
one pair). Auricles and eyes both are sensory structures.

Posterior body: it contains highly pointed end.

Digestive system: complete, consisting of mouth, pharynx, proboscis and intestine
(branched).

Mouth: The mouth is situated in middle of the ventral surfaceand is surrounded by

proboscis pore.

is
Intestine: It has three branches in which one is extending upwards and other two are
extending backwards.

e Genital pore: It is located posterior to the mouth.

e Reproduction: It reproduces sexually or asexually. Regeneration also occurs.

e Food sources:

Planarians are generally zoophagous, feeding on small living invertebrates and

decaying organisms found in their ecosystem.

The planarian eats by using its long, highly muscular pharynx. This protrudes through
the mouth in the presence of food.

Nervous system:

At the head of the planarian there is a ganglion under the eyespots. The cerebral

ganglia, a bi-lobed mass of nerve tissue, is sometimes referred to as the planarian

brain. From the ganglion there are two nerve cords which extend the length of the tail.

There are many transverse nerves connected to the nerve cords extending from the

brain, which makes the nerve system look like a ladder. The blunt, triangular head has

two ocelli (eyespots), pigmented areas that are sensitive to light. There are two auricles
(earlike projections) at the base of the head, which are sensitive to touch and the
presence of certain chemicals.

There are no circulatory or respiratory systems; oxygen entering and carbon

dioxide leaving the planarian's body diffuses through the body wall.

Regeneration:

Planaria can be cut into pieces, and each piece can regenerate into a complete

organism. Cells at the location of the wound site proliferate to form a blastema that

will differentiate into new tissues and regenerate the missing parts of the piece of the

cut planaria.
 Fasciola gigantica

Fasciola gigantica (the tropical liver fluke) is a parasitic flatworm belonging to the

Trematodes. Final hosts are sheep, goats, cattle, buffaloes, donkeys and other domestic

and wild mammals, including dogs, cats, and humans. It is one of the most abundant

and damaging helminth parasites of grazing ruminants (sheep, goats, cattle) in endemic

regions.

The disease caused by liver flukes is called fasciolosis, fasciolasis, distomatosis or

liver rot.

Human infected with Fasciola gigantica:

Normally humans become infected through ingestion of water contaminated with

infective metacercariae, not by ingesting adult flukes or their eggs.

Habitat:

Predilection sites of Fasciola gigantica are the biliary ducts in the liver and the gall
bladder.

Identifying characters:

e Body: It has beef like and dorso-ventrally flattened body.

e Body length: 18-50 mm in length.

e Mouth: Mouth is small and ventrally situated at anterior extremity.

e Suckers: There are two types of suckers naming oral and ventral sucker.

e Oral sucker: It surrounds the mouth and located at the anterior extremity.

e Ventral sucker: It is also called acetabulum (adhesive in nature) and is located a

little behind to the mouth.

e Pores: gonopore and excretory pore.

(1) Gonopore is locatedbetween oral and ventral suckers

(2) Excretory pore is located at posterior extremity

VY
e Cephalic cone: Anterior end consists of a conical projection. This is called cephalic
cone.

e Hermaphrodite.

e Digestive system: It consists of mouth, oral sucker, pharynx, oesophagus and bifid
intestine.

® Life cycle: Indirect and is completed in two hosts sheep and snail.

Schistosoma

Classification: | Metazoa (Animalia) (multicellular eukaryotes, animals)

Platythelminthes (flatworms) Cercomeridea (with oral sucker and bifurcate intestine)

Trematoda (trematodes, with posterior sucker) Digenea (digenetic life-cycle, larval

miracidia, snail vectors) Strigeatida (miracidia with 2 pairs protonephridia, fork-tailed

cercariae)

Family: Schistosomatidae

Unlike all other trematodes, schistosomes are not hermaphroditic but dioecious,
forming separate sexes. Adult worms have elongate tubular bodies, each male having a
unique gynecophoral canal (schisto-soma = split body) in which a female worm
resides. They live inside visceral blood vessels and are commonly known as blood

flukes. They have digenetic life-cycles involving aquatic snails as obligate

intermediate hosts. Eggs deposited in the circulation penetrate the gut or bladder to be

excreted with faeces or urine. In water, the eggs release miracidia which infect snails

and undergo asexual proliferation through sporocyst stages eventually releasing

cercariae back into the water. Vertebrate hosts become infected by direct penetration

of the skin. Infections may cause chronic debilitating diseases in humans and some

domestic animals.

Ve
Schistosoma spp. these species cause schistosomiasis/bilharzia in humans and
ruminants.

Parasite Definitive Egg ; Geographic

. Site of infection . Snail vector .
species host excretion location

; humans, veins of
S.haematobium . . urine Bulinus Africa
primates urogenital system

S. mansoni humans, intestinal faeces Biomphalaria | Africa,

rodents mesenteric veins America

humans, .
intestinal -o.
S. japonicum ruminants, . faeces Oncomelania | SE Asia
. mesenteric veins
Camivores

Site of infection:

- Paired adult worms live inside blood vessels in specific sites within the human body.

- S. mansoni lives principally in the portal veins draining the large intestine,

- §. japonicum in the mesenteric veins of the small intestines, and

- S$. haematobium infects veins of the urinary bladder plexus.

- Fluke eggs penetrate into the lumen of the intestines or bladder to be voided with
host faeces or urine.

- Many eggs, however, may be swept away in the host circulation and become trapped

in various host tissues and organs.

Pathogenesis:

- Schistosomiasis (or bilharziasis) is unusual amongst helminth diseases for two

reasons:

oO
1- Much of the pathogenesis is due to the eggs (rather than larvae or adults); and

2- Most of the pathology is caused by host immune responses (delayed-type

hypersensitivity and granulomatous reactions).

- The course of infection is often divided into three phases: migratory, acute and

chronic.

Taenia

Taenia solium

e Common name: Pork tapeworm.

e Habit and habitat: It is the parasite in the intestine of man.

e Identifying characters:

e Body:

Body is about 4-5 meters in length.

e Segmentation:

It consists of about 700-900 segments.

e Body division:

It is differentiated into:

scolex, neck and then immature, mature, gravid and malformed segments.

e Mature segments:

They contain fully developed hermaphrodite genital organs.

ws
e Scolex:

It is adhesive in nature, consisting of four suckers and a rounded rostellum

(surrounded by a double row of 28-32 hooks).

e Life cycle:

Life cycle of T. solium is indirect. It requires an intermediate host pig for

development.

e Diseases:

It causes diseases like anaemia, secondary anaemia, eosinophilia, diarrhea,

haemorrhage, abdominal pain and nausea etc.

Taenia saginata

Common name: Beef tapeworm.

Habit and habitat:

It is found in the posterior coils of the intestine.

Distribution:

It found in India, China and Germany.

Identifying characters:

e Body-

it is about 4-6 meters in length.

e Body color- whittish in color (preserved).

VV
e Body segments-

Body is divided into about 1000 segments.

e Types of segments-

There are four types of segments:

-immature, mature, gravid and malformed segments.

e Body division-

Body is divided into scolex, neck and strobila (segments).

e Scolex-

It contain 4 suckers. But rostellum and hooks are absent.

e Life cycle-

Life cycle is indirect. Buffalo is intermediate host.

e Diseases-

It causes diarrhoea, nausea and insomnia and abdominal pain etc.

VA
 Phylum: Nematoda

Characteristics of Nematoda:

1) Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.

2) Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.

3) Body cavity is a pseudocoel, body fluid under high pressure.

4) Body possesses a through gut with a subterminal anus.

5) Body covered in a complex cuticle.

6) Has a nervous system with pharyngeal nerve ring.

7) Has no circulatory system (no blood system).

8) Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.

9) Feed on just about everything.

10) Live just about everywhere, many species are endoparasites.

Examples of nematodes:

Common examples of nematodes, a major group of Aschelminthes.

1. Ascaris (round worm) (parasitic) - 2. Enterobius (pin worm)

3. Trichiuris (whilp worm) - 4. Wuchereria (filarial worm)

5. Loa loa (eye worm) - 6. Ancylostoma (hook worm)

14
 Ascaris

Habitat:

Ascaris lumbricoides, an intestinal roundworm,

- is one of the most common helminthic human infections worldwide.

Highest prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions, and areas with inadequate

sanitation. Ascariasis occurs in rural areas of the southeastern United States.

Transmission or Infection:

Transmission occurs mainly via ingestion of water or food contaminated with A.

lumbricoides eggs and occasionally via inhalation of contaminated dust. Children

playing in contaminated soil may acquire the parasite from their hands.
 Phylum Annelida

General characters:

1) Free-living, terrestrial or aquatic form (freshwater or marine).

2) Body is long, cylindrical and metamerically segmented.

3) Body wall consists of cuticle, epidermis and musculature.

4) Body cavity is a true coelom, lined by epithelium.

5) Digestive system is complete.

6) Respiration is either through skin or through gills.

7) Excretion with the help of characteristic nephridia.

8) Presence of a circulatory system (closed type). Hemoglobin dissolved directly in the

plasma.

9) Nervous system consists of a nerve ring and a double ventral nerve cord with

segmental ganglia.

10) Locomotion with the help of setae or parapodia.

11) Reproduction by sexual methods. Either unisexual or bisexual development may

be direct or indirect.

12) Body has a true coelom.

v\
The phylum is divided into four classes:

_ Class Class Class Class

Characteristics Polvch Oligoch
olychaeta igocnaeta Hirudinea Archiannelida

-_ Free livin Fresh water forms i

Habit and Free living 5 ; Marine toms
; forms found in | Temporary
habitat marine ; . .
moist soil ectoparasites

Locomotory
Parapodia Setae Absent Absent
Structure

Unisexual Bisexual Bisexual Bisexual with

Lifecycle with indirect | vith direct STK divest indirect
development development development development

Pheretima, Hirudina
Examples Nereis Allolobophora Polygrdius
(earth worms) | (leech)

vv
 Phylum Arthropoda

This phylum is the largest in the animal kingdom comprising of more than 75% of

the animal species that have been identified.

1) Free living forms, aquatic (fresh water or marine) or terrestrial or aerial. Some

parasitic forms also.

2) Body is elongated and segmented, usually distinguished into regions like head,

thorax and abdomen.

3) Body has exoskeleton made up of a hard, impermeable substance called chitin.

4) Digestive system is complete.

5) Circulatory system is of open type. Blood flows freely in the body cavity

(hemocoel).

6) Respiration through gills, or trachea or book lungs.

7) Excretion through coxal glands or malpighian tubules.

8) Nervous system consists of a nerve ring and a double ventral nerve cord.

9) Locomotor organs represented by segmentally arranged many jointed appendages.

10) Cilia are totally absent in any part of the body.

11) Reproduce sexually, sexes are separate. Development may be direct or indirect.

VY
The phylum is divided into six classes:

Respiratory Walking
Class Habitat Common examples
organs legs

. ; Many-two pairs vay:

1.Diplopoda terrestrial | Trachea . Millipede
in each segment

‘ , Many one pair in

2.Chilopoda terrestrial | Trachea Centipede
each segment

3.Crustacea aquatic Gills Five pairs Crab, Prawn, Lobster

4.Arachnida terrestrial | Book lungs Four pairs Scorpion, Spider

5.Insecta terrestrial | Trachea Three pairs Cockroach, Butterfly

6.Onychophora | terrestrial | Trachea Many unjointed Penpatus

Ve
Importance of Arthropodes:

Arthropods are of great direct and indirect importance to humans.

e The larger crustaceans: shrimps, lobsters, and crabs are used as food throughout
the world.

e Small planktonic crustaceans, such as copepods, water fleas, and krill, are a

major link in the food chain between the photosynthetic phytoplankton and the

larger carnivores, such as many fish and whales.

e Although many species of insects and mites attack food crops,

e Arthropods are of enormous benefit to human agriculture. Approximately two-

thirds of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects, and soil and leaf-mold

arthropods, which include insects, mites, myriapods, and some crustaceans (pill

bugs), play an important role in the formation of humus from decomposed leaf
litter and wood.

e The stings and bites of arthropods may be irritating or painful, but very few
inject dangerous toxins.

e Medically, arthropods are more significant as carriers of diseases such as

malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and elephantiasis (via mosquitos), African

sleeping sickness (via tsetse flies), typhus fever (via lice), bubonic plague (via
fleas), and Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease (via ticks). Many

diseases of domesticated animals are also transmitted by arthropods.

Yo
 Phylum Mollusca

1) Free living aquatic forms (freshwater or marine), some amphibious.

2) Body is soft and unsegmented enclosed in a glandular mantle covered by usually a

shell.

3) Coelom is reduced to a pericardial cavity around the heart.

4) Digestive system is complete.

5) Respiratory organs are in the form of gills called ctenidia.

6) Locomotor structure is represented by muscular foot.

7) They have soft-body, which is differentiated into three regions - head, visceral

hump and foot.

8) Visceral hump is covered by a thin, fleshy fold called mantle.

9) Mantle secretes a calcarious shell, which may be external or internal.

10) Reproduction is sexual. Either unisexual or bisexual, development is direct.

v1
The phylum is divided into six classes:

Class Habitat Nature of shell Nature of foot Example

long, cylindrical, Reduced dopeted ‘

Scaphopoda Marine eae “ Nee ' opete Dentalium
open at both the ends | for digging

Mad f onl
Monoplacophora_ | Marine BES EE OE OR NaS Short, reduced Neopilina
large plate

Poly paphora Marine Made up of many Blongated ventrial Chiton

Amphineura overlapping plates in position

Marine or Made up of a single ‘ i Pile, Lampets,

Gastropoda fucks 1 ‘led Ventralin position
resh water | valve, coile Slugs & Snails

; . Unio
a ae or et ¥ of two Wedge shaped
ivalvia resh water | equal valves Pearl oyster

Cephalopoda Marine External or internal Modified into Nautilus, Sepia

or absent tentacles Octopus

vv
 Phylum Echinodermata

1) Free living exclusively marine forms.

2) Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.

3) Body is represented by a central disc covered by ossicles with spines called

pedicellaria.

4) Disc may bear extensions called arms.

5) Digestive system is complete.

6) A unique ambulacral or water vascular system is present.

7) Tube feet are present for locomotion and respiration. Tube feet are extended and
retracted by variation in Hydraulic pressure of the fluid in them and contraction of
their muscles.

8) Nervous system has a central nerve ring with five radiating nerves.

9) Reproduction is sexual. Sexes are separate. Development is indirect.

10) Show very high power of regeneration.

11) Tube feet are for feeding as well.

VA
The phylum is divided into five classes:

Nature of Nature of
Class Examples
the disc the arm

Cc ssed along Asteriz

Asteroidea SEES sii Five, continuous with the disc : iii :
the oro-aboral axis (starfish)

. Compressed along | Five, long and slender, . .

i hioth
Ophinoidea the oro-aboral axis | demarkated from the absent Ophiotiets

Echinus
Echinoidea Globular or flat Absent
(sea urchin)

Holothuria
Holothuroidea eae Modified into tentacles
SY MORER (sea cucumber)

Antedon
Crinoidea Reduced Attached Ten, long and branched
to the substratum cei’
(sea lily)

v4
 Phylum Chordata

* Presence of a solid supporting structure on the dorsal side of the body called

notochord.

* Presence of a dorsal hollow, tubular nerve cords.

* Presence of pharyngeal gill slits at least in the embryonic stages.

* The phylum is divided into 4 sub phyla.

* Hemichordata, Urochordata, Cephalochordata (together called as Protochordates)

and Vertebrata

Mammals exhibit the following unique features:

e Presence of mammary glands to nourish the young ones.

e Presence of muscular diaphragm that separates thorax from abdomen.

e Presence of external ear called pinna.

e Presence of seven vertebrae in the neck region.

 The phylum is divided into six classes.

Class Class Class

hi isti
Characteristics lass Pis Pisces
Class Amphibia Reptilia las
Class A Aves Mavniialia

Habitat Aquatic Amphibious Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial

. Scales ‘
Exoskeletion Scales (dermal) Usually absent ! Feathers Hair
(epidermal)

Respiratory Gills Lungs Lungs Lungs Lungs

organs

Locomotor : :
Fins Limbs Limbs Limbs Limbs
organs

Heart Two chambers Die Tite Pour Four chambers

chambers chambers chambers ,

Aortic arch On both sides On both the on both the Only on Gnly on left
sides sides right side side

Mostl
AROSE ; Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous os
reproduction Viviparous

Fertilisation External Internal External Internal Internal

Whale Bat,
Parrot Rat, Rabbit
: Turtles
Cartilagenous . Sparrow
Rays sharks Bony r Toad Tortaises Myna Horse Cow,
Examples Fishes Solamander. Crocodiles Lion Tiger,
Hemiramphus "| tarde Ostrich Cat, Dog,
Hippocampus Snakes Rhea Shrew Apes,
. Penguin Monkeys,
Humans

With my best wishes

Prof. Dr. Mohamed F. Abouel-Nour

A\