J. Earth Syst. Sci.

(2023)132:5  Indian Academy of Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-022-02013-w (0123456789().,-vo
lV)( 0123456789()
.,-vol V)

Implications of heavy mineral assemblage to sediment

recycling, rare earth element budget and provenance
of Kaimur sandstones, Vindhyan Supergroup,
Son Valley

SHINJANA SEN1 and MEENAL MISHRA2,*

1
Department of Geology, Centre of Advanced Study, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.
2
School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India.
*Corresponding author. e-mail: meenalmishra@ignou.ac.in

MS received 28 February 2022; revised 9 August 2022; accepted 10 August 2022

The heavy mineral assemblage (HMA) of sandstones belonging to Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Group in the
eastern Son valley, Central India, was investigated. The present communication is aimed at assessing
mineralogical maturity, quantifying the contribution of heavy fraction to the bulk rock and its REE
budget, sediment recycling and provenance. The transparent heavies record a relative decreasing trend
upwards from 63 to 36.4% and on the contrary, opaque heavies show gradual increasing trend upwards
from 36.4 to 65.4%. Tourmaline in the transparent heavy fraction reveals an overall decreasing trend of
59–22.8%. Whereas, zircon registers an increasing trend of 3.3–9.5% stratigraphically upwards. The
contribution of opaque detrital clasts of ferruginous material composed of hematite and magnetite
increases in the Upper Kaimur Sandstone. Tourmaline and zircon grains are characterised by etched,
pitted and grooved surfaces. Zircon is also present as tiny inclusion within tourmaline and zircon
P itself.
Heavy fraction of Upper Kaimur sandstone from the lower stratigraphic horizon exhibit lower REE as
compared to higher levels. The heavy fraction exhibit LREE/HREE \ 1 as compared to bulk rock which
has 8–10 times higher ratio. Heavy fraction exhibits enrichment in HREE and [Gd/Yb]N = 0.36–0.43,
stratigraphically upwards, which is consistent with increasing Zr values suggesting zircon to be the major
contributor to the REE budget of Upper Kaimur Sandstones. The percentage contribution of the zircon to
the REE budget of bulk rock could have been *50–60%. ZTR index (99–100) reveals mineralogically
mature nature of Kaimur sandstones. Dominance of zircon amongst the heavies and Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc plot
shows the eAect of zircon addition and sediment recycling. The plausible explanation for dominance of
opaque minerals in HMA in the Upper Kaimur reCects their contribution from Paleoproterozoic
metasedimentary rocks of Mahakoshal Group. HMA of Kaimur sandstones suggests derivation from
granitic source. Nb/Yb vs. U/Yb diagram indicates that zircon was derived from magmatic arc source,
which is in conformity with inference that Bundelkhand Granite Complex and Chhotanagpur Granite
complex dominantly contributed to the Lower and Upper Kaimur Groups, respectively.
Keywords. Kaimur sandstone; heavy mineral assemblage; zircon; tourmaline; ZTR index; REE budget.
5 Page 2 of 20
1. Introduction
Heavy minerals may be deBned as minerals with a
density of 2.65 g/cm3, which is greater than com-
mon rock-forming minerals such as quartz with a
density of 2.65 g/cm3 (Elsner 2010). It can also be
explained as clastic grains having speciBc gravities
greater than 2.9 g/cm3 (USGS 2021) or minerals
having densities greater than 3.0 g/cm3
(IAEA 2007) (Subhasinghe et al. 2021). The
properties of heavy minerals allow an insight into
the petrological character of sediment source ter-
rains and may often furnish information on sedi-
ment dispersal patterns, transport history, and
environment of deposition (Mange and Maurer
1992). Heavy minerals have been successfully used
for provenance studies by Mange and Morton
(2007a, b). The morphological character and colour
of heavy minerals have sometimes been used to
locate the source rocks more categorically and also
played an important role in the study of sea level
changes (Mallik 2018). For decades, heavy miner-
als have played a key role in provenance studies
and are very significant because of their diverse
shapes and sizes, colours, surface textures, and
often characteristic paragenesis (Morton 1982;
Morton 1985; Morton and Hallsworth 1999; Car-
dona et al. 2005). Volumetrically they constitute
less than 1% component of the bulk rock. In geo-
chemical studies, the trace elements, particularly
the Rare Earth Elements (REE), are concentrated
in these minor and accessory phases, for example,
in tourmaline, zircon, rutile, allanite monazite,
garnet and sphene (Caggianelli et al. 1992; Slack
and Stevens 1994; Bauluz et al. 2000; Totten et al.
2000; Yan et al. 2007; Mange and Morton
2007a, b). The REE pattern of the heavy minerals
differs conspicuously from average source rock
composition (McLennan 1989).
The Vindhyan Supergroup is divided into Lower
Vindhyan (Semri Group) and Upper Vindhyan
(Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander Group). The Kaimur
Group is a sandstone-shale platformal sequence
that holds evidence of changes in sea level, pale-
oenvironment, paleoclimate, etc., as it overlies the
carbonate-rich deposits of the Semri Group. The
heavy mineral analysis of Kaimur sandstones,
Vindhyan Supergroup exposed along the Son Val-
ley has been carried out by many workers to
interpret the provenance (Auden 1933; Awasthi
1961; Srivastava and Mehrotra 1981; Singh 1985;
Prasad and Verma 1991). This paper presents the
Brst report on how the heavy minerals have
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
contributed to the trace element chemistry of
Kaimur sandstones. Such comparison of geochem-
ical data from Kaimur sandstones and the corre-
lation of heavy minerals from which they are
derived is lacking. The main objective of the pre-
sent communication is to assess mineralogical
maturity, quantify the contribution of heavy frac-
tion to the bulk rock and its REE budget, sediment
recycling and provenance.
2. Geological setting
Vindhyan Supergroup is the largest intracratonic
basin of India, comprising thick repository
(*4500 m) of non-clastic overlain by clastic sedi-
mentary rocks (Valdiya et al. 1982; Soni et al. 1987;
Bhattacharya 1996). The Vindhyan basin has been
divided into three sub-basins (from west to east) –
Rajasthan, Bundelkhand and Son valley sector
(Chakraborty et al. 2010). The present study has
been carried out in the eastern part of Son valley
(Bgure 1). In the Son Valley area, Bundelkhand
granite that lies in its north and the Central Indian
Tectonic Zone (CITZ) that includes Chotonagpur
Gneissic Complex and the Mahakoshal belt in its
south forms the basement for the Vindhyan sedi-
ments (Auden 1933). The Son valley has exposure
to the older Semri and the younger Kaimur Group
(Bgure 1). The Kaimur Group comprises a huge
pile (*400 m thick) of siliciclastics that uncon-
formably or conformably overlie the tilted, mildly
deformed and partially eroded Rohtas Limestone
Formation of Semri Group (Auden 1933; Prakash
and Dalela 1982; table 1). The Kaimur Group has
been subdivided into Lower Kaimur (Sasaram
Sandstone, Ghurma Shale and Markundi Sand-
stone) and Upper Kaimur (Bijaigarh Shale,
Mangesar Formation and Dhandraul Sandstone).
The very coarse-grained and massively bedded
Sasaram Sandstone is conformably overlain by
Ghurma Shale composed of Bne-grained, thinly
bedded sandstone. This is overlain by the medium
to Bne-grained Markundi Sandstone. The lower-
most unit of the Upper Kaimur is lithologically
heterogeneous represented by Bijaigarh Shale, with
a grain size ranging from Bne sand to clay. This is
conformably overlain by medium to coarse-grained
Mangesar Formation. The overlying Dhandraul
Quartzite aka Sandstone is massive, coarse-grained
and thickly bedded. Although this formation is
stratigraphically named as ‘quartzite’, it is coarse-
grained super-mature quartz arenite. The contact
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5 Page 3 of 20 5

Figure 1. Geological map of the study area in the eastern part of the Son valley (modiBed after Auden 1933). Filled squares show
sample location.

Table 1. SimpliBed stratigraphy of the Lower Vindhyan/Semri Group (modiBed

after Auden 1933).

Upper Vindhyan
             Unconformity             
Rohtas Limestone
Chorhat Sandstone
Bargawan Limestone
Khenjua/Koldaha Shale (Olive Shale)
Porcellanite Formation (*1640–1630 Ma; Mishra et al. 2018)
Greenish/Opaline TuA
Massive TuA
Banded TuA
Rhyolite
Kajrahat Limestone (*1740 Ma; Sarangi et al. 2004)
Arangi Shale
Deoland Sandstone
             Unconformity             
Mahakoshal Group – Jhirgadandi Granite 1753 ± 9 Ma (Bora et al. 2013)

between the Mangesar and Dhandraul sandstones mature sandstone. Lower Kaimur is a Bning
is gradational, and the coarseness increases upward sequence, whereas Upper Kaimur is a
upwards from reddish brown to oA-white, super- coarsening upward sequence (Sen et al. 2014). The
5 Page 4 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5

Table 2. Sample location (according to stratigraphic level) and megascopic description.

Sl.
no. Sample name Location Description Formation
1 MAR-1 Markundi Ghat Medium to coarse-grained Dhandraul Quartzite
(Near Son Echo point) oA-white, supermature Formation
Lat.: 24.620 11600 N sandstone (upper level)
Long.: 83.040 30100 E
2 LT-2 Latifpur Coarse grained oA-white, Dhandraul Quartzite
Lat.: 24.970 27600 N supermature sandstone Formation
Long.: 83.020 00800 E (middle level)
3 AD-19 Lakhaniadari Coarse-grained oA-white, Dhandraul Quartzite
Lat.: 24.960 23700 N supermature sandstone Formation
Long.: 83.030 31500 E (lower level)
4 CHR-4 Chunar Medium to coarse-grained Mangesar Formation
Lat.: 25.080 3600 N red coloured (upper level)
Long.: 82.900 29400 E
5 CHR-1 Chunar Medium to coarse-grained red Mangesar Formation
Lat.: 25.090 3200 N coloured sandstone with lots (lower level)
Long.: 82.890 24500 E of micaceous minerals
6 CLI-7 Chirhuli Red coloured medium-grained Markundi Sandstone
Lat.: 24.610 66900 N sandstone (upper level)
Long.: 83.070 11200 E
7 CLI-3 Chirhuli BuA coloured medium-grained Markundi Sandstone
Lat.: 24.610 44100 N sandstone (lower level)
Long.: 83.070 41500 E
8 PWK-4 Patwadh Very coarse white sandstone Sasaram Sandstone
Lat.: 24.570 46600 N (upper level)
Long.: 83.110 07200 E
9 AGR-1 Agori Khas Coarse, gritty, oA-white sandstone Sasaram Sandstone
Lat.: 24.610 7700 N (lower level)
Long.: 83.060 17700 E

siliciclastics of Kaimur Group were initially
deposited in the trangressive environment followed
by the regressive phase of the shallow Vindhyan
sea in the upper part (Bose et al. 2001 and refer-
ences therein). Based on the many researches, it
has been interpreted that the Kaimur Group varied
from shallow coastal Cuvial and eolian environ-
ment to shoreface environment (Chakraborty and
Bose 1992; Bhattacharya and Morad 1993; Bose
et al. 2001; Sen and Mishra 2019). The Kaimur
Group provides evidences regarding the dynamic
environments of deposition, climatic conditions,
weathering conditions, tectonics and Cuctuating
provenance during the Mesoproterozoic (Sen et al.
2014; Sen and Mishra 2019). They suggested that
initially, the detritus for Kaimur Group sediments
was provided by Bundelkhand Granitic Com-
plex (BGC), followed by contribution from
Chhotanagpur Granitic Complex (CGC), which
gradually increased stratigraphically upwards and
became the prime source for detrital input in the
uppermost formation of Kaimur Group (Sen et al.
2014; Sen and Mishra 2019). The radiometric data
suggests that the Vindhyan sedimentation com-
menced before 1.7 Ga (Rasmussen et al. 2002; Ray
et al. 2003; Sarangi et al. 2004). Malone et al.
(2008) suggested depositional ages of the Bhander
Group, the topmost unit of Vindhyan basin is
about 1.0 Ga. The unconformity between the upper
and lower Vindhyan sequences spans a duration of
approximately 500 million years (Mckenzie et al.
2011). Gregory et al. (2006) have bracketed the age
of Kaimur sedimentation at about 1100–1150 Ma
based on Majhgawan kimberlites dated between
1067 and 1140 Ma (Kumar et al. 1993). Based
Re–Os dates Tripathy and Singh (2015) have
speciBed the depositional age of the Bijaigarh
shale, Kaimur Group, Son Valley as 1210±52.
3. Analytical methods
The heavy mineral analysis (HMA) of nine selected
samples of Kaimur sandstones, collected from dif-
ferent stratigraphic levels (table 2) was carried out
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5 Page 5 of 20 5

Average
at Mineral Processing Division, National Metal-

65.4
9.5
22.6
2.4
0.1
0.0

34.6

27.4
65.2
6.8
0.4
0.1
99.4
100
lurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur and partly at the
Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University
(Bgure 1; table 3). Figure 2 shows samples from
Dhandraul Sandstone

different stratigraphic levels of Kaimur Group. The

MAR-1
70.5
7.7
19.6
2.1
0.0
0.1

29.6

26.0
66.4
7.2
0.0
0.5
99.5
100
Bne-grained terrigenous sediments such as shale
and siltstone, due to their homogeneity and high
abundances of trace elements, are precise indica-
LT-2

100
60.8
10.9
26.1
2.1
0.1
0.0

39.3

27.7
66.6
5.4
0.3
0.0
99.7
tors of provenance, intensity of weathering and
depositional setting (Condie 1993). In case of
sandstone, HMA plays a very significant role to
AD-19

infer the provenance (Mange and Morton

65.0
10.0
22.0
2.8
0.3
0.0

35.0

28.4
62.7
8.0
0.9
0.0
99.1
100

2007a, b). The principal reason for this disparity is

the difBculty of density separations in rocks with
high clay contents using organic liquids (Totten
Average

100

and Hanan 2007). Standard sample preparation

75.1
9.1
13.5
2.3
0.1
0.0

24.9

36.4
54.1
9.3
0.2
0.0
99.8
Mangesar Formation

was carried out, as described in Mange and Maurer

(1992), of about 200 g of bulk sediment for each
sample. For separation of the grains, samples were
100
CH-4
67.8
15.1
14.0
3.1
0.0
0.0

32.2

47.0
43.5
9.6
0.0
0.0
100.0

gently crushed using steel mortar pestle and sub-

sequently washed with distilled water and the clay
fraction was removed by repeated decantation. As
CHR-1

there was absence of apatite in the petrographic

100
82.4
3.0
13.0
1.6
0.1
0.0

17.7

17.1
73.5
8.8
0.6
0.0
99.4
Table 3. The percentage of heavy minerals in sandstones from various formations of Kaimur Group.

study, the iron coating on the grains was removed

by treating them with dilute hydrochloric acid and
stannous chloride. Thereafter the samples were
Average
65.7
2.4
30.5
1.4
0.0
0.0

34.3

6.9
88.9
4.1
0.0
0.0
100.0
100

thoroughly washed with distilled water and dried

Markundi Sandstone

in an oven at 80C. The samples were segregated

into different size fractions of [125 and 63–125 lm
using ASTM sieves. About 60 g of the 63–125 lm
CLI-7

100
72.3
3.4
22.4
1.9
0.0
0.0

27.7

12.4
80.7
6.9
0.0
0.0
100.0

fraction was placed in the heavy liquid, tribro-

momethane (Sp.gr. 2.85) for about 3 hours and
allowed to separate under gravity, with frequent
CLI-3

100
59.1
1.3
38.6
0.9
0.0
0.0

40.9

3.2
94.5
2.3
0.0
0.0
100.0

stirring to ensure complete separation. The sepa-

rated heavies were washed with carbon tetrachlo-
ride to remove the coating over the grains and
Average

dried. The heavy-mineral residues were mounted

36.4
3.3
59.2
1.2
0.0
0.0

63.6

5.1
93.1
1.8
0.0
0.0
100.0
100

under Canada balsam (Marcinkowski et al. 2013)

for optical study using a polarising microscope.
Sasaram Formation

The percentage of individual heavy mineral was

determined using *300 grains in each sample using
PWK-4
36.0
2.9
59.8
1.3
0.0
0.0

64.0

4.5
93.4
2.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
100

Contribution of transparent heavies (%)

the ribbon method described by Galehouse (1971).

IdentiBcation was made on the basis of optical
properties, as described for grain mounts by Mange
AGR-1

and Maurer (1992). The geochemical data for

100
36.8
3.6
58.6
1.0
0.0
0.0

63.2

5.7
92.7
1.6
0.0
0.0
100.0

heavy mineral assemblage in Kaimur sandstone

has been presented in table 4.
The detrital clasts of ferruginous material asso-
Transparent (T)

ciated with Dhandraul Sandstone exposed at Sai-

Minerals (%)

jankhurd, were observed under Zoom Stereo

Tourmaline

Tourmaline

ZTR Index
Opaques

microscope, make WILD, Leitz and Polarisation

Sphene

Sphene
Garnet

Garnet
Zircon

Zircon
Rutile

Rutile
Total

microscope, Model Orthoplan and reCecting

microscope, Leitz-make. The imaging and
5 Page 6 of 20
Figure 2. Generalised lithocolumn showing formations of
Kaimur group showing sample location (Blled square). SS:
Sasaram sandstone; GS: Ghurma shale; MS: Markundi sand-
stone; BS: Bijaigarh shale.
identiBcation of the minerals was carried out
by image analysis software QWIN, V-6, Leica
Microsystems at National Mineralogical Labora-
tory, Jamshedpur. The ferruginous clasts were
observed under Zoom Stereo microscope for min-
eral identiBcation and study of textures.
Backscattered images for the heavy minerals were
acquired using Electron Probe Micro Analyser
(EPMA) at EPMA laboratory of Geological Survey
of India, Kolkata, using the instrument CAMECA
SX 100. In order to assess the contribution of heavy
fraction to trace and REE budget of the bulk rock,
the opaques were separated from the transparent
heavy minerals. Frantz Isodynamic Magnetic
Separator was used to separate opaque mineral
grains according to their paramagnetic suscepti-
bility. The magnetic separator was adjusted for
optimal mineral separation. The magnet was tilted
to *20 degrees and the magnetic Beld was kept
between 1.70 and 1.90 amperes to segregate min-
erals with a different susceptibility. Details about
the samples are described in table 2. The separated
heavies were crushed to –200 mesh size and anal-
ysed at the Geochemistry Division of National
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyder-
abad, Andhra Pradesh using Inductively Coupled
Plasma–Mass Spectrometer (ICP–MS), Model-
Perkin Elmer SCIEX ELAN DRC II to obtain
trace and REE data. The analytical procedures and
protocols followed are given in Khanna et al. (2009)
and Balaram et al. (1996). The international rock
standards GSR-4, GSR-5, SDO-1, W-2, DNC-1,
BIR-1, STM-1, and SGR-1 were used as reference
material for the analysis. Replicate analyses of the
samples and the reference standards were carried
out in order to assess the analytical reproducibility
and accuracy of data. The precision of major, trace
and REE is better than 5% RSD with comparable
accuracies reported by Balaram et al. (1996). The
trace and REE data of the heavy minerals have
been presented in tables 4 and 5.
4. Results
4.1 Heavy mineral assemblage (HMA)
The common transparent heavy minerals present in
the sandstones at different stratigraphic levels of
Kaimur Group are tourmaline, followed by zircon
and rutile (Bgure 3). Tourmaline is present in abun-
dance in the Lower Kaimur, whereas zircon domi-
nates the HMA in the Upper Kaimur. Other heavy
minerals present are sphene and garnet. The two
samples of Sasaram Sandstone comprise an average
of 59.2 transparent heavy minerals and average of
34.2% opaques out of the total 200 mineral grains
counted. The two samples of Markundi Sandstone
exhibit about 34.3% of transparent heavy minerals
while opaque constitute an average of 65.7%. The
samples of Mangesar Formation consist of 24.9% of
transparent heavy minerals and opaque comprises an
average of 75.1% of the total mineral grains counted.
Dhandraul Sandstone being the uppermost sandstone
of Kaimur Group shows 34.6% of the transparent
heavy minerals, while the opaques constitute an
average of about 65.4%. Transparent heavy minerals
register a relative decreasing trend stratigraphically
upwards from 63 to 29.6%. On the contrary, opaque
heavy minerals record an overall gradual increasing
trend upwards from 34.2 to 65.4%.
4.1.1 Transparent heavy minerals
Tourmaline (65–93%) registers an overall decrease
in the trend upwards from Lower to Upper Kaimur
(table 3). Tourmaline grains are rounded and
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5 Page 7 of 20 5

Table 4. Trace elements and REE data (in ppm) in heavy fraction (A) and bulk rock (B) of sandstones from Kaimur Group.

Dhandraul Sandstone Mangesar Formation

MAR- MAR- LT- AD- AD- CHR- CHR- CHR- CHR-
Samples 1(H) 1(B) LT-2(H) 2(B) 19(H) 19(B) 1(H) 1(B) 4(H) 4(B)
Rb 7.41 7 12.36 8.85 6.54 11.01 34.92 46.24 36.82 72.79
Sr 58.48 17 63.81 11 28.80 21.18 151.23 47.36 77.35 51.06
Ba 273.47 16 410.57 34.72 606.11 59.52 348.96 139.81 352.73 271.36
Y 488.49 3 1497.19 3.62 93.73 10.97 94.18 15.20 783.44 27.49
Zr 9574.99 49 14178.10 63.49 694.18 201.42 592.58 231.13 8009.62 311.46
Hf 367.17 1.4 521.35 2.001 24.81 6.49 21.99 7.461 289.26 10.40
Nb 61.96 1 113.08 0.89 7.461 1.66 47.302 3.11 111.14 6.42
Ta 1.46 0.1 3.41 0.099 0.50 0.15 1.942 0.31 5.13 0.56
Th 34.91 2.5 173.05 1.37 11.28 3.28 25.55 4.88 118.94 8.31
U 44.28 0.6 73.44 0.37 5.39 1.12 6.87 1.40 47.62 2.37
Ni 101.05 20 99.03 8.19 86.69 10.31 60.47 17.96 31.59 18.61
Co 34.05 1 30.29 0.67 46.77 1.57 114.80 4.72 57.25 3.72
V 70.90 8 92.21 9.84 55.92 10.48 72.73 22.42 80.27 35.21
Cr 281.60 90 322.23 27.14 388.17 30.19 45.77 47.37 33.76 96.11
Sc 34.16 1 56.74 0.91 8.47 1.60 11.10 2.41 38.17 3.429
La 42.89 6.9 72.58 4.05 22.08 9.30 90.12 13.69 70.65 16.79
Ce 73.25 13.4 165.58 7.84 51.24 19.71 161.78 24.87 142.72 33.59
Pr 10.22 1.4 22.45 0.98 6.32 2.32 20.41 3.08 19.40 4.21
Nd 40.94 5.2 110.596 3.54 26.17 8.41 75.063 11.22 82.13 15.76
Sm 12.17 1 46.711 0.71 6.788 1.77 14.649 2.19 25.98 3.29
Eu 2.91 0.16 12.759 0.15 1.617 0.35 2.889 0.45 6.827 0.74
Gd 19.09 0.9 78.701 0.69 7.901 1.71 14.805 2.11 46.059 3.44
Tb 7.72 0.2 31.008 0.12 2.331 0.33 2.866 0.44 17.129 0.74
Dy 69.19 0.9 248.62 0.62 16.766 2.01 17.012 2.61 131.52 4.86
Ho 16.51 0.2 53.509 0.14 3.51 0.42 3.476 0.56 28.06 1.01
Er 50.25 0.5 147.581 0.39 9.859 1.17 9.811 1.66 78.94 2.84
Tm 10.033 0.08 27.066 0.07 1.732 0.21 1.702 0.32 14.69 0.52
Yb 61.54 0.5 157.29 0.41 9.86 1.21 10.12 1.81 87.73 3.04
Lu 10.46 0.08 24.74 0.065 1.56 0.20 1.59 0.30 14.22 0.49
P
REE 427.17 31.42 1199.18 19.78 167.73 49.10 426.29 65.30 766.04 91.32
[La/Yb]N 0.50 9.90 0.33 7.09 1.61 5.53 6.39 5.43 0.58 3.96
[Gd/Yb]N 0.31 1.80 0.50 1.68 0.80 1.42 1.46 1.16 0.53 1.13
LREE/ 0.9 11.8 0.7 9.9 2.7 7.9 8.2 7.5 1.1 5.8
HREE
Abbreviation used: H-Heavy fraction; B-Bulk.

characterised by different shades of brown, yellow,
green and deep blue (Bgure 4a, b). Pleochroism is
its most distinguishing feature. They are iron-rich
tourmalines. The dark brown, pale yellow and
colourless types are dravite, while deep blue type is
indicolite (Bgure 5). The grains are prismatic,
subangular, subrounded, and rounded in shape.
Rounded brown tourmalines also have etched sur-
faces. Fluid inclusions and zircon inclusions are
present.
Zircon (5.7–47%) occupies the second position
amongst the transparent heavies in Kaimur sand-
stone. Zircon displays diagnostic characteristics
like extremely high relief, characteristic morphol-
ogy and strong birefringence (Bgure 4c). Its aver-
age percentage increases stratigraphically upwards
from 3.3 to 9% of the total heavy minerals, con-
trary to tourmaline. Zircon grains exhibit euhedral
crystal outlines with various shapes and sizes.
Grains are prismatic, subangular and subrounded
to rounded in shape (Bgure 6). Prismatic zircons
show perfect zoning that display as multiple bright
colours when observed in cross polars. Zircon
grains exhibit abrasion resulting in the formation
of pits and grooves as observed under high mag-
niBcation. Seldom, the zircon grains display Cuid
5 Page 8 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5

Table 5. Trend of LILE and HFSE in heavy fraction, stratigraphically upwards,

in Dhandraul Quartzite (red arrow) and Mangsar Formation (black arrow).

Figure 3. Average percentage distribution of heavy minerals in the formation of Lower and Upper Kaimur Group.

inclusions or inclusions of zircon grain itself which
generally does not show parallelism with the length
of the crystal. EPMA backscattered image show
presence of rounded zircon (Bgure 4d).
Rutile occurs in very minor amount in the Kaimur
sandstones registering an overall increase from 1.6 to
9.6% of the total transparent heavy minerals strati-
graphically upwards. They have subrounded, roun-
ded and ellipsoidal shapes, as can be observed from
the backscattered EPMA images (Bgure 4). They are
deep red to dark brown in colour (Bgure 7). Rutile is
characterised by high relief, deep colours, pleochro-
ism and high birefringence. Sphene is almost absent
in the Lower Kaimur and constitutes about 0.1% of
the total transparent heavy minerals from the sand-
stones of Upper Kaimur. It is colourless to honey
yellow with subangular shape. It is diagnosed by high
lustre, extreme relief, strong birefringence and
abnormal polarisation colours. Garnet is present in a
sample of Dhandraul Sandstone (MAR-1). The garnet
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5 Page 9 of 20 5

Figure 4. Photomicrographs of (a and b) rounded tourmaline (T), (c) zircon with inclusion of opaque (Zr) and backscattered
image of (d) zircon, (e) rutile (R) and (f) hematite (Hm) detritus in sample from Sahijankhurd.

Figure 5. Tourmaline grains separated from the sandstones of Kaimur Group. Brown tourmaline is most abundant, followed by
blue and green varieties.

is characterised by its high relief and isotropic beha- grains with pitted and grooved surfaces reCecting
viour. It is colourless to pale brown in colour. They abrasion. EPMA data revealed the grossular variety of
occur as sharp irregular fragments or subrounded garnet (Sen 2010).
5 Page 10 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5

Figure 6. Zircon grains separated from the sandstones of Kaimur Group. Observe the abraded surface showing pitting and the
inclusions of zircon within zircon and zoning.

Figure 7. Garnet (1–4), rutile (5–8), illmenite (9–10) and hematite (11–12) grains separated from the sandstones of Kaimur Group.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
Figure 8. Zoom stereoscope photograph of detrital ferruginous clasts (a) and (b) showing transformed hematite (Hm) to martite
(M) surrounded by porous quartz (Qtz). (c) Equant hematite, and (d) hematite and magnetite (Mg).
4.1.2 Opaques
The opaque heavy minerals comprising hematite,
magnetite and ilmenite constitute a major part of
the total heavy mineral assemblage of the sand-
stones of Kaimur Group. Hematite dominates over
magnetite and ilmenite occurs in minor amounts.
Their magnetic behaviour is displayed when a
needle is brought closer to the heavy minerals after
their separation. They usually are associated and
interlocked with other opaque and transparent
minerals and have a subangular to subrounded
shape. Opaques are also present as inclusions
within the transparent minerals.
4.2 Ferruginous detrital clasts
The Dhandraul sandstone/quartzite has unique
ferruginous clasts that were embedded in the
whole rock, exposed only in the Sahijankhurd
area. This feature is conspicuously absent in all
other formations of Kaimur Group. These fer-
ruginous clasts were studied under the zoom ste-
reo microscope and polarisation microscope to
understand their texture and mineralogy
(Bgure 8). The clasts are of magnetite grains that
Page 11 of 20 5
are detrital in nature and equant in shape to
elongate. The cubic shape is transformed to
lozenze or diamond shape, indicating deformation.
Their interface with quartz is porous (Bgure 8b).
Near the void region, the quartz grains are shad-
owed and the grain boundaries are observed.
Often the magnetite in Dhandraul quartzite/
sandstone is transformed to hematite and is
martite at places. At places, it is altered to goe-
thite. Martite occurs as small and large irregular
patches with disseminated patterns within quartz
matrix, and sometimes is segregated around a
quartz-segregation-patch. Martite has equi-di-
mensional cubic crystalline form (as of magnetite;
Bgure 8c). Hematite can be identiBed by its
reCectance under polarised light (Bgure 8d).
4.3 Trace element geochemistry
The transparent heavy minerals were separated
from the opaque heavy minerals of the Upper
Kaimur sandstones, i.e., Mangesar Formation (2
nos) and Dhandraul Sandstone (three samples), to
understand the contribution made by the trans-
parent heavy minerals to the total REE of the
whole rock.
5 Page 12 of 20 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5

Figure 9. Comparing the REE chemistry of the bulk rock and the separated heavies from sandstones of (a) Dhandraul
Sandstone; (b) Mangesar Formation; and Yb vs. Zr plot exhibits positive correlation, and (c) YbN vs. [Gd/Yb]N plot showing
their trend in the samples of heavy fraction from Mangesar Formation and Dhandraul Sandstone and their relationship to Zr
concentration in comparison to sandstone (data from McLennan 1989 and Condie 1993).

4.3.1 Mangesar Formation
P ppm for CHR-1(H) and CHR-4(H), respectively.
REE values of bulk rock range between
P 19.8 and
91 ppm (table 4). Their overall LREEs (27–73
ppm) are fractionated, and HREE (2.6–17.6 ppm)
shows relatively Cat pattern with pronounced Eu/
Eu* (0.6). On the contrary, the heavy minerals of
CHR-1(H) from P the lower stratigraphic horizon
exhibit lower REE = 427 ppm as compared to
CHR-4(H) (from higher
P stratigraphic level) with
higher value of REE = 766 ppm. CHR-
1(H) shows higher LREE/HREE ratios = 5.6 as
compared to the CHR-4(H)
P with lower values 0.80
(Bgure 9). As the LREE values (341–362 ppm)
for both the samples from upper and lower horizons
are quite similar; thus it is obvious that HREEs
increase stratigraphically upwards. CHR-1(H) has
highly fractionated [La/Yb]N = 6.39 and nearly
unfractionated [Gd/Yb]N = 1.2 as compared to
CHR-4(H), which is more enriched in HREE, with
[La/Yb]N = 0.58 and [Gd/Yb]N = 0.43. Zr values
are 592 and 8009 ppm and Hf values are 22 and 289
This suggests that zircon is the major contributor
to the REE budget of Mangesar Sandstone
amongst the heavy minerals present. Apart from
this HFSEs, i.e., Y= 783 ppm, Nb = 111 ppm, Ta
= 5 ppm, Sc = 38 ppm and LILE’s (Th=119, U=
47.6 ppm) are enriched in CHR-4(H) as compared
to CHR-1(H) sample.
4.3.2 Dhandraul Sandstone
The bulk rock shows that LREEs (17–41 ppm) are
more fractionated compared to HREE (2.6–7.6
ppm), showing relatively Cat pattern with promi-
nent Eu/Eu* (0.66). However, the heavy fraction
of the sample AD-19(H) amongP the three samples
(AD-19, L-2, MAR-1) shows REE P = 167.7 ppm
as compared to LT-2(H) withP REE = 1199
ppm and MAR-1(H) with REE = 427 ppm.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
Figure 10. Th/Yb vs. U/Yb plot; Gd/Yb vs. Ce/Yb plot; U/Nb vs. Sc/Yb; Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc diagram (McLennan et al. 1990)
shows the eAect of zircon addition and sediment recycling. And U/Nb proxy for tectonomagmatic source of igneous zircon.
AD-19(H) shows a most unfractionated pattern
with [La/Yb]N = 0.65 and [Gd/Yb]N = 0.31 with
LREE/HREE ratio, i.e., 1 and low Zr values, i.e.,
694 ppm (Bgure 9). Whereas the heavy minerals
separated from middle (LT-2(H)) and upper
(MAR-1(H)) stratigraphic levels of Dhandraul
Sandstone have LREE/HREE \\ 1 and subse-
quently [La/Yb]N and P[Gd/Yb]N ratios are \1. LT-
2(H) exhibits higher HREE =781 ppm evidenced
by higher Zr = 14,178 ppm (1.41%). In Pcomparison
to MAR-1(H), which exhibits lower HREE =
247 ppm P attributed to lower Zr = 9575 ppm.
Enriched HREE concentration is attributed to
elevated Zr concentration, thus indicating the
dominance of zircon mineral amongst the heavies.
The HFSEs, i.e., Y, Nb, Ta, Sc and LILEs like U
and Th show a direct positive correlation and
coherent behaviour of U, Th, Sc, Nb, Zr, Yb and
HREE (Bgure 10), indicating HREE sequestration
by the heavy fraction. Their overall enrichment is
observed stratigraphically upwards (table 5).
Page 13 of 20 5
5. Discussion
5.1 Mineralogical maturity
The mineralogical maturity of sandstone is char-
acterised by an increasing percentage of
stable constituents, i.e., quartz and chert, and a
decreasing content of unstable constituents, i.e.,
feldspar and rock fragment (Folk 1980). The min-
eralogical maturity can also be assessed on the
basis of ZTR index (table 3), which deBnes the
combined zircon, tourmaline, and rutile grains
among the transparent, non-micaceous detrital
heavy minerals (Hubert 1962; Prothero and Sch-
wab 1996). The ZTR index varies between 100 in
the Lower Kaimur to 99.4 in Dhandraul Sandstone,
revealing minerologically mature nature. The
presence of high percentage of quartz 98.8–94.5%
in the Lower Kaimur sandstone; 91–97.6% quartz
in Upper Kaimur sandstone in the modal analyses
further supports the mature nature of Kaimur
5 Page 14 of 20
sandstones (Sen et al. 2014). The ZTR values of
Kaimur sandstone support them to be ortho-
quartzite which is in conformity with Auden
(1933). The intrastratal solution of heavy minerals
is not a volumetrically important process as
demonstrated by the higher ZTR indices ([90) in
the orthoquartzite sandstones (Hubert 1962).
Among the transparent heavies, tourmaline ranges
from 93 to 90% in the Lower Kaimur sandstone to
54–65% in the Upper Kaimur sandstone (Bgure 3).
Among the three ultrastable minerals, zircon,
tourmaline, and rutile, it seems that zircon and
tourmaline are usually more abundant because of
their dominance in most source area terranes
(Hubert 1962; Mange and Morton 2007a, b).
5.2 Significance of detrital ferruginous clasts
It is observed that the size and abundance of fer-
ruginous clasts increase from Mangesar Formation
to Dhandraul Sandstone. Petrographic studies
indicate that the magnetite has undergone trans-
formation into hematite, martite (Bgure 8) and
goethite. Martite exhibits equidimensional cubic
crystalline form and its large irregular patches are
disseminated within quartz matrix. The associa-
tion of rounded to subrounded ferruginous clasts
with sandstone with alignment subparallel to the
horizontal bedding plane signiBes detrital and
syndepositional nature. They proably have been
derived from a granitic provenance wherein mag-
netite crystallised as cubic equant grains. As they
are weathering resistant, they are liberated as iso-
lated grains and get deposited with quartz sedi-
ments. So, quartz and magnetite were syn-
depositional, possibly in beach/Cuvial placers.
Another possibility is that detrital magnetite
grains might have been derived from metamorphic
magnetite, like Banded Hematite Quartzite
(BHQ)/Banded Hematite Jasper (BHJ)/Banded
Jasper Quartzite (BJQ).
In Son valley sector, the adjoining Mahakoshal
Group is unconformably underlain by Vindhyan
sequence. Agori Formation of Mahakoshal Group
comprises BHQ, BMQ and BIF apart from domi-
nant sandstone, tuA and maBc dykes (Nair et al.
1995). Sen and Mishra (2019), based on trace ele-
ment geochemistry have discussed the detrital
contribution from Chhotanagpur Granitic Com-
plex (CGC) and Mahakoshal Group increased
stratigraphically upwards during Kaimur sedi-
mentation. Sen et al. (2014) based on petrographic
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
data have concluded that during the later stages of
sedimentation, the input from metamorphic recy-
cled orogen provenance was predominant. CGC
also suffered extensive weathering under a hot
humid climate during the time interval between
the Satpura Orogeny-I and II (Chakraborty et al.
2010), which is also supported by the palaeolati-
tudinal position of India during Kaimur sedimen-
tation at 16N (Sahasrabudhe and Mishra 1966)
and 36N (Rao et al. 2005). The loss of silica and
redistribution of iron is the result of strong chem-
ical weathering in wet tropical humid-monsoonal
climates (Cope et al. 2008; Beukes et al. 2008; Roy
and Venkatesh 2009).
5.3 Contribution of heavy minerals to REE
budget
The overall transparent heavy mineral fraction of
Kaimur sandstone reveals the overall presence of
93–65% tourmaline and 5–27% zircon and
1.8–9.3% rutile (Bgure 8). Henry and Guidotti
(1985) and Henry and Dutrow (1992) demon-
strated tourmaline geochemistry reCects the local
environment of mineral formation as it is stable in
both weathering and diagenetic environments
(Morton and Hallsworth 2007). Tourmaline exhi-
bits low total REE contents and display nearly Cat
patterns with minor HREE enrichment accompa-
nied by very slight negative
PEu anomaly and do not
contribute much to the REE (Hazarika et al.
2015) of the whole/bulk rock (McLennan 1989).
Rutile too displays 1–50 times chondrite enrich-
ment, LREE [ HREE and an Eu anomaly or Cat
patterns with 0.1–10 times chondrite (Pe-Piper
et al. 2019). REE of heavy minerals such as zircon
may exert significant control on REE, particularly
HREE concentrations (McLennan 1989; Jiang
et al. 2004; Luo and Ayres 2009; Castineiras et al.
2010). REE patterns of heavy fraction of the Kai-
mur sandstones reveal remarkable enrichment of
HREEs ([La/Yb]N = 0.58; [Gd/Yb]N = 0.43;
LREE/HREE = 0.80 for Mangesar Formation and
[La/Yb]N = 0.33–0.5; [Gd/Yb]N = 0.33–0.82;
LREE/HREE = 0–1 for Dhandraul Sandstone)
when compared to bulk rock (Bgure 9) rare earth
chemistry ([La/Yb]N = 7.48; [Gd/Yb]N = 1.28 for
Mangesar Formation and [La/Yb]N = 9.26; [Gd/
Yb]N = 1.56 for Dhandraul Sandstone). HREE
enrichment is proportional to the Zr concentration
(Bgure 10), signifying the dominant role ofP zircon
amongst the heavies in managing the REE
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
budget of the bulk rock. Chondrite-normalised
REE pattern of the heavy fraction was compared
with REE patterns (Bgure 11) of zircon (Pettke
et al. 2005; Castineiras et al. 2010), tourmaline
(Hazarika et al. 2015) and rutile (Pe-Piper et al.
2019) from various sources. The chondrite-nor-
malised REE patterns of zircon are steep with
significant HREE enrichment (McDonough and
Sun 1995). REE concentrations in zircon generally
decrease from early magmatic to hydrothermal
zircon (Pettke et al. 2005; Luo and Ayres 2009;
Castineiras et al. 2010). The steepness of REE
patterns increases from early magmatic to
hydrothermal zircon (Pettke et al. 2005). The REE
abundances have been measured for zircons from
range of igneous rocks and different tectonic envi-
ronments, in order to assess or infer rock types
present in the sediment source. The resemblance of
REE pattern of heavy fraction from Kaimur
sandstone and zircon from different sources (Pettke
et al. 2005; Castineiras et al. 2010) suggest that the
former were derived from magmatic sources. Thus
the sediments were derived from the source rock
with magmatic zircons, possibly granite.
Yb vs. Zr and YbN vs. [Gd/Yb]N plots illustrate
the relationship of Zr to the HREE (Bgures 9 and
10). Yb is strongly coupled with zircon (Grimes
et al. 2015; Kirkland et al. 2015) as observed in the
rocks of Kaimur Group, which is evident from trace
element data of heavy fraction (table 4). This
P also
shows the strong control of zircon on the HREE
of the sandstones from Kaimur Group. In plot YbN
vs. [Gd/Yb]N, the average sandstone is taken to
have an REE parallel to shale (PAAS) but with
lower abundances by a factor of Bve. Initial Zr
abundances are taken at 200 ppm for both sand-
stone and shale (McLennan 1989). It can be seen
here that the addition of zircon can inCuence the
HREE pattern of sediments, with sandstones being
particularly aAected. However, the zircon concen-
tration is sufBcient to cause substantial changes in
[Gd/Yb]N, also resulting in abnormally high Zr
content and that could be thus readily identiBed.
The REE data of zircon was taken from Gromet
and Silver (1983).
Grimes et al. (2015) concluded that the accessory
minerals such as zircon plays an significant inCu-
ence on key trace element ratios. The coherent
behaviour of trace elements in the bivariate plots
like U/Yb vs. Th/Yb, Ce/Yb vs. Gd/Yb, Sc/Yb vs.
U/Nb and Nb/Yb vs. U/Yb strongly favours this
contention (Bgure 10).
Page 15 of 20 5
The weight of heavy mineral separates of the
upper horizon of Dhandraul Sandstone amounted
to 0.143 gm from a 65 gm of sandstone sample.
Therefore it is estimated that the heavy minerals in
the rock amounted to about 0.25–0.3%. The total
REE concentration in the bulk rock is 20 ppm,
while the heavies is 1200 ppm. Therefore, the per-
centage contribution of the zircon mineral for the
REE could be *50–60%. The rest of the REE
seems to reside in the other heavy minerals like
rutile, sphene or garnet (in minor amounts), min-
ute inclusions in light minerals and magnetic
minerals.
5.4 Zircon sorting and recycling
The higher ZTR index values are often due to
selective sorting that concentrates zircon because
of its inherently small size and relatively high
speciBc gravity (Rittenhouse 1943). Among the
transparent heavies, the zircon percentage increa-
ses gradually from Lower Kaimur sandstone
(5–12.4%) stratigraphically upwards to Upper
Kaimur sandstone (17–36.4%). The sedimentary
processes such as sorting modify the mineral
abundances and consequently the abundance of
speciBc elements. Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc plot (McLennan
et al. 1990) shows the eAect of zircon addition on all
the Kaimur Formations (Sen and Mishra 2019).
During sediment recycling with zircon enrichment/
addition, Zr/Sc ratio increases significantly, and it
can be considered as useful indicator of heavy
mineral concentration and recycling. In contrast to
Zr/Sc, Th/Sc does not vary much in sediment
recycling (McLennan et al. 1993). The mineral
sorting normally tends to increase the abundance
of non-clay detrital minerals at the expense of clay
minerals (Nesbitt and Young 1984). The trace
element data for heavy fraction when plotted in
Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc diagram (Bgure 10), indicates that
Kaimur Group sandstone has suffered zircon sort-
ing and sediment recycling.
Zr content in sandstones from Mangesar For-
mation shows 592 and 8010 ppm in heavy fractions
from lower and upper horizons (table 4). Mangesar
sandstones are horizontally bedded and are con-
formably overlain by super-mature Dhandraul
Sandstone. Zr content is 695 ppm in the lower and
14178 ppm in the upper horizons. Thus, strati-
graphically moving upwards from Mangesar For-
mation to Dhandraul Sandstone, the Zr content
increases significantly suggesting sediment sorting
5 Page 16 of 20
Figure 11. Comparison of the REE patterns of zircon from
different sources with the REE patterns of the heavy mineral
fraction present in Upper Kaimur sandstones. Data for
comparison was taken from: for zircon from Pettke et al.
(2005), Castineiras et al. (2010), for tourmaline Hazarika et al.
(2015) and for rutile Wen et al. (2021).
and recycling leading to zircon fractionation in the
heavy fraction. McLennan et al. (1993) suggested
recycling of sediments results in selective sorting of
the accessory heavy minerals. Kaimur sandstones
exhibit low REE abundance, any change in the
relative proportion of REE-bearing heavy minerals
can distort the REE patterns without aAecting the
major element composition (Bock et al. 1998).
Although there is quartz dilution, still the REE
pattern similar to UCC and PAAS are preserved
due to the absence of any selective sorting of the
heavy minerals. McLennan (1989) opined many
episodes of recycling and metamorphism could
distort the REE patterns.
5.5 Provenance
The previous petrographic and geochemical studies
on the Kaimur Sandstones have depicted that the
lower sandstones were derived from Bundelkhand
granite lying north of the Vindhyan basin. While
the Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex and the
Mahakoshal Group of the Central Indian Tectonic
Zone (CITZ) that lie presently south of the basin
are the sources for the Upper Kaimur sandstones
(Sen 2010; Sen et al. 2014; Sen and Mishra 2019).
The tourmaline makes the dominating trans-
parent heavy mineral for the Lower Kaimur
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5
sandstones, i.e., Sasaram and Markundi sandstones
which are of brown, green and blue shades. The
green and brown coloured tourmaline is derived
from granitic sources and blue tourmalines have a
pegmatitic parentage (Smithson 1939; Krynine
1946). During sedimentary processes, the tourma-
line grain-fractures producing prismatic fragments
as in the present case and irregular, angular or
equidimensional particles, which in turn attain
various degrees of rounding (Mange and Maurer
1992). The well rounding of tourmaline grains
indicates transportation and recycling. The etched
surfaces and pitted marks in tourmaline show evi-
dence of solution action (Bramlette 1929). There-
fore, these evidences suggest that lower Kaimur
sandstones are derived from Bundelkhand granite.
Zircon abundance in Upper Kaimur, i.e., in
Mangesar and Dhandraul sandstones, suggests the
derivation from source having greater concentra-
tion of zircon. Colour of zircon is significant for the
delineation of provenance (Mackie 1923). The zir-
con grains in these sandstones that are colourless
and prismatic indicate their origin from igneous
source. The euhedral zircons present imply their
derivation from granites of magmatic origin (Kar-
ner and Helgesan 1970), while the rounded zircons
of Kaimur sandstones are diagnostic of metasedi-
mentary origin (Verspyck 1961; Aslam et al. 1991).
The presence of pits and grooves on the surface of
zircon grains must be due to increasing tempera-
ture/pressure of the burial and interstitial
hydraulic conditions (Eh, pH) during the long span
of geological time (Mishra and Tiwari 2005). The
presence of garnet in the Upper Kaimur also
supports the metamorphic/metasedimentary
parentage for the Upper Kaimur sediments.
The heavy mineral rutile contributes a minor
percentage (1–3%) to the total heavies of the Kai-
mur sandstones. The source rocks of detrital rutile
are possibly from a high-grade regionally meta-
morphosed terrain (Force 1980) or from the acid
igneous rocks (Milner 1962). Therefore, the upper
Kaimur Sandstones were derived from the
Chhotangpur Gneissic Complex. This inference is
in conformity with Sen and Mishra (2019) that the
derivation of detritus took place from Bundelkhand
granites initially followed by Chhotanagpur
Granitic Complex (CGC).
The Mahakoahal belt which lies south of the
Vindhyan basin, is represented by quartzite, chert,
maBc volcanics, BIFs, carbonate, greywacke and
argillites (Roy and Prasad 2002). The belt has the
presence of BHQ/BHJ/BIFs in its Agori
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2023)132:5 Page 17 of 20 5

Formation (Nair et al. 1995). The plausible expla- transparent heavy minerals to the REE budget of
nation for dominance of opaque minerals in HMA the Upper Kaimur sandstones were also assessed.
in the Upper Kaimur reCects their dominance in Some of the key aspects are listed below:
the provenance. The Mangesar sandstones have
• Among the transparent heavy fraction, the
presence of rich iron oxide cement that gives the
tourmaline dominates the Lower Kaimur
rocks their red colouration. These cements are
sequence, while the Upper Kaimur sequence is
either hematite, magnetite or martite, which have
dominated by zircon. The tourmaline primarily
possibly been derived from the BIF of Mahakoshal
present in lower Sasaram and Markundi sand-
Group. The contribution from the Mahakoshal
stones of the Lower Kaimur Group is derived
Group is reCected in the ferruginous clasts found in
from Bundelkhand granite. The dominance of
the Dhandraul Quartzite. Bhattacharya et al.
zircon in the Mangesar and Dhandraul sand-
(2007) have reported martitized magnetite as an
stones and the presence of garnet of grossular
accessory of Mahakoshal granite (Jhirgadandi
variety implies Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex
granite), possible provenance for these sandstones.
as its source.
Sen et al. (2014) have demonstrated the presence of
• The occurrence of the ferruginous clast in
granite clasts as the dominant lithic fragment
Dhandraul Quartzite shows composition of
present in Dhandraul Sandstone. Grimes et al.
hematite, magnetite and martite. These ferrug-
(2007) used U, Th, Hf, Y, and Yb (as a monitor for
inous clasts and opaque heavy minerals that
the heavy REE) to discriminate most zircons
have an overall gradual increasing trend strati-
crystallised in melts sourced from the MORB
graphically upwards from 36.4 to 65.4% in Upper
mantle from those forming in continental mag-
Kaimur sandstones are attributed to the contri-
matic settings. Owen (1987) demonstrated varia-
bution from the BIFs/BHQ/BHJ of the Maha-
tions in REE and other trace elements such as Th,
koshal belt as its source. Therefore the source for
U, Nb, Y, Ta and Sc serve as significant discrimi-
Upper Kaimur sandstones is not only the CGC
natory potential. Such variations have probable
but Mahakosal Group of rocks also.
applications in provenance studies composition
• The ZTR index varies between 100 in the Lower
(Heaman et al. 1990; Belousova et al. 2002). A
Kaimur (SiO2: 98.8–94.5%) and 99.4 in Upper
bivariate diagram showing U/Yb vs. Nb/Yb for
Kaimur Sandstones, i.e., Dhandraul Sandstone
heavy fractions is shown in Bgure 10. U is preferred
(SiO2: 91–97%), revealing the mineralogically
over Th because it provides greater separation
mature sediments of the Kaimur sandstones.
between geochemical Belds for different tectono-
The dominance of zircon amongst the transpar-
magmatic settings for zircon-based proxies
ent heavy fraction of the Upper Kaimur sand-
(Grimes et al. 2007). The trace elements of heavies
stones and their Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc plot shows the
from Upper Kaimur sandstone, when plotted in
significant eAect of zircon addition and sediment
Nb/Yb vs. U/Yb diagram indicate that heavies fall
recycling in these rocks that improves strati-
in magmatic arc array, which indicates zircon was
graphically upwards.
derived from magmatic arc source. Therefore apart
• The heavy fractions from sandstones of Mange-
from the Bundelkhand granite and Chhotanagpur
sar Formation and Dhandraul Sandstone from
Gneissic Complex, the Mahakoshal belt/group also
different horizons exhibit remarkable enrich-
contributed to the formation of the Kaimur
ment of HREE, low LREE/HREE, [La/Yb]N
sandstones.
\1 and [Gd/Yb]N \1. HREE enrichment is
proportional to the Zr concentration signifying
6. Conclusions the dominant role Pof zircon amongst the heavies
in managing the REE budget of the bulk rock.
The heavy mineral assemblage of the sandstones The percentage contribution of the zircon is
from Kaimur Group of Vindhyan Supergroup in calculated to be *50–60%.
eastern Son valley was investigated. The presence
of tourmaline, zircon, rutile, garnet, sphene,
hematite, magnetite and ilmenite forms the heavy Acknowledgements
mineral assemblage of the sandstones from Kaimur
Group. The mineralogy of the ferruginous clasts in SS is thankful to Dr M K Mohanta and Dr Mamta
Dhandraul Quartzite and contribution of the Sharma for their help during the heavy mineral
5 Page 18 of 20
analyses at the Mineral Processing Division,
National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur,
India. SS is also thankful to DST WOS-A project
no. DST/WOS-A/EA-7/2020 for Bnancial assis-
tance. MM is thankful to University Grants Com-
mission, New Delhi, for the sanction of grant no.
F.31-196/2005 (SR). The valuable comments and
suggestions provided by the Associate Editor, Prof.
Santanu Banerjee and an anonymous reviewer
have greatly helped in improving the manuscript.
This research was carried out with funding jointly
by University Grants Commission, New Delhi
grant no. F. 31-196/2005 (SR) to Meenal Mishra
and DST WOS-A project no. DST/WOS-A/EA-7/
2020 to Shinjana Sen.
Author statement
Shinjana Sen carried out the heavy mineral sepa-
ration and geochemical analyses. Meenal
Mishra conceived the idea and was involved in the
overall planning of the work and interpretation of
the data. Both the authors have seen and approved
the manuscript and have contributed significantly
to the paper.
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