Chapter 1:

Introduction to Statistics

Essentials of Statistics for the

Behavioral Sciences
by Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau
Psych 102 Psychological Statistics
JDM Amor

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 Statistics is?
• What comes to mind when you hear the
word statistics?
• What are your apprehensions about this
course?

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• The youth comprises more than 40 percent of
the total population. Of this, 21% are enrolled
in high school, tertiary and vocational schools,
22% are young peasants, 21% are contractual
young workers in the urban areas, 36% are
unemployed and out of school and 4% are
working students –
https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/wpaysub
missions/philippines.pdf

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 Learning Outcomes

Define the terms population, sample, parameter, and

statistic, and describe the relationships between them;
identify examples of each.

Define the two general categories of statistics, descriptive

and inferential statistics, and describe how they are used
to summarize and make decisions about data.

Describe the concept of sampling error and explain how

sampling error creates the fundamental problem that
inferential statistics must address.

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ANSWERS

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“Remember that all
statistical procedures
were developed to serve a
purpose. If you
understand why a new
procedure is needed, you
will find it much easier to
learn. “
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-Distance makes the heart grow fonder
-Out of sight, out of mind

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• What threatens long distance
relationships?

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 1.1 Statistics, Science and
Observations

• “Statistics” means “statistical procedures”

for organizing, summarizing, and
interpreting information.

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 1.1 Statistics, Science and
Observations

• “Statistics” means “statistical procedures”

• Uses of Statistics
– Organize and summarize information
– Determine exactly what conclusions are
justified based on the results that were
obtained
• Goals of statistical procedures
– Accurate and meaningful interpretation
– Provide standardized evaluation procedures
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1.2 Populations and Samples
Population (N)

• The set of all the individuals of interest in a particular

study
• Vary in size; often quite large

Sample (n)

• A set of individuals selected from a population

• Usually intended to represent the population in a
research study
• random sample everyone in the population has an
equal chance of being selected.

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 Figure 1.1
Relationship between population and sample

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 Variables and Data
Variable
• Characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for
different individuals

Data (plural)
• Measurements or observations of a variable

Data set
• A collection of measurements or observations

A datum (singular)
• A single measurement or observation
• Commonly called a score or raw score

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 Variables and Data
• Variable
Type of Relationship à Level of intimacy

-Long Distance
-Geographically Higher or lower level of
Close intimacy?

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 Parameters and Statistics
• Parameter • Statistic
– A value, usually a – A value, usually a
numerical value, that numerical value, that
describes a population describes a sample
– Derived from – Derived from
measurements of measurements of
the individuals in the individuals in
the population the sample

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 Descriptive & Inferential Statistics

• Descriptive statistics • Inferential statistics

– Summarize data – Study samples to make
– Organize data generalizations about
– Simplify data the population
– Interpret experimental
• Familiar examples
data
– Tables
• Common terminology
– Graphs
– “Margin of error”
– Averages
– “Statistically significant”

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 Sampling Error
• Sample is never identical to population
• Sampling Error
– The discrepancy, or amount of error, that
exists between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter
• Example: Margin of Error in Polls
– “This poll was taken from a sample of registered
voters and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4
percentage points” (Box 1.1)

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 Figure 1.2
A demonstration of sampling error

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 Figure 1.3
Role of statistics in experimental research

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 Figure 1.3
Role of statistics in experimental research

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 Learning Check 1
• A researcher is interested in the effect of
amount of sleep on high school students’ exam
scores. A group of 75 high school boys agree
to participate in the study. The boys are…

A • A statistic
B • A variable
C • A parameter
D • A sample psy102 jdm amor
 Learning Check 2
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.

• Most research studies use data

T/F from samples

• When sample differs from the

T/F population there is a systematic
difference between groups
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 Learning Check - Answer

• Samples used because it is not

True feasible or possible to measure
all individuals in the population
• Sampling error due to random
False influences may produce
unsystematic group differences

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LEARNING CHECK
1. A researcher is interested in the
texting habits of high school students
in the Philippines. If the researcher
measures the number of text
messages that all high school
students send each day and
calculates the average number for the
entire group of high school students,
the average number would be an
example of a ___________.
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2. A researcher is interested in how watching a
reality television show featuring fashion models’
influences the eating behavior of 13-year-old girls.
A group of 30 13-year-old girls is selected to
participate in a research study. The group of 30 13-
year-old girls is an example of a ___________.
In the same study, the amount of food eaten in one
day is measured for each girl and the researcher
computes the average score for the 30 13-year-old
girls. The average score is an example of a
__________.

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3. Statistical techniques are
classified into two general
categories. What are the two
categories called, and what is the
general purpose for the
techniques in each category?

4. Briefly define the concept of

sampling error.
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1.2 OBSERVATIONS, MEASUREMENT, AND
VARIABLES

Learning Objectives
4. Explain why operational definitions are developed for
constructs and identify the
two components of an operational definition.
5. Describe discrete and continuous variables and identify
examples of each.
6. Define real limits and explain why they are needed to
measure continuous variables.
7. Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement
(nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio) and identify examples of each.

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 1.2 Observation, measurement
and variables
• Scores are obtained by observing and
measuring variables that scientists use to
help define and explain external behaviors
• The process of measurement consists of
applying carefully defined measurement
procedures for each variable

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 Constructs & Operational Definitions

• Constructs • Operational Definition

– Internal attributes – Identifies the set of
or characteristics operations required to
that cannot be measure an external
directly observed (observable) behavior
– Useful for – Uses the resulting
describing and measurements as both
explaining behavior a definition and a
– Hypothetical measurement of a
constructs hypothetical construct

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 Construct: Intelligence and
Hunger
• Operational Definition of Intelligence:
Ex: Intelligence is measured and defined by
your performance on an IQ test
Low – below 30
Ave – 30-60
High – 60 and above

Hunger – Number of hours since last eating

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 Discrete and Continuous
Variables
• Discrete variable
– Has separate, indivisible categories
– No values can exist between two neighboring
categories
• Continuous variable
– Have an infinite number of possible values
between any two observed values
– Every interval is divisible into an infinite
number of equal parts

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 Figure 1.8
Example: Continuous Measurement

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 Real Limits of Continuous
Variables

• Real Limits are the boundaries of each

interval representing scores measured on
a continuous number line
– The real limit separating two adjacent scores
is exactly halfway between the two scores
– Each score has two real limits
• The upper real limit marks the top of the
interval
• The lower real limit marks the bottom of the
interval
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 Scales of Measurement
• Measurement assigns individuals or events to
categories
– The categories can simply be names such as
male/female or employed/unemployed
– They can be numerical values such as 68 inches
or 175 pounds
• The complete set of categories makes up a
scale of measurement
• Relationships between the categories determine
different types of scales

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 Scales of Measurement
Scale Characteristics Examples
Nominal •Label and categorize •Gender
•No quantitative distinctions •Diagnosis
•Experimental or Control

Ordinal •Categorizes observations •Rank in class

•Categories organized by •Clothing sizes (S,M,L,XL)
size or magnitude •Olympic medals

Interval •Ordered categories •Temperature

•Interval between categories •IQ
of equal size •Golf scores (above/below
•Arbitrary or absent zero par)
point

Ratio •Ordered categories •Number of correct answers

•Equal interval between •Time to complete task
categories •Gain in height since last
•Absolute zeropsy102
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• For our purposes, scales of measurement
are important because they influence the
kind of statistics that can and cannot be
used.

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 Learning Check -4
• A study assesses the optimal size (number
of other members) for study groups. The
variable “Size of group” is …
A • Discrete and interval
B • Continuous and ordinal
C • Discrete and ratio
D • Continuous and interval
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 Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.

• Variables that cannot be

T/F measured directly cannot be
studied scientifically
• Research measurements are
T/F made using specific procedures
that define constructs
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 Learning Check - Answer

• Constructs (internal states) can

False only be observed indirectly, but
can be operationally measured
• Operational definitions assure
True consistent measurement and
provide construct definitions

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 1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics

• LEARNING OBJECTIVEs
• 8. Describe, compare, and contrast correlational,
experimental, and nonexperimental
• research, and identify the data structures associated
with each.
• 9. Define independent, dependent, and quasi-
independent variables and recognize
• examples of each.

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 1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics

• Individual Variables
– A variable is observed
– “Statistics” describe the observed variable
– Category and/or numerical variables
• Relationships between variables
– Two variables observed and measured
– One of two possible data structures used to
determine what type of relationship exists
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 Individual Variables

Data Structure 1. One Group with

One or More Separate Variables
Measured for Each Individual:
Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research or the descriptive
research strategy involves measuring one or
more separate variables for each individual
with the intent of simply describing the
individual variables.
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Data Structure 1

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Relationship etween variales
• is there a relationship
between the amount of
violence in the video
games played by
children and the
amount of aggressive
behavior they display?

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 Relationships Between Variables

Data Structure 2: One Group with Two

Variables Measured for Each
Individual:The Correlational Method
• One group of participants
• Measurement of two variables for each participant
• Goal is to describe type and magnitude of the
relationship
• Patterns in the data reveal relationships
• Non-experimental method of study
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 Figure 1.5
Data structures for studies evaluating the
relationship between variables (numerical sores)

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 Correlational Method Limitations

• Can demonstrate the existence of a

relationship
• Does not provide an explanation for the
relationship
• Most importantly, does not demonstrate a
cause-and-effect relationship between the
two variables

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Data Structure 3. Comparing Two (or
More) Groups of Scores:

Experimental and Nonexperimental

Methods
• One variable defines the groups
• Scores are measured on second variable
• Both experimental and non-experimental(quasi-
experimental) studies use this structure
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 Figure 1.6
Data structure for studies comparing groups

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 Experimental Method
• In the experimental method, one variable is
manipulated while another variable is observed and
measured.
• The differences from one participant to another are
known as individual differences.

Specifically, an experiment attempts to show that

changing the value of one variable causes changes to
occur in the second variable
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 Experimental Method
Goal of Experimental Method
– To demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
1.Manipulation
– The level of one variable is determined by the
experimenter
2. Control rules out influence of other variables
- usually involves matching different groups as closely as
possible on those variables that we don’t want to manipulate.

– Participant variables
– Environmental variables
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 Terminologies in Experimental
Method
• Independent Variable is the variable
manipulated by the researcher
– Independent because no other variable in the
study influences its value
– usually consists of the two (or more) treatment
conditions to which subjects are exposed.
– independent variable is manipulated prior to
observing the dependent variable.

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 Terminologies

• Dependent Variable
• is the one that is observed to assess the effect
of the treatment.
• The dependent variable is the variable that is
measured in the experiment and its value
changes in a way that depends on the status of
the independent variable.

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pain killing effects of money

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The structure of an experiment

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 Experimental Method: Control
• Methods of control
– Random assignment of subjects
– Matching of subjects
– Holding level of some potentially influential variables
constant
• Control condition
– Individuals do not receive the experimental treatment.
– They either receive no treatment or they receive a neutral,
placebo treatment
– Purpose: to provide a baseline for comparison with the
experimental condition
• Experimental condition
– Individuals do receive the experimental treatment

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 Non-experimental Methods
• Non-equivalent Groups
– Researcher compares groups
– Researcher cannot control who goes into which
group
• Pre-test / Post-test
– Individuals measured at two points in time
– Researcher cannot control influence of the
passage of time
• Independent variable is quasi-independent

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 Figure 1.7
Two examples of non-experimental studies

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 Figure 1.7
Two examples of non-experimental studies

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 Learning Check 3
• Researchers observed that students exam
scores were higher the more sleep they
had the night before. This study is …
A • Descriptive
B • Experimental comparison of groups
C • Non-experimental group comparison
D • Correlational
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 Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.

• All research methods have an

T/F independent variable

• All research methods can show

T/F cause-and-effect relationships
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 Learning Check - Answer

• Correlational methods do not

False need an independent variable

• Only experiments control the

False influence of participants and
environmental variables

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 1.4 Statistical Notation
• LEARNING OBJECTIVEs
10. Identify what is represented by each of the
following symbols: X, Y, N, n, and o.
• 11. Perform calculations using summation
notation and other mathematical opera- tions
following the correct order of operations.

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 1.4 Statistical Notation
• Statistics uses operations and notation
you have already learned
– Appendix A has a Mathematical Review
• Statistics also uses some specific notation
– Scores are referred to as X (and Y)
– N is the number of scores in a population
– n is the number of scores in a sample

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 Summation Notation
• Many statistical procedures sum (add up) a
set of scores
• The summation sign Σ stands for summation
– The Σ is followed by a symbol or equation that
defines what is to be summed
– Summation is done after operations in
parentheses, squaring, and multiplication or
division.
– Summation is done before other addition or
subtraction
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 Order of Mathematical Operations

• 1. Any calculation contained within parentheses is

done first.
• 2. Squaring (or raising to other exponents) is done
second.
3. Multiplying and/or dividing is done third. A series
of multiplication and/or division
• operations should be done in order from left to right.
4. Summation using the Σ notation is done next.
5. Finally, any other addition and/or subtraction is
done.
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Ex.1.4

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 Ex. 1.5
• ΣX -1
• With no parentheses, exponents, or
multiplication, the first step is the summation.
Thus, we begin by computing ΣX.
• Earlier we found ΣX= 15.
• The next step is to subtract one point from the
total.
• For these data, ΣX -1 = 14.
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Ex 1.6

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Ex 1.6

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Ex 1.6

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 Learning Check - 5

• åX 2
+ 47 instructs you to …

• Square each score and add 47 to it, then

A sum those numbers
• Square each score, add up the squared scores,
B then add 47 to that sum
• Add 47 to each score, square the result, and
C sum those numbers

• Add up the scores, square that sum, and

D add 47 to it
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 Learning Check - Answer

• åX 2
+ 47 instructs you to …

• Square each score and add 47 to it, then

A sum those numbers
• Square each score, add up the squared scores,
B then add 47 to that sum
• Add 47 to each score, square the result, and
C sum those numbers

• Add up the scores, square that sum, and

D add 47 to it
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 Learning Check - 6
• Decide if each of the following equations
is True or False.

åX = (å X )
2
T/F 2

T/F (å X )• (å X ) = (å X ) 2

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 Learning Check - Answer

• When the operations are

False performed in a different order,
the results will be different

True • This is the definition of (ΣX)2

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 Equations?

Concepts?

Any
Questions?

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 Math Skills Assessment
• Statistics requires basic math skills
• Inadequate basic math skills puts you at
risk in this course
• Appendix A Math Skills Assessment helps
you determine if you need a skills review
• Appendix A Math Skills Review provides a
quick refresher course on those areas.
• The final Math Skills Assessment identifies
your basic math skills competence
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