4. MECHANICS OF FRICTION ‘A surface that apparently seems very smooth is actually not so. A micto- scopic look at such a surface will reveal presence of lots of asperities on. it that arise from its intrinsic material qualities or the consequences of the procedures that are followed during manufacturing. Presence of these ir- regularities put hindrance to its motion over the other surfaces. To understand the mechanics of friction, consider a body of mass m resting on a rough horizontal floor and subjected to a horizontal pull force P as shown in Fig. 6.1. The magnitude of P is increased gradually from zero to till we get a motion of the body with sufficient velocity. Fig. 6.1 shows that the body force W = mg of the block will act vertically downward and in turn, the floor on which the block rests will exert a normal reaction N on it. The | | Figure 6.1 frictional force F will act at the mating surface and will be tangential to it-its direction being just opposite» that of external applied force P. (b) Figure 6.2 (a) Surfaces showing asperities, (b) Conditions during motionFriction | 63 manifestation of frictional force is os Te alate cea oH ieee gress behavior of the surface that resulted from asperities present | “i rer “ stigation shows th In | Garand icin wii engi eee ew ‘Whenever, two surfaces come in contact with each oth 2 . ‘ < ier, irregularities of both the surfaces stick together Cee eee) and a aa te ce pane Itis therefore misnomer to consider that higher contact area ctional resist it is th i ite vont on the surface which contributes to friction eee Since under the action of all these forces, the block is under equilibrium, it leads to dee ‘ P=F (61) | Ddveo =N 2 ‘Thus from Eq. (6.1), when P = 0; F = 0. ey Increase in magnitude of P eventually increases the magnitude of F so as to hold the block under equilibrium. Thus a plot of friction force (F) against the applied force (P) [Refer Fig. 6.3] shows a linear curve that passes through the origin and having a slope of 45°. While increasing the value of P, an optimum or threshold value js reached beyond which the block will start moving. At this point, when the block i just on the verge of motion, the friction force attains its maximum value. Further increase of P enables the block to move, However, friction 9s almost instantaneously and remains fairly constant despite the increase in P, Substantial increase in P will induce appreciable velocity to the block, when F drops slightly. This ean be explained by the fact that temporary bonding that took place between the asperties of mating surface that cause fiction is selPadjusting since it increases linearly from 0 t0 Fy With the increase in value of P. The maximum value of friction force, which comes into play when the motion is impending, is known as limiting friction. When the block starts Troving, the bonding becomes weak and tis prevalent only along the humps as shown in Fig. 6:2 (6) that reduces the frictional resistance. force now dro} |_7 Impending Motion Zone of Kinetic [Friction Ft Zone of Static _,| fe ct Finan = Hs | Fe oN Figure 63 hat there are two distinet repions as divided by the condition of impending motion it is the region that portrays the behavior of friction nthe left side of this line, a less than the limiting friction, the body remains ¢. When the applied force is alled static friction, which may have any value between zero and the limiting the limiting friction, the body starts moving over the other body Refer to Fig, 6.3; itis clear marked by vertical dotted line. O: force when the body is under rest atrest and such frictional force is ¢ fiction. If the value of the applied force exceeds 1‘ | Mechanical Sciences-1 ing is known as dynamic friction (or kine an the fiietional resistance experienced by the ee angi Wie rcton). Kinetic friction is found to be less than limiting val : tively. {miction and kinetic friction, henceforth /, and F, will be used respectively. 6.5 COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION the frictional Refer to Fig 64 (a) Using the concept of composition of forces, the a es a cree = Fan be replaced by ther resultant, The block is — in czulsan feeb inte ee coplanar forees HW, P and R, Thus the numberof fores acting on the bl from 4 thse fs will form a closed triangle. This composition of forces is very much useful in solving problems involving tition ; tis intresting to note that experimental results show thatthe magnitude of limiting friction F,. bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction NV between the two surfaces and this ratio is called coefcint of Friction (A). Pp Thus mathematically, 4 Ww Furter from Fig, 64), tan g, = —®*. Thus tan 9, = p Figure 6.4) So, the coefficient of friction is equal t0 the tangent of the angle between the normal reaction and the resultant. This angle gis called angle of limiting friction R in or angle of sai friction. When the value of P is less than that ‘equited to cause impending motion say, P’, We have a different force triangle as sho wn in Fig 64(6). Since, His constant and el P’ @= 9, Thus under limiting condition, The inclination of the plane = Angle of static friction. Hence to ensure stability of the block 6 < @, is the criteria This optimum (maximum) inclination of the plane for which a body resting on it would not slide down due to self weight when free from extemal forces is called angle of repose. The etymological meaning of the tem repose means rest. Thus angle of repose implies that it i the inclination of a plane such that a person on it cia sleep or can take rest comfortably without slipping. [Example 6.1 Two blocks A and B having weights 1, and Wg respectively are attached by an inextensible string and rest on two different horizontal planes as shown in Fig. 6.7. A force Prin i8 applied to block A $° as to induce motion to the system. Find the magnitude and direction of P,,,,. Assume that co-efficient of friction for both the blocks are p. ns P \Example 6.7 Block 4 of mass 25 kg rests on another block 4 of mass 35 kg. The two blocks together ag placed on an inclined plane that makes an angle 30° with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 6.13. 1lock Ais ted by 8 honzontal rope that is connected to the vertical wall at C. What should be the magnitude of P applied om block # parallel to the inclined plane so that motion impends? Assume the co-efficient of friction for all the contiguous surfaces to be 0.3, Solution Since two blocks are placed one over the other, as pet Newton's third law, there would be mutual normal reactions. Further, the lower block B being placed over the inclined plane, it will also experience normal reaction from the plane. As regard to friction forces, the lower block B having two contact surfaces (the lower one with the inclined plane 30° % and the top one with that of block 4), will be subjected to @zzderenerrerrrrrrrerirerrrerrratii two different friction forces that oppose the motion, Figure 6.13, Free body diagram of the block 4 is presented in Fig. 6.13 (2). Yr-0 T cos O= Wy nO+ Fy = W,sinO+ yN, (647) Yreo T sin O= Ny ~ W, cos 0 (6.48) Ny 5 No Fy Tcos 0 _——+T ufo mgein ox) A a Wy sin 0+ P. Fy ‘nyg sin 0 Wy c08 0+ Ny Wo ma (a) (b) Figure 6.13Friction | ois pividing Egs (6.48) by (6.47) yields HPO. Ny - Wi cos cos@ Wy sin@+ aN Rearranging above expression leads to W, —— cos =p sin ae For block B [Refer Fig. 6.13(b)]}, YDreo Ps Wy sin Om Fy + Fy = WNy + Np) (6.50) Yreo Wy cos +N, = Ny (6.51) Combining Eqs (6.50) and (6.51), Pal, + Ny + Wy cos 6] ~ Wy sin 8 = UN, — Wylsin @~ 4 cos O] =u Ww, “ [eos O= ptsin 8} Punting the values of w= 0.3, W, = 25x 9.81 N, Wy = 40 x 9.81 N and @= 30° 25%9.81 cos 30 - 0.3 x:sin 30] ~ Wylsin 8-4 c0s 8] = 40 x 9.81 [sin 30 ~ 03 x cos 30] N P=2x03% = 111.26.N Trample G8 A 50 ky erate is placed on an inclined plane that makes an angle 1S° with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 614. Assuming the co-eficient of static fretion (1,) and Kinetic friction (4) between the crite tnd the block are 0.23 and 0.17 respectively, determine the maj nitude and direction of friction force offered by the surface on the crate for (a) P = 0, (b) P= 195 N, (c) P= 260 (d) What is the optimum value of P for which the sustion of the crate up along the plane is impending? Wemg (b) re 6.14 (a) Block is sliding down, (b) Block is moving up (a) FiguHt Mechanical Keiences-t Vivtor this eitonmistanee, the condition far alable equilibrinin implies angle of inclination of the plane (ays Wietion ante (ay Kiiven A= WA tn gs gy = deer (2) = 1" Hare 1S, whiel ie preiter tian gy, Hence, the enile will slide down when P= 0, So. the fate Iulaice alone the plane considering static equilibrium will not hold true, Hut fire tratiice normal to the inclined plane yields W = gy cos a [Refer Fig, 6.11 (a)), Since the ciate ie tnder motion, the fietion altered by the inclined plane is kinetic friction, vtetion tanee = A= N= fim con c= 0,17 500% O41 ens 15 N = 80,53 N Stew the erate will allde down, the fitedlon farce wll act upward along the plane, (a) When B= 198 N, is resolved ato two tiutually perpendicular components ~ ane along the plane with a magnitude of P cos p awl the otter, perpendicular 4 the pine of mnnitide 1 in fl a5 evident from the free body diagram (Refer Vig. 611M), Aw botine, mug nl ee would ahi aot alongs the pine cos and mg sin care directed opposite, itis imperative to ealoutate numertont viluew 10 extablish the direction of frietion force, Hao the ven data, 1 eon f= 198 eon 20 N= 119.25 Nand ang sin a= 50% 981 % sin 15 N= 12695 N, ‘Vhs P cow fi = my nin er; this lmplicn that the crate: his tendency to go up, Hriction fine would thereline act downwards alongs the plane. Consideriny the watio equllbvinn, the force bilanee of the crate along the plane gives P cos = mg sin a+ Fes = Peox fi img ala = W025 126.05 N= 563 N, Notes Ht would bea blunder to apply = #44V snes the block is not under the condition of impending motion, () Condidion of Impenuting motion, ‘The condition of impending motion loads to FON (6.52) Let the 2 aysimes aw optinun value 2 = Pq under this condition, Considering the statle equilibrium of the erate, reo P cox f= mg sin ee tb, (653) reo NEP sin f= nye cone (6.54) Combining Eqs (6.52), (6.53) and (6,54), we have P eos fl mg sin ce1 pangs eos ce P vin fi mg. sin (a+ cos (J—9,) Po Mlsin cet 1h co8 ce] nyelain ee + tan g, cos a] — feos Fp, sin fh] ‘ 50% 9.KI sin (15 413) cou (20 = 13) 2.N (0 cause motion to impend, For ae 18% y= 13, f= 20", 2 a N= 2321N Id lnve a value of (b) When P = 260 N, Since 2 ~ 260 N= #4, (232 N), the crite will slide typ, Her downwards along the pling, ¢ the crate is under kinetic friction and it will act—— | 6.17 So, the force balance along the plane considering static equilibrium i aos othe inlined plane yields N+ p sin = mg cos or We ag cone ne mene force balance aoe ” — Friction force = F, = J4N = cng cos or P sin 8} ne = 0.17 x [50 x 9.81 x cos 15-— 260 x sin 20] N = 65.43 N Example B35" A block having height / and base width b rests on an i A : on an inclined plane that it nal and sbeded «foe Psp he pnd pl be Fae sown nF 615 Assuming the co-efficient of static friction (14) determine the maximum 4 ratio for which the block will slide slong the plane without tipping. Solution The free body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 6.15 (@). se P en P if Wein 9 wart 8 at, Figure 6.15 Figure 6.15 (a) ‘When tipping occurs, the contact between the block andthe inclined plane will be only a the lower eft edge. Thus under optimum condition, there are two forces that are held responsible for is equilibrium, These ore Pand W. P will ty to produce a counterclockwise moment with respect to A so that it can ip. On the ofier und, 17 that acts at the CG of the block will produce a clockwise moment with respect to 4 s0 a5 0 prevent tipping. Under equilibrium, these two moments must be equal. Further, since the contact between the block and the plane is only at 4, the normal reaction NV and frictional foree F necessarily will act at A. Thus using the conditions of equilibrium, P+ Wsin ve yr Pew ae 656) yun prc wainox B= Wea Ox oe Combining Eqs (6.55) and (650) EME | og ing (658) Now eliminating P from Eqs (6.57) and (6.58) we have h 6 Why, cos 6 sin a + W sin > = W cos 018 | Mechanical Seiences-I H[r.coeo-sno 4382] so H2u, cos 8 sin 6] = b cos 6 h cose b 7 2u,cos0-ain 6 ~ 2, =n 4 1 Benes Blew” 2a, O [Example 6.10 A wedge block 4 weighing 1000 N is to be raised by another block B weighing 600 N as shown in Fig. 6.16. The angle of wedge for both the block is set at 20°. Determine the minimum horizontal force P to be applied horizontally to the block B so as to enable the block 4 to rise. Assume the co-efficient of static friction (14) for all the surfaces in contact to be 0.25 Fa Free Body of Block A Free Body of Block 8 Figure 6.16 Figure 6.16¢a) Solution Ist Method: Free body diagram of both the blocks are portrayed in the 6.16 (a). Under the action of force P, Provided on both the blocks along their surfaces of contact, A will be raised. Thus two different friction forces ~ one between the block and the floor block 4. \ce there is a common taper the block B will experience ‘and other along the contact surface with the itarly, block 4 will experience two different friction forces — one between the block and the wall and the other along the contact surface with the block 2. Note that the friet mutwsl contact surfaces will be equal but their direction will be just opposite to each other, Further, both the blocks will be subjected to normal 1 and their common surfuce of contact tions that arise from the supports, i.e. the floor, wall idual block are shown in free body diagrams. faces are listed first. and AB for common contact surface, i.e. Fy = A-Nyi Fe = HONEFriel! | « cansdering the equilirium of unper Black 4, Ney Sin20 = 0 sin 20 0 63 This yields Ny = OSTTIN gy (660) Yre-o Nyy 608 20 ~ JAN yy sin 20 ~ N, ~ 1000 = 0 O8S4SN yy ~ 0.25N, = H,= 1000 (661) Solving Eqs (6.60) and (6.61), Nyy = 1407.95 N and Ny = 812.4 .N Now considering the equilibrium of lower block B Yr-o Np + UNy 608.20 + Nyy sin 20 P 0.25N,= P- 8124 (6.62) Yreo Np + HNyy sin 20 = Nyy cos 20 + 600 Substituting for Nay. Ny = 600 + 1407.95 cos 20 ~ 0.25 % 1407.95 sin 20 = 1802.6 N P= 0.25 * 1802.6 + 812.4 N = 1263.04 N. [From Eq. (6.62)} ‘Thus the value of P should be at least 1263.04 N so that block A can be raised. 3nd Method: This is « graphical method based on Polygon of forces. Consider the forces acting on block A followed B. Once N, is calculated, we can proceed to construct vector diagram. Ry= (NE+FE lise Ny = Yl + (0.25) * 8124 N = 8374. N Refer w Fig 6.16 (b), Selecta suitable scale 10 represent Ry by OL. While doing s0, consider a point O from hich draw a line OL with an inclination g with the horizontal, Thus OL is a vector ‘to represent the magnitude and direction of Ry. From point L, draw a vertical line LM RE quel to the magnitude of W,= 1000 N. Now LAf represents 1000 N Since the block A is in equilibrium under the action of three forces namely Wy, Ry td Hyp, they must form a closed wiangle. Thus MO represents Ruy Since Ay, is common to both the blocks, it will act on block B but its direction Will be reversed ‘Thus OM represents Ht,» as tepard to the block . From Mf, draw a Tila ine Af wn sepresent GOO Nhe weight of the block #1, So ANN represents N. From N, we draw a horizontal line NT following the sense of P, Further from O, Aline OT is drawn so that it makes an angle y with the vertical, NT and OT intersect ET. Thus NF and 10. represen the vectors conespond to P and Ry respectively, —y Thus OLKINTO is the polygon (closed) of forces Measure the length of AY’ and multiply it by the scale factor to express its mag- ily it by the seale factor to express its mag nitude in Newton. ue Figure 6.16(b) ye z6.20 Ree | Mechanical Seiences-I 3rd Method: This is an analytical method based on Trigonomenry. Based on Fig. 6.16 (b), from AOL'L, OL’ = OL cos 9= Ry cos 9 = TN and LL’ = Rysin@ * OM’ = L’'M = L'L + LM = Ry sing + 1000 Further, MN = 600 = MT" a OT = OM’ + MT’ = Ry sin 9+ 1000 + 600 = Ry sin g + 1600 From AOTT, tan 9 = z= or TT = OT tang 2. P=NT=NT + TT = Ry-cos. 9+ (Ry sin 9+ 1600) tan = 837.4 cos 14 + (837.4 sin 14 + 1600) x 02. P=12631N Thus the value of P should be at least 1263.1 N. Note: Readers are advised to follow any techniques. Nevertheless, 2nd method (graphical) is less time consuming and easier. However, its accuracy depends on the scale factor and the human errors associated while drawing vector diagram. [Example 6.11 Two blocks having weights IV, = 1; = 20N are attached by a short string and rest on an inclined plane as shown in Fig. 6.17. If the co-efficient of friction for the blocks are 41, = 0.2 and sls = 0.3 respectively, find the angle of inclination of the plane for which motion impends. Solution From the free body diagrams of block 1 [Fig. 6.17(a)] and considering equilibrium of block | when motion impends, Figure 6.17 (6.63) (6.64) Figure 6.17(2)oe ‘Friction ]}—___ — | 6.21 From Eqs (6.63) and (6.64), _ W, sin a= T + pW, cos oy, (6.65) ‘Similar equilibrium condition of block 2 leads to : Yrx-0 W; sin a+ T= Fy = Ny, (6.66) Yr-0 W, cos a= N, 6.67) From Eqs (6.66) and (6.67), 2 W, sin a= [Ny T= pW, cos aT (6.68) Comparing Eqs (6.65) and (6.68), WY, sin @— 4%, cos = fy, cos a — W, sin a . Since W, = 12, simplification of above relationship yields Mth, _ 02403 7 a= tan” (0.25) = 14.04° (Exam pple 6.12 Two identical blocks having of weights W, = Wy = 10 N are attached by a flexible string and rest on ‘a horizontal and an inclined plane respectively as shown in Fig. 6.18. The string passes over a frictionless pulley. Tf the co-efficient of friction for both the blocks is 4, prove that the angle of inclination of the plane should be at least twice the angle of friction so as to have impending motion of the tan a= = 025 system. Figure 6.18 Solution For the block 1 that rests on inclined plane, yx-0 W, sin = T+ F= T+ HN, (6.69) Dre W, cos O= Ny (6.10) From Eqs (6.69) and (6.70), W, sin 8= T+ A, cos 6m) For the block 2 that rests on horizontal plane, Yr-0 (6.72) Wy Np : (6.73)on | Mechanical Scbentont fa 1 | rity Wyre OAMay Hue VW, Miovinnting P= YAY, thom Kgs TL) and (04), Wy on 0 WW, v0 O~ pW, Nince Wy = Whi an 0 prone = win Om 16 ns yt (614) ooo y Dan co = Dea! 5 5 who tn g = ft peng W- dy This inclination of pine (Oy shone bw toni of fnele Of friction (gy