Construction aggregate

Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category

of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in
construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most
mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of
composite materials such as concrete and asphalt; the aggregate
serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite
material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as
compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage
applications such as foundation and French drains, septic drain A limestone quarry.
fields, retaining wall drains, and roadside edge drains. Aggregates
are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and
railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation
or road/rail base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help
prevent differential settling under the road or building), or as a low-
cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to
form concrete. Although most kinds of aggregate require a form of
binding agent, there are types of self-binding aggregate which do
not require any form of binding agent.[1]

In Europe, sizing ranges are specified as d/D, where the d shows

the smallest and D shows the largest square mesh grating that the 10 mm graded crushed basalt rock
particles can pass. Application-specific preferred sizings are covered or aggregate, for use in concrete,
in European Standard EN 13043 for road construction, EN 13383 called "blue metal" in Australia.
for larger armour stone, EN 12620 for concrete aggregate, EN
13242 for base layers of road construction, and EN 13450 for
railway ballast.

The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an

exhaustive listing of specifications including ASTM D 692 and
ASTM D 1073 for various construction aggregate products, which,
by their individual design, are suitable for specific construction
purposes. These products include specific types of coarse and fine
aggregate designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and
concrete mixes, as well as other construction uses. State
transportation departments further refine aggregate material 20 mm graded aggregate.
specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and
available supply in their particular locations.
Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main
areas: mining of mineral aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel,
and stone; use of waste slag from the manufacture of iron and steel;
and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured from
mineral aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials
that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay, pumice,
perlite, and vermiculite.

History
A gravel and sand extraction facility
in Međimurje County, Croatia.
People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of
years. Significant refinement of the production and use of aggregate
occurred during the Roman Empire, which used aggregate to build
its vast network of roads and aqueducts. The invention of concrete,
which was essential to architecture utilizing arches, created an
immediate, permanent demand for construction aggregates.

Vitruvius writes in De architectura:

Economy denotes the proper management of materials

and of site, as well as a thrifty balancing of cost and
common sense in the construction of works. This will
be observed if, in the first place, the architect does not
demand things which cannot be found or made ready
without great expense. For example: it is not
everywhere that there is plenty of pit-sand, rubble, fir,
clear fir, and marble... Where there is no pit sand, we
must use the kinds washed up by rivers or by the sea... Chipseal aggregate on Ellsworth
and other problems we must solve in similar ways.
Road in Tomah, Wisconsin

Modern production
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which are now used
throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality exist. In many places,
good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock deposits do not exist. In these areas, natural
sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither stone, nor sand and gravel, are available,
construction demand is usually satisfied by shipping in aggregate by rail, barge or truck. Additionally,
demand for aggregates can be partially satisfied through the use of slag and recycled concrete. However,
the available tonnages and lesser quality of these materials prevent them from being a viable replacement
for mined aggregates on a large scale.

Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all population centers due to the high
cost of transportation relative to the low value of the product. Trucking aggregate more than 40 kilometers
is typically uneconomical.[3] These are capital-intensive operations, utilizing large earth-moving equipment,
belt conveyors, and machines specifically designed for crushing and separating various sizes of aggregate,
to create distinct product stockpiles.

Over 1 million tons annually are
mined from this quarry near San
Francisco.[2]
great majority of this was again moved by truck, instead of by electric train.
According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. crushed stone production was
1.72 billion tonnes valued at $13.8 billion (compared to 1.69 billion
tonnes valued at $12.1 billion in 2005), of which limestone was
1,080 million tonnes valued at $8.19 billion from 1,896 quarries,
granite was 268 million tonnes valued at $2.59 billion from 378
quarries, traprock was 148 million tonnes valued at $1.04 billion
from 355 quarries, and the balance other kinds of stone from 729
quarries. Limestone and granite are also produced in large amounts
as dimension stone. The great majority of crushed stone is moved
by heavy truck from the quarry/plant to the first point of sale or use.
According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. sand and gravel production
was 1.32 billion tonnes valued at $8.54 billion (compared to 1.27
billion tonnes valued at $7.46 billion in 2005), of which 264 million
tonnes valued at $1.92 billion was used as concrete aggregates. The

Currently, total U.S. aggregate demand by final market sector was 30%–35% for non-residential building
(offices, hotels, stores, manufacturing plants, government and institutional buildings, and others), 25% for
highways, and 25% for housing.[4]

Recycled materials
Recycled material such as blast furnace and steel furnace slag can be used as aggregate or partly substitute
for portland cement. Blast furnace and steel slag is either air-cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled slag can be
used as aggregate. Water-cooled slag produces sand-sized glass-like particles (granulated). Adding free lime
to the water during cooling gives granulated slag hydraulic cementitious properties.

In 2006, according to the USGS, air-cooled blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 7.3 million
tonnes valued at $49 million, granulated blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.2 million tonnes
valued at $318 million, and steel furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 8.7 million tonnes valued at $40
million. Air-cooled blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic
concrete (13%), ready-mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses. Granulated blast furnace slag
sales in 2006 were for use in cementitious materials (94%), and the balance for other uses. Steel furnace
slag sales in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (51%), asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill (18%),
and the balance for other uses.

Recycled glass aggregate crushed to a small size is substituted for many construction and utility projects in
place of pea gravel or crushed rock. Glass aggregate is not dangerous to handle. It can be used as pipe
bedding—placed around sewer, storm water or drinking water pipes to transfer weight from the surface and
protect the pipe. Another common use is as fill to bring the level of a concrete floor even with a foundation.
Use of glass aggregate helps close the loop in glass recycling in many places where glass cannot be smelted
into new glass.[5]

Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Recyclable aggregate tends to be concentrated in

urban areas. The supply of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay and demolition of structures.
Mobile recycling plants eliminate the cost of transporting the material to a central site. The recycled material
is typically of variable quality.

Many aggregate products are recycled for other industrial purposes. Contractors save on disposal costs and
less aggregate is buried or piled and abandoned. In Bay City, Michigan, for example, a recycle program
exists for unused products such as mixed concrete, block, brick, gravel, pea stone, and other used materials.
The material is crushed to provide subbase for roads and driveways, among other purposes.
According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete (including aggregate)
worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt concrete (including aggregate) worth
$11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone operations. Much more of both materials are recycled by
construction and demolition firms not included in the USGS survey. For sand and gravel, the survey
showed that 4.7 million tonnes of cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 6.17 million
tonnes of asphalt concrete valued at $45.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both materials are recycled
by construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey. The Construction Materials Recycling
Association indicates that there are 325 million tonnes of recoverable construction and demolition materials
produced annually.

Organic materials

Many geosynthetic aggregates are made from recycled materials. Recyclable plastics can be reused in
aggregates. For example, Ring Industrial Group's EZflow[6] product lines are produced with geosynthetic
aggregate pieces that are more than 99.9% recycled polystyrene. This polystyrene, otherwise destined for a
landfill, is gathered, melted, mixed, reformulated and expanded to create low density aggregates that
maintain high strength properties under compressive loads. Such geosynthetic aggregates replace
conventional gravel while simultaneously increasing porosity, increasing hydraulic conductivity and
eliminating the fine dust "fines" inherent to gravel aggregates which otherwise serve to clog and disrupt the
operation of many drainage applications.

Several groups have attempted to use minced tires as part of concrete aggregate. The result is tougher than
regular concrete, because it can bend instead of breaking under pressure. However, tires reduce
compressive strength partially because the cement bonds poorly with the rubber. Pores in the rubber fill
with water when the concrete is mixed, but become voids as the concrete sets. One group put the concrete
under pressure as it sets, reducing pore volumes.[7]

Recycled aggregates in the UK

Recycled aggregate in the UK results from the processing of construction material. To ensure the aggregate
is inert, it is manufactured from material tested and characterised under European Waste Codes.[8]

In 2008, 210 million tonnes of aggregate were produced including 67 million tonnes of recycled product,
according to the Quarry Products Association.[9] The Waste and Resource Action Programme[10] has
produced a Quality Protocol for the regulated production of recycled aggregates.[11]

See also
Aggregate (composite), Aggregate base
Aggregate industry in the United States
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Alkali–silica reaction
Concrete
Crushed stone
Dimension stone – stone recycling and reuse
Hoggin
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)
Marble
 Pozzolanic reaction
Road metal
Saturated-surface-dry
Tumble finishing

References

Citations
1. "What Is Self Binding Gravel? | NatraTex Surfacing Solutions" (https://www.natratex.co.uk/kn
owledgehub/what-is-self-binding-gravel/). NatraTex. Retrieved 2022-03-30.
2. Robinson, Roberta (June 2001). "Who's Minding the San Rafael Rock Quarry?" (http://www.
marincounty.org/~/media/files/departments/gj/reports-responses/2000/srrqrept.pdf) (PDF).
Marin County Civil Grand Jury. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170120054540/htt
p://www.marincounty.org/~/media/files/departments/gj/reports-responses/2000/srrqrept.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 2017-01-20. Retrieved 2008-01-03.
3. Bridge, Tyee (13 September 2017). "Sand? Mine!" (https://www.hakaimagazine.com/feature
s/sand-mine). Hakai Magazine. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170923050838/http
s://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/sand-mine) from the original on 23 September 2017.
Retrieved 22 September 2017.
4. Nelson, T.I.; W.P. Bolen (June 2008). "Construction Aggregates". Mining Engineering. 60:
25–26.
5. "Concrete with Waste Glass as Aggregate" (http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/
meyer_egosi_paper.pdf) (PDF). ASCE. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120330202
428/http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/meyer_egosi_paper.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
6. "EZflow by Infiltrator Systems" (http://www.ezflowlp.com/). Ezflowlp.com. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20090306230755/http://www.ezflowlp.com/) from the original on 2009-03-
06. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
7. Coxworth, Ben (2022-08-11). "Scientists create quality concrete with 100% tire-rubber
aggregate" (https://newatlas.com/materials/concrete-100-percent-tire-rubber-aggregate/).
New Atlas. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
8. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110726130702/http://www.grdp.org/static/do
cuments/EWC_31-03-09_CH.pdf) (PDF). www.grdp.org. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.grdp.org/static/documents/EWC_31-03-09_CH.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved
30 June 2022.
9. "MPA – Mineral Products Association – Products" (http://www.qpa.org/prod_agg_recy01.ht
m). qpa.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090505031332/http://www.qpa.org/pro
d_agg_recy01.htm) from the original on 2009-05-05. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
10. "Construction Sector Waste & Resources Action Programme" (https://www.wrap.org.uk/const
ruction/). WRAP. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090417163329/http://www.wrap.or
g.uk/construction/) from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
11. "Quality Protocol for Aggregates" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090417185313/http://www.
aggregain.org.uk/quality/quality_protocols/). Aggregain.org.uk. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.aggregain.org.uk/quality/quality_protocols/) on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-06-08.

Sources
 UEPG – The European Aggregates Association (http://www.uepg.eu)
Samscreen International (http://www.samscreen.com)
The National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association (http://www.nssga.org)
Pit and Quarry University/ (https://www.pitandquarry.com/pit-and-quarry-university/)
"Rock to Road" (Industry publication - Canada) (https://www.rocktoroad.com/)
The American Society for Testing Materials (http://www.astm.org)
Gravel Watch Ontario (http://gravelwatch.org)
Oregon Concrete & Aggregate Producers Association (http://ocapa.net)
Portland Cement Association (https://web.archive.org/web/20070829062229/http://www.cem
ent.org/)
Pavement Interactive article on Aggregates (http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=A
ggregate)
2006 USGS Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/co
mmodity/stone_crushed/myb1-2006-stonc.pdf)
2005 USGS Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/co
mmodity/stone_crushed/cstonmyb05.pdf)
2006 USGS Minerals Yearbook: Construction Sand and Gravel (https://minerals.usgs.gov/mi
nerals/pubs/commodity/sand_%26_gravel_construction/sgconmcs06.pdf)
2005 USGS Minerals Yearbook: Construction Sand and Gravel (https://minerals.usgs.gov/mi
nerals/pubs/commodity/sand_%26_gravel_construction/sgconmcs05.pdf)
Construction Aggregate, in June 2007 Mining Engineering (private membership) (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20071008153025/http://www.sme.net/service.html)
2006 USGS Minerals Yearbook: Iron & Steel Slag (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/c
ommodity/iron_&_steel_slag/myb1-2006-fesla.pdf)
Aggregates from Natural and Recycled Sources-Economic Assessments (https://pubs.usgs.
gov/circ/1998/c1176/c1176.pdf)
Construction Materials Recycling Association (http://www.cdrecycling.org)
MN DNR Aggregate Resource Mapping Program – Division of Lands and Minerals (http://w
ww.dnr.state.mn.us/lands_minerals/aggregate_maps/index.html)
Quarrying in Depth Recycling (https://web.archive.org/web/20080920154421/http://www.qp
a.org/downloads/qid_rec.pdf)
Recycling Tonnages and Primary aggregate production figures (https://web.archive.org/web/
20080921005503/http://www.qpa.org/downloads/AggsataGlanceDL.pdf)
Alberta Sand and Gravel Association (Canada) (http://www.asga.ab.ca/)

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