Unit 4

Network Access

Overview

This lesson will discuss the used of physical layer and data link layer in data communications.

Learning Outcomes
The students should:

a. Explain how physical layer protocols and services support communications across data networks.
b. Explain the role of the data link layer in supporting communications across data networks.
c. Build a simple network using the appropriate media
d. Compare media access control techniques and logical topologies used in networks.

Course Materials

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8TbuZHmvYQ
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wK3QzfVnAZI
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-uKPOIXWQJ4

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgmcqcOThuI
Lesson 1

Physical Layer Protocols

Types of Connections

● Connecting to the wired LAN

● Connecting to the wireless LAN

The Physical Layer

● Encapsulation is a function of the data link layer. Different media types require different data link layer
encapsulation
● The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across
the network media.

Physical Layer Media

Electrical signals – copper cable

Light pulse – fiber optic cable

Microwave signals – wireless

Functions

Encoding – is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code. It is used to distinguish data bits
from control bits and identify where the frames starts and ends.

Signaling-sending the signals asynchronously mean that they are transmitted without a clock signal.

Bandwidth

● Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds.

● Data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput.
● Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.
● Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second or megabits per seconds.

Throughput

● Throughput is the measure of transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
● Latency refers to the amount of time, to include delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.
● There is a third measurement to measure the transfer of usable data that is known as goodput.
● Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time (throughput) minus the traffic
overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgements, and encapsulation.

Lesson 2

Network Media

Characteristics of Copper Cabling

● Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical
current.
● Copper media is limited by distance and signal interference.
● Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses.
● Longer the signal travels, the more it deteriorates in a phenomenon referred to as signal attenuation. For
this reason, all copper media must follow strict distance limitations as specified by the guiding standards.

Three main types of copper media

● Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

 ● Shielded twisted pair (STP)
● Coaxial

Copper media safety

● The separation of data and electrical power cabling must comply with safety codes.
● Cables must be connected correctly.
● Installations must be inspected for damage.
● Equipment must be grounded correctly.

Properties of UTP Cabling

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designer have discovered that
they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk by cancellation.

Cancellation

When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each
other. Therefore, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out and also cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.
UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how many twist or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet)
of cable.

UTP Cabling Standards

Category 3

● Used for voice communications

● Most often used for phone lines

Category 5 and 5e

● Used for data transmission

● Cat 5 supports 100 Mb/s and can support 1000 Mb/s but it is not recommended
● Cat 5e support 1000 Mb/s

Category 6

● Used for data transmission

● An added separator is between each pair of wires allowing it to function at higher speeds
● Supports 1000 Mb/s up to 10 Gb/s, although 10 Gb/s is not recommended.

Types of UTP Cables

Cable type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or both ends Connects a network host to a
T568B network device such as a switch or
hub.
Ethernet Crossover One end T568A, other end T568B Connects two network hosts
 Connect two network intermediary
devices (switch to switch, or router to
router)
Rollover Cisco proprietary Connect a workstation serial port to a
router console port, using an adapter

T568A

1 white of green
2 green
3 white of orange
4 blue
5 white of blue
6 orange
7 white of brown
8 brown

T568B

1 white of orange
2 orange
3 white of green
4 blue
5 white of blue
6 green
7 white of brown
8 brown

Properties of fiber optic cabling

● Fiber optic is now being used in four types of industry

Enterprise network
Fiber to the home (FTTH) and Access networks
Long haul networks
Submarine networks
● Although an optical fiber is very thin, it is composed of two kinds of glass and a protective outer shield.
● Core is consists of pure glass and is the part of the fiber where light is carried.
● Cladding is the glass that surrounds the core and acts as a mirror. The light pulses propagate down the core
while the cladding reflects the light pulses.
● Jacket is typically a PVC jacket that protects the core and the cladding.

Types of Fiber Media

Single-mode fiber
Consist of a very small core and uses expensive laser technology to send a single ray of light. Popular in
long-distance situations spanning hundreds of kilometers.

Multi-mode fiber

Consist of a larger core and uses LED emitters to send light pulses. Light from an LED enters the multimode fibers at
different angles. Popular in LANs. It provides bandwidth up to 10 Gb/s over link lengths up to 550 meters.

Fiber versus Copper

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-optic cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 MB/s – 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s – 100 Gb/s
Distance 1 to 100 meters 1 to 100, 000 meters
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High
Immunity to electrical hazards Low High
Media and Connector cost Lowest Highest
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest

Properties of wireless media

Wireless does have some areas of concern including

● Coverage area
● Interference
● Security

Types of Wireless Media

WiFi Bluetooth Wi Max

IEEE 802.11 standards IEEE 802.15 standard IEEE 802.16 standards
Variations include: Supports speeds up to 3 Mb/s Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz Provides device pairing over Uses a point to multipoint topology to
802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz distances from 1 to 100 meters provide wireless broadband access.
802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz
802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz
802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz

Lesson 3

Data Link Layer Protocol

The Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes over a physical network media. It allows
the upper layers to access the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media. Specifically the
data link layer performs these two basic services:

1. It accepts layer 3 packets and packages them into data units called frames.
2. It control media access control and performs error detection.

Data Link Sublayers

The data link layer is actually divided into two sublayers:

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This upper sublayer defines the software processes that provide services to the network layer. It places information in
the frame that identifies which network layer protocol is being used for the frame. This information allows multiple
layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to utilize the same network interface and media.

Media Access Control (MAC)

This lower sublayer defines the media access process performed by the hardware. It provides data link layer
addressing and delimiting of data according to physical signaling requirements of the medium and the type of data
link layer protocol in use. Separating the data link layer into sublayers allows for one type of frame defined by the
upper layer to access different types of media defined by the lower layer

Physical LAN Topologies

● Star Topology
● Extended Star topology
● Bus topology
● Ring Topology

Lesson 4

Media Access Control

Control Access

Characteristics Controlled Access Technologies

Only one station can transmit at a time Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
Devices wanting to transmit must wait their turn FDDI
No collisions
May use a token passing method

Contention-based Access

Characteristics Contention-based Technologies

Station can transmit at any time CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
Collision exist CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
There are mechanism to resolve contention for the media
The Frame

Frames have three basic parts

● Header
● Data
● Trailer

Unit 5

Ethernet

Overview

This topic discusses how switch perform the forwarding of data.

Learning Outcomes
The students should:

a. Explain the operation of Ethernet.

b. Explain how a switch operates.
c. Explain how the address resolution protocol enables communication on a network.

Course Materials

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8O3VNtNRCpM
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hi2nhVmN46U
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUzauyfKAL0&t=33s
●

Lesson 1

Ethernet

● One of the most widely used LAN technologies

● Operates in data link layer and the physical layer
● Family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards
● Support data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 40000 and 100 000 Mbps

Ethernet Standards
 ● Define layer 2 protocols and layer 1 technologies
● Two separate sublayer of data link layer to operate – LLC and the MAC sublayers

Ethernet II Frame Fields

● Minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes (Collision frame or runt)

● Maximum Ethernet frame size is 1518 bytes (Jumbo or baby giant)

Ethernet II Frame Structure and Field Size

8 bytes 6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes 46 to 1500 bytes 4 bytes

Preamble Destination Source Address Type Data Frame Check
Address Sequence

Frame Processing

● The NIC views information to see if the destination MAC address in the frame matches the device physical
MAC address stored in RAM.
● If there is no match, the device discards the frame.
● If there is a match, the NIC passes the frame up the OSI layers, where the decapsulation process takes
place.

MAC Address

● This address does not change

● Similar to the name of a person
● Known as physical address because physically assigned to the host NIC

IP Address

● Similar to the address of a person

● Based on where the host is actually located
● Known as a logical address because assigned logically
● Assigned to each host by a network administrator

Both the physical MAC and logical IP addresses are required for a computer to communicate just like both the name
and address of a person are required to send a letter.

Lesson 2

LAN Switches

Layer 2 LAN Switch

● Connects end devices to a central intermediate device on most Ethernet networks

● Performs switching and filtering based only on the MAC address
 ● Builds a MAC address table that it uses to make forwarding decisions.
● Depends on routers to pass data between IP subnetworks

Switch MAC Address Table

1 The switch receives a broadcast frame from PC1 on port 1.

2 The switch enters the source MAC address and the switch port that received the frame into the address table

3 Because the destination address is a broadcast, the switch floods the frame to all ports, except the port on which it
received the frame.

4 The destination device replies to the broadcast with a unicast frame addressed to PC 1.

5 The switch enters the source MAC address of PC 2 and the port number of the switch port that received the frame
into the address table. The destination address of the frame and its associated port is found in the MAC address
table.

6 The switch can now forward frames between source and destination devices without flooding, because it has
entries in the address table that identify the associated ports.

Switching

Half Duplex

● Unidirectional data flow

● Higher potential for collision
● Hub connectivity

Full Duplex

● Point to point only

● Attached to dedicated switched port
● Requires full duplex support on both ends
● Collision-free
● Collision detect circuit disabled

Frame Forwarding Methods on Cisco Switches

Store and Forward

A store and forward switch receives the entire frame, and computes the CRC. If the CRC is valid, the switch looks up
the destination address, which determines the outgoing interface. The frame is then forwarded out the correct port.

Cut-through

A cut-through switch forwards the frame before it is entirely received. At a minimum, the destination address of the
frame must be read before the frame can be forwarded.
 Fast-forward switching – lowest level of latency immediately forwards a packet after reading the destination
address.

Fragment-free switching – switch store the first 64 bytes of the frame before forwarding, most network errors
and collisions occur during the first 64 bytes.

Memory Buffering on Switches

Port-based memory In port-based memory buffering, frames are stored in queues that are linked to specific
incoming and outgoing ports
Shared memory Shared memory buffering deposits all frames into a common memory buffer, which all
the ports on the switch share.

Lesson 3

Address Resolution Protocol

The address resolution protocol is a protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP) specifically IPv4, to map IP network
addresses to the hardware addresses used by a data link protocol. The protocol operates below the network layer as
a part of the interface between the OSI network and OSI link layer. It is used when IPv4 is used over Ethernet.

The term address resolution refers to the process of finding an address of a computer in a network. The address is
"resolved" using a protocol in which a piece of information is sent by a client process executing on the local computer
to a server process executing on a remote computer. The information received by the server allows the server to
uniquely identify the network system for which the address was required and therefore to provide the required
address. The address resolution procedure is completed when the client receives a response from the server
containing the required address.

An Ethernet network uses two hardware addresses which identify the source and destination of each frame sent by
the Ethernet. The destination address (all 1's) may also identify a broadcast packet (to be sent to all connected
computers). The hardware address is also known as the Medium Access Control (MAC) address, in reference to the
standards which define Ethernet. Each computer network interface card is allocated a globally unique 6 byte link
address when the factory manufactures the card (stored in a PROM). This is the normal link source address used by
an interface. A computer sends all packets which it creates with its own hardware source link address, and receives
all packets which match the same hardware address in the destination field or one (or more) pre-selected
broadcast/multicast addresses.

The Ethernet address is a link layer address and is dependent on the interface card which is used. IP operates at the
network layer and is not concerned with the link addresses of individual nodes which are to be used. The address
resolution protocol is therefore used to translate between the two types of address. The arp client and server
processes operate on all computers using IP over Ethernet. The processes are normally implemented as part of the
software driver that drives the network interface card.