Ghazni and Ghor Empires 99 From about 1306 Masood, and the Seljuk Sultanate with him, disappears from the historical record. Kayqubad II Kayqubad III was briefly Sultan of the Seljuks of Rum between the years of 1298 and 1302. He was a nephew of the deposed Kaykaus II and had strong support among the Turkmen. As Sultan he was a vassal of the Mongols and exercised no veal power. He first appears circa 1283 as a pretender to the Seljuk throne. the Turkmen Karamanids but defeated b sought refuge in Cilician Armenia. Nothi when he was appointed to the Sultan; downfall of Masood II. He purged the S extreme violence and became deeply executed. d He was recognised by Y wazir Fakhruddin Ali and Kaykhusraw Ill. He ing is known of his movements again until 1298, ate by the Ilkhan Mehmood Ghazan upon the eljuk administration of his predecessor's men with unpopular. On a visit to the IIkhan in 1302 he was Timur Timur (April 6, 1336-February 19, 1405) also known as Emir Timur, Amir Temur, Tamerlane and Timur-e-Leng was a 14th century Turkic Conqueror of much of Wester, and Central Asia, he founded the Timurid Empire and Timurid dynasty (1370-1405) in Central Asia, which survived until 1857 as the Mughal dynasty of India. Timur belonged to a family of the Barlas clan of Turkic origin. Although Timur was not descended via the direct male line from the great Genghis Khan, he was supposedly, although many sources deny this, descended from one of Genghis’ granddaughters. Timur himself did not consider himself connected with the Mongol Clans since he teferred to himself by the Turkic title “Emir Temur” rather than the Mongolian “Temurkhan”. Therefore, he was Turkic in both identity and language and he aspired to restore the Mongol Empire. He was also steeped in Persian culture and in most of the territories which he incorporated into his feifdom, Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus, the language of the settled dicean was Persian and its scribes had to be adept in Persian culture, regardless of ethnicity. In addition, during his reign Turkic became a state and literary language. Some of the greatest contributions to Turkic literature were penned during the Timurid era with Turkic culture expanding and flourishing as a result. Major Turkic cultural sites like the eed aa shrine were also constructed during this period. Timur’s short-lived empire mel ide e Turkic and Persian cultures in Transoxiania. A literary form of Chaghatai Turkish came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language. Timur was a military genius. He loved to play chess in his spare ae ° neoe military tactics and skill. His troops were mainly Turkic-speaking. He wiePersian and Pathan Emp ‘0 : "Din and eventuall . svor eafled himeotf more than an emir, and iitcal price the nag oad eae 4 Khans, who were little more than political prisoners, © of Tamed Chingizic ans, jongols Golden Horde which n, Hestruck his heaviest blow agains rer avanied to restore the Mongol g "etovteg ate hs campign a8 than on the steppes, as evidenced by his (ea te Se samalganl He thought of himself as a ghazi, or expander of tt tun an fact hie biggest wars were against Muslim 3 . Although he preferred to fight his battles in the PB ae died en route durin an uncharacteristic winter campaign against the rul ing C a ing Dynasty. Teas one of the bitterest winters on record; his troops are recorded as having to dig through 4, feet of ice to reach drinking water. Records indicate though, that for Part of his life Jeast, he was a surreptitious Ming vassal and that his son Shah Rukh visited China in 1420. He ruled over an empire that, in modern times, extends from southeastern Turkey, Syria, Irag, Kuwait and Iran, through Central Asia encompassing Part of Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, North-Western India, and even approaches Kashgar in China. Northem Iraq remained predominantly Assyrian Christian until attacked, looted, plundered and destroyed by Timur leaving its population decimated by systematic mass slaughter and genocide, All churches were destroyed and any survivors forcefully converted to Islan by the sword. This is based on the records of Christian monks and historians. Timur’s military talents were unique. He used propaganda in what is now called information warfare as part of his tactics. His campaigns were preceded by the deployment of spies whose tasks included collecting information and spreading horrifying reports about the cruelty, size, and might of Timur’s armies. Such disinformation eventually weakened the morale of threatened populations and caused panic among enemy forces. He planned all his campaigns years in advance, including planting barley for horse fe! ‘wo-years ahead of his campaigns. Whilst Timur’s uncharacteristic (for the time) conce™ forhis troops inspired fierce loyalty he did not pay them. Their only incentives were from looting captured territory — a bounty that included horses, wives, precious metals stones; in other words whatever they, or thei i Id carry or their newh laves, could carry from the conquered lands, * ern ek wad PE aes claim that when Timur conquered Persia, Iraq and Syria, he decimated ian population, raped their women and children, looted properties and conve People to Islam by force. In the ai is oe . e city of Isfaha 7 mids to each made up of soe a 'y of Isfahan, he ordered several pyran a rT 7 skulls from those that his army had beheaded: * of chiens fron De UU skulls was erected outside Aleppo. Timur herded thowst ra 7000 people beheaded in gyn Cathedral Mosque before setting it aflame People may have in Tikrit, and 90,000 more in Baghdad. As many aS died during his conquests,Ghazni and Ghor Empires 101 imur is historically considered to be a contradi ‘Timur is his! : pave ‘adictory and Controversial fi he case even during his lifetime. He was a patron of the arts but also destroyed m ah ql eat centres of learning during his conquests, royed many g Early Life : Timur was born in Transoxiana, near Kesh (an area now bett ‘the green city,’), some 50 miles south of Samarqand in modern Uzbekistan. His father Taraghay was the head of the Barlas, a nomadic Turkic-speaking tribe in the steppes of Central Asia. They were remnants of the original Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan, many of whom had embraced Turkic or Iranian languages and customs. Timur means iran in the Turkish language (Demir) Mongolian language (Tomor) and Chagatai language. ler known as Shahrisabz, the presence of Shiites in his army, However, his official religious counsellor was the Hanafite scholar ‘Abd al-Jabbar Khawarizmi, There is evidence that he had converted under the influence of Sayyed Barakah, a Nusayri leader from his mentor, Balkh. He also constructed one of his finest buildings at the tomb of Al i, Sufi saint who was spreading Sunni Islam among the nomads. In his memoirs Timur gave the following information regarding his ancestry: My father told me that we were descendants from Abu- Turks) the son of Japhet. His fifth son, Aljeh Khan, hac Mogul, who placed their feet on the paths of infidelit son Kabul, whose son, Munga Bahadur, was the father of Temujin, called Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan abandoned the duty of a conqueror by slaughtering the people, and plundering the dominions of God, and he put many thousands of Muslims to death. He bestowed Mawurul Naher on his Son Zagatai, and appointed my ancestor, Karachar Nevian, to be his minister. “Karacher appointed the plain of Kesh for the residence of the tribe of Berlas (his own tribe), and he subdued the countries of Kashgar, Badakshan, and Andecan. He was succeeded by his son Ayettekuz as Sepah Salar (general). Then followed my grandfather, the Ameer Burkul, who retired from offic, and contented himself with the government of his own tribe of Berlas. He Possessed an incalculable number of sheep and goats, cattle and servants. On is death my father succeeded, but he also preferred seclusion, and the society of learned men.” Military Leader al-Atrak (father of the id twin sons, Tatar and ty. Tumene Khan had a ing, about 1369 Timur gained prominence asa military leader. He took part in ompalais “Ssoxania with the Khan of Chagatn,a fellow descendant of Genghis Khan. His cl i ; : one of the most formidable of his opponents was To! fugee at the court, became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde aretarelied with him over the possession of Khawatizm and Asetbaijan, Timur sapped Tokhtamysh against Russians and Tokhtamysh, with armed support by Timur, fs s } vaded Russia and in 1382 captured Moscow. After the death of Abu Saaid, ruler of the iinanid Dynasty, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in the Persian Empire. In 1383 t mut started the military conquest of Persia, He captured Herat, Khurasan and all Tain Persia By 1385 and massacred almost all inhabitants of Neishapur and other ities. j and Ghor Empires khtamysh who, after having been Iranian ¢ inthe meantime, Tokhtamysh, now khan of the Golden Horde, turned against his ston and invaded Azerbaijan in 1385. It was not until 1395, in the battle of Kur River, it Tokhtamysh’s power was finally broken after a titanic struggle between the two snonarchs. In this war, Timur first led an army of over 100,000 men north for more than 700 miles into the uninhabited steppe, then west about 1000 miles, advancing in a front snore than 10 miles wide. The Timurid army almost starved, and Timur organised a great hunt where the army encircled vast areas of steppe to get food. Tokhtamysh’s army finally was comered against the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed. During this march, Timur’s army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days, causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers in such northem regions. Timur led a second campaign against Tokhtamysh via an easier route through the Caucasus. Timur then destroyed Sarai and Astrakhan, and wrecked the Golden Horde’s economy based on Silk Road trade. Indian Campaign Informed about civil war in India, Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasiruddin Mehmood of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. His campaign was politically pretexted that the Muslim Delhi Sultanate was too tolerant towards its Hindu subjects, but that could not mask the real reason being to amass the wealth of the Delhi Sultanate. Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now Pakistan) on September 24. The capture of towns and villages was often followed by the looting, massacre of their inhabitants and raping of their women, as well as pillaging to support his massive army. Timur wrote Many times in his memoirs of his specific disdain for the ‘idolatrous’ Hindus, although he also waged war against Muslim Indians during his campaign. Timur’s invasion did not go unopposed and he did meet some resistance during his March to Delhi, by the Governor of Meerut. Timur was able to continue his relentless @Pproach to Delhi, arriving in 1398 to combat the armies of Sultan Mehmood, already ‘akened by an intemal battle for ascension within the royal family.‘be Persian and Pathan Ey, es The Sultan’s army was easily defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in uli: Before the battle for Delhi, 7; executed more than 100,000 captives, mostly Hindus. Mur asions in his memoirs, collectively known e-Taimuri. In them, he vivid the massacre at Delhi: « all the people in the Delhi fort were put to the sword sn the course of one hour the heads of 10,000 infidels were cut off. The sword of jy dean coe yin the blood of the infidels, and al the goods andl effects, the treasure fer the grain which for many a long year had been stored in the fort became the spoil of 3 soldiers. They set fire to the houses and reduced them to ashes, and they razeq the buildings and the fort to the ground....All these infidel Hindus were slain, their women and children, and their property and goods became the spoil of the victors. I proclaimed throughout the camp that every man who had infidel prisoners should put them to death, and whoever neglected to do so should himself be executed and his property given tp the informer. When this order became known to the ghazis of Islam, they drew their swords and put their prisoners to death. One hundred thousand infidels, impious idolaters, were on that day slain. Maulana Nasiruddin Umar, a counsellor and man of learning, who, in all his life, had never killed a sparrow, now, in execution of my order, slew with his sword fifteen idolatrous Hindus, who were his captives....on the great day of battle these 100,000 prisoners could not be left with the baggage, and that it would be entirely opposed to the rules of war fost these idolaters and enemies of Islam at liberty... no other course remained but that of making them all food for the sword. As per Malfuzat-e-Timuri, Timur targeted Hindus. In his own words, “Excepting the quarter of the saiyids, the Ulama and the other Musalmans, the whole city was sacked”. In his descriptions of the Loni massacre he wrote, “Next day I gave orders that the Musalman prisoners should be separated and saved.” During the ransacking of Delhi, almost all inhabitants not killed were captured enslaved. Timur himself recorded the inv a5 Turk dly described Ina short space of tim i and acre of Hind Timur’s memoirs on his invasion of India describe in detail the mas: 0 ersions © looting plundering and raping of their women and children, their forced conv! i Islam and the plunder of the wealth of Hindustan (Greater India). It gives details of villages, towns and entire cities were rid of their Hindu male population through system mass slaughters and genocide and their women and children forcefully converteden ™ to Islam from Hinduism. Timur left Delhi in approximately January 1399, In April he had retwened 108 ie capital beyond the Oxus (Amu Darya). tianieeas sistinaen spall were take be India. According to Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo, 90 captured elephants were °™ gwea pen na cor Empires i hin ; o carry precious stones looted from his conquest, so as to erect a mosque at y te *, merely (0 4° what historians today believe is the enormous Bibi-Khanym Mosque arg? ‘4 scaly, the mosque was constructed too quickly and suffered greatly from disrepair ia ina few" decades of its construction. within ¢ ast Campaigns and Death As e the end of 1399, Timur started a war with Bayezid 1, Sultan of the Ottoman mpire, and the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim ru ersin Anatolia. As Timur claimed Sovereignty over the Turkmen Te, they took refuge behind him. Timur invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured pamascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city’s inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samargand. This led to Timur’s being publey declared an enemy of Islam. Befor’ In 1400 Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia. More than 60,000 people from the Caucasus were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated. He invaded Baghdad in June 1401. After the capture of the city, 20,000 of its citizens including Muslims were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with atleast two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur). After years of insulting letters passed between Timur and Bayezid, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on July 20, 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the 12-year Ottoman Interregnum period. Timur’s stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuk authority. Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors, illustrating again Timur's interest with Genghizid legitimacy. By 1368, the Ming had driven the Mongols out of China. The first Ming Emperor Hongwu demanded, and received, homage from many Central Asian states paid to China as the political heirs to the former House of Kublai. Although Timur more than once sent ‘othe Ming Government gifts, he wished to restore the Mongol Empire, and eventually Planned to conquer China. To this end, Timur made an alliance with the Mongols of Northern Yuan Dynasty and prepared all the way to Bukhara. The Mongol leader Enkhe nsent his grandson Oljei Temur, also known as Buyanshir. In December 1404, Timur Slatted military campaigns against the Ming Dynasty, but he was attacked by fever and Pligue when encamped on the farther side of the Sihon (Syr-Daria) and died at Atrar te) in mid-February 1405, His scouts explored Mongolia before his death, andthe pai 7 they carved on trees in Mongolia’s mountains could still be seeie. Persian and Patton En Empires 106 of Timus’s four sons, two Jahangir and Umar Sheikh) predeceased him. His ig s i con, Miran Shah, died soon after Timur leaving the youngest son, Shah Rukh. Altho, his ‘Gesignated successor was his grandson Pir Mohammed bin Jahangir, Timur ultimately seceded in power by his son Shah Rukh. His most illustrious descendany Babu founded the Mughal Empire and ruled over most of North India. Babu’ descendan Humayun, Akbar, Jahangit, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, expanded the Mughal Enpie to most of the Indian subcontinent along with parts of modern Afghanistan, Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo’s embassy, states that his pody “was embalmed with musk and rose watery wrapped in linen, laid inan ebony coffin aed sent to Samargand, where it was buried.” His tomb, the Gur-e-Amir, still stands in Samargand, though it has been heavily restored in recent years. Timur had carried his victorious arms on one side from the Irtish and the Volga to the Persian Gulf, and on the other from the Hellespont to the Ganges River. Contributions to the Arts Timur became widely known as a patron to the arts. Much of the architecture he commissioned still stands in Samarqand, now in present-day Uzbekistan. He was known to bring the most talented artisans from the lands he conquered back to Samargand, and is credited with often giving them a wide latitude of artistic freedom to express themselves. According to legend, Omar Aqta, Timur’s court calligrapher, transcribed the Quran using letters so small that the entire text of the book fit on a signet ring. Omar also is said to have created a Quran so large that a wheelbarrow was required to transport it. Folios of what is probably this larger Quran have been found, written in gold lettering on huge pages. Timur was also said to have created Tamerlane Chess, a variant of shatranj (28° known as medieval chess) played on a larger board with several additional pieces an original method of pawn promotion. ae popular international sport and part of the Legacy Timur’s legacy is a mixed one. While Central Asia blossomed under his re na pices eee Damascus, Delhi and other Arab, Persian, Indian 27" tile Timur still teat ed and destroyed, and millions of people were slaughtered: TH an ins a positive image in Central Asia hei vilified by many in A™ me and Indian societies. gd> Gani and Gor Empires daz Exhumation Timur’s body was exhumed from his tomb in 1941 by the Soviet anthropologist Mikhail M. Gerasimov. From his bones it was clear that Timur was a tall and broad chested man with strong cheek bones. Gerasimov also found that Timur’s facial characteristics conformed to that of Mongoloid features, which he believed, in some part, {upported Timur’s notion that he was descended from Genghis Khan. Gerasimov was shie to reconstruct the likeness of Timur from his skull. Exchanges with the West Timur had numerous epistolary exchanges with Western, especially French, rulers. The French archives preserve: « AJuly 30th, 1402, letter from Timur to Charles VI, King of France, suggesting him to send traders to the Orient. It was written in Persian. « A May 1403 letter. This is a Latin transcription of a letter from Timur to Charles VI,and another from Amiza Miranchah, his son, to the Christian Princes, announcing their victory over Bayezid, in Smyrna. A copy has been kept of the answer of Charles VI to Timur, dated June 15th, 1403. After Death Timur became a popular figure in Europe for centuries after his death, not in the least because of his victory over the Ottoman Sultan and the humiliations to which he is said to have subjected his prisoner Bayezid. Timur was officially recognised as a national hero of newly independent Uzbekistan. His monument in Tashkent takes the place where Marx’s statue once stood. Pir Mohammed Pir Mohammed (c. 1374-1407) was a grandson and appointed successor of Timur. He was the son of Jahangir. In 1392 he received the governorship of Qandahar. His territory extended from the lands west of the Hindu Kush to the Indus River. In the fall of 1397 he led the first wave of Timurids into India, and was invested with the rulership of Multan. On his deathbed, Timur named Pir Mohammed as his successor. Timur felt that none of his sons were capable of handling the job (Jahangir and Umar Sheikh had died, Miran Shah suffered from mental difficulties, and Shah Rukh was judged too pious to rule). Unfortunately for Pir Mohammed, none of his relatives supported him following Timur’s death. He was unable to assame command in Samargand and was murdered by his wazir in 1407,biwuography Abwlzzeddin, Nejla M.: The Druzes: A Nei i slesed gee uzes: A New Study of their History, Faith and Society, E.. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M.: A Histo: e il Pee Caabdage 1087. ry of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Cambridge University shane Hasanuddin: A Brief History of Islam, Goodword Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Ali, Syed Ameer: The Spirit of Islam: A History ofthe Evolution and Ideals of Islam, with a Life of the Prophet, Chatto & Windus, London, 1978. ‘AlRashid, Madawi: A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002. Amin, Qasim: The Liberation of Women and the new Woman: Two Docume fe the History of Egyptian Feminism, American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, 2000. Ann Arbor and Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S.: Monetary Change and Economic History in the "Medicoa! Islamic World, Ashgate/Variorum, Aldershot, 1992. Armstrong, Karen: Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, San Francisco, 1993. ‘Asani, Ali A.: Celebrating Muhammad: Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim Poetry, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, 1995. Bakar, Osman: The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science, The Islamic Texts Society, Cambridge, 1999. Barlas, Asma: Believing Women University of Texas Press, Basham, A. L.: A Cultural History of Bayat, Mangol: Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligions Thows! University Press, Syracuse, 1982. in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal bnterpretations of the Quran, ‘Austin, 2002. India, Oxford, New York, 1975. at in Qajar ran, Syracuseay Persian and Pathan Empires Beach, Milo Cleveland: The King of the World—The Padshalinana: An Imperial Mughat ‘Manuscript from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, Thames & Hudson, New York, 1997. Bennison, Amira K.: Jihad and its Interpretation in Pre-colonial Morocco: State-Society Relations during the French Conquest of Algeria, RoutledgeCurzon, New York, 2002. Bivins, Mary W.: Women, Ecology and Islam in the Making of Modern Hausa Cultural History, Michigan State University, Michigan, 1994 Black, Antony: The History of Islamic Political Th Routledge, New York, 2001. New York University Press, Washington Square, 1998. Blair, Sheila S.: Islamic Inscriptions, Bloom, Jonathan M.: Paper before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2001. Bockleman, Carl: History of Islamic Peoples, Oxford, New York, 2003. Bosworth, Clifford E.: The Islamic Dynasties, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1967. - Brigadier, Gulzar Ahmed: The Prophets (PBUH) Concept of War, Aziz Pub., Islamabad, 2000. Brockelman, Bukhsh, S. K.: Contribution to the History of Islamic Civilization, 2000. Burton, John: An Introduction to the Hadith, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1994. Callicott, Baird J.: The Historical Roots of Western European Environmental Attitudes and Values: Islam, University of California Press, California, 1994. Ibrahim: Environmental Ethics in the Light of the Hadiths, New Asia Press, Istanbul, ought: From the Prophet to the Present, C:: History of the Islamic People, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1947. Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, Canan, 1995. : Cantwell, Smith, W.: Islam in Modern History, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1957. Charles, Coulston Gillispie: Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1981. Algeria, Princeton Christelow, Alan: Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial State in University Press, Princeton, 1985. Coates, Peter: Ibn ‘Arabi and Modern Thought: The History of Taking Metap Anga Publ., Oxford, 2002. Cole, Juan R. I: Comparing Muslim Societies: Knowledge and the State ina World Civilization, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1992. Cook, Michael: Muhammad, Oxford University Press, New York, 1983. Cooperson, Michael: Classical Arabic Biography: Heirs of the Prophet in the Age Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000. : nysics Seriously ofal-Ma'mu"ogra i a an enry’: History of Islamic Philosophy, Kegan Paul, London, 1993, on K.A.C: Early Muslim Architecture, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1940, ese Keith: Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosh 1 | i" nological Approach, Inner Traditions, fc, 1999 Rochester, 1999. ,, Farhad: Mediaeval Ismaili History and ‘Thou oat pridge, 1996. | porie Nz Islam: Europe and Enpire, University Press, Edinburgh, 1966. | pavis,Joyce Mz Between Jihad and Salaam: Profiles i Islam, MacMillan, New York, 1997. py, Lact Description of India and Fragment of bndian History, Oxford, New York, 1963, pekmejian, Hrair Ru Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1995, Donald, Hill R. and Al-Hassan Ahmad Y.: [slam Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986 Donald, Little P. and Hallaq Wael B.: Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J. Adams, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 1991. Donner, Fred McGraw: The Early Islamic Con 1981. Doxeson and Elliot: History of India, Ali & Co., Aligarh, 1952. Drier J. L, Es History of the Planetary Systems, Cambridge, New York, 1903, Duchesne, L. Early History of the Christian Church, Luzae & Co., London, 1914. Durrani, KK: Muhammad (PBUH) the Prophet, Oxford, New York, 2001. Easwaran, Eknath: Nonviolent Soldier of Islam: Badshah Khan, A Man to Match His Mountains, Nilgiri Press, Tomales, 2000. Eaton, Richard Maxwi Oxford, 2001. Edward, Gibbon: History of the Decline and Fall of Roman Empire, Oxford, New York, 2000. End: tess, Gerhard: Islam: An Historical Introduction, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002, ight, Cambridge University Press, ic Technology: An Illustrated History, quests, Princeton University Press, Princeton, ell: Essays on Islam and Indian History, Oxford University Press, §ntelis, John P: Islam, Democracy and the State in North Africa, Indiana University Press; loomington, 1997. Pesito, John L.: Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism or Reform?, Lynne Rienner Ublication, Colorado, 1997. 7 ’ Majid: A History of Islamic Philosophy, Longman, London, 1983. Sespiel, Howard Ms The Usage of Trnltions of the Prophet in Contemporary Dudonesi, "ona State University Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Tempe, 1993. eess Persian ang P, 8 ee in p Firro, Kais Mz: A History of the Druzes, BJ. Brill, Leiden, 1997, hi ra Itz, Richard: Environmentalism in the Muslim World, Nova Science Pub : Foltz, Richard: E ts York, 2005. ae : "Ne, Frederick, Quinn and Quinn, Charlotte A. ore, Faith and Feay: Islam in Subs Aria, Osford University Press, Oxford, 2003, "i Gabricli, Francesco: Arab Historians of the Crusades, University of California Press Pet Sabrieli, Francesco: Bet 1969. % Gallagher, Nancy Elizabeth: Approaches to the History of the Middle East: Interven Leading Middle East Historians, Ithaca, Reading, 1997, i Gauba, KL. The Prophet of the Desert (PBUH), Feroz Pub, Lahore, 2099, George, Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science, Carnegie Institute, Washin, ton, Gerber, Haim: State, Society and Lavo in Islam: Ottoman Law in Comparative Perspective Sa University of New York Press, Albany, 1994, Goitein, $.D.: Studies in Islamic History and Institutions, EJ. Brill, Goldziher, Ignaz: The Zahiris, their Doctrine and their History: of Islamic Theology, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 1971, Goodwin, Godfrey: A History of Ottoman Architecture, Thames & Hudson, New York, 2003. Graham, 1977. Leiden, 1966, A Contribution tg the Stuy William A.: Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam, The Hague, Mouton, Tunebaum, Gustave E.: Muhammadan Festivals, Brill, Leiden, 1958, G Guillaume, Alfred: The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishagq’s Sirat Rasul Allah, Oxford University Press, London, 1955, Gulzar Ahmed, Brigadier: The Battles of the Prophet of Allah (PBi UH), Aziz Pub,, Islamabad, 2001. Hafez, Kai: The Islamic World and the West: An Introduction to Political Cultures aud International Relations, E., Brill, Leia len, 2000, Halla, Wael Bs 4 History of Islamic Legal Theories An Introduction to Sunni Usul Al-fgh Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, Hamidullah, M.: Battlefields of the Prophet Muhammad, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, in Hig, gop Anwarul: The Faith Movement of Mevolana Muhammad yas, Country Pub., Lorde ican Hassan, Hassan: In the House Of Muhammad Ali: A Family Album, 1805-1952, Americ University in Cairo Prosg, Cairo, 2000, ge Mawting, GR: The First Dynaety Islam: The i 661-750, Rowe wing, OR: 7 1 of slam: The Umayiyud Caliphate, ADitis 'Y 289 Hawting, GR.: The History of i: Press, Albany, 1996. y of al-Tabari: The First Cieil War, State U + niversi pean Cm ‘The History of al-Tabaris The We oe versity of New Y r kere Wael qtinds, Martin: Studies 7 aa ee ic, ae 5 1s in Early Islamic Histor itt, Phillip K- Hist Dar re Ph pK History ofthe Arabs: From Earliest Ti SE ead ; imes to the Present, MacMillan, Londor oagson, Marshall GS-2 Rethink ae : 1 GSz Rethinking World History: Sgro NCambridge University PSS Hl seg Ea an polt, PMs Cambridge History of Islam, Cambridge Univer i i, Albert H.: A History of the Arab Pi Sheeran al rab Peoples, Faber and Faber, London, 1991. Houra Humphreys, Stephen Re Islamic History: pn gon 1: istory: A Framework for Inquiry Princeton University ‘Al-Hamra Publishers. Husaini, HLA: The Religious thought of Mir ‘Syed Ali Hamadani, Srinagar, 1979- Ibn Khaldun: The Princeton, 1969- Ton, Hasan: The Contral structure of the Mughal Empire, ‘Adam Pi ial History of the women Empire, Inalcik, Halil: Att Economic and Soci University Press, Cambridge, 1994. university of C! Itzkowitz, Norman: Ottoman Empire at Islamic Tradition, Chicago, 1972 Mugaddimah: ‘An Introduction to History, Princeton University Press: ab., New Delhi, 1950- 1300-1914, cambridge ricago Press. John Obert voll a! L.: Makers of Contemporary Islam, Oxford. University Press, Oxford, 2001. : ap Ph Johnstone, Penelope bn Qayyi” al-fawaiiyy® Medicine of Society” ambridge 1 : ‘ i argaret b+ cial His siete voulder, 1999 the Africa: Restor's e Judith, qucker E- an\ jew Press: the Moder Middle East, stvie * Mid "east and Nor 'S) “ g Esposito, Jone ‘ic Text het, The Islam 4 tory of Wome” ‘and Gender in L: ity: Wome in the idle "zs, Bloomingtom” 1999 New York, 1 Guily? Ban ie i ‘university PFW 99 a eal of the prophets, viking Press: Ww in Kahn. Muhammad gateulla: musa: ahn, yor orton" empire art the Word Enon The tie ase oo eT sary. Mam, Anais 0 slams inthe OFF Unive : young onomanist Arabisnt Kayall Ha rs vers of California press; Berkeley’ i 408% 908-192" - ie — fae Nineteenth Century state omar290 Persian and Pathan Enipiyes Keddie, Nikki R.: Roots of Revolution: An Interpretative History of Modern Iran, Y: Press, New Haven, 1981 Kennedy, Hugh: The Historiography of Islamic Egypt (c, 950-1800), Brill Academic Publication, Leiden, 2001 Kepel, Gilles: Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and Pharaoh, University of California Press, California, 1993. Kerr, Malcolm: Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida, University of California Press, California, 1966. Khalifa, Abdul Hakim: The Prophet (PBUH) and His Message, Islamic Pub., Lahore, 1996, Knysh, Alexander: Islamic Mysticisin: A Short History, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 2000. Kramers, ].H. and Gibb Hamilton A.R.: Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, Leiden, 1997, Lambton, Ann K.: Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century, 1.B. Tauris, London, 1988. Lapidus, Ira M.: A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988. Levtzion, Nehemia and Randall Pouwels L.: The History of Islam in Africa, Ohio University, Athens, 2000. ale University Lewis, Bernard: Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople: Politics and War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987. Lia, Brynjar: The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement, 1928-1942, Ithaca Press, Reading, 1998. Lipman, Jonathan N.: Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1998. Louis, William Roger: The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945-1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. Madelung, Wilferd: The Succession to Muliammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997. Martin, Richard C.: Islamic Studies: A History of Religions Approach, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1995. Masud, Muhammad Khalid: Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and their Fatwas, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1996. Mauris, Andre: History of England, Britain Pub., England, 2001. McChesney, R. D.: Waaf in Central Asia: Four Hundred Years in the History of a Muslim Shrine, 1480-1889, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991. Messaoudi, Khalida: Unbowed: An Algerian Woman Confronts Islamic Fundamentalism, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1998,y pibliography 21 riche, George: Architecture of the Islan World: Its His aay ‘& Hudson, New York, 1995, rid: Its History and Social Meaning, Thames Milo, Cleveland Beach and Soudavar Abou: Art of the Persi ‘Art and History Trust Collection, Rizzoli, Ne ae fod. eee Mommsen, T.: Provinces of the Roman Empire, MacMillan & Co., London, 1909. He Roy: The Mautle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran, Oneworld, Oxford, Motzki, Harald: The Biography of Muhanad: The Issue of the Sources, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 2000. , EJ. Brill, i Nast, Seyyed Hossein: An Introduction to Islantic Cosmological Doctrines, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1993. Nassar, Jamal Raji: The Palestine Liberation Organization: From Armed Struggle to the Declaration of Independence, Praeger, New York, 1991. Nayerch, Tohidi and Bodman Herbert: Wornen in Muslim Societies: Diversity within Unity, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1998. Nicholson, R.A. Literary History of the Arabs, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 1994 Nicole, Pope and Pope Hugh: Turkey Unveiled: A History of Modern Turkey, Overlook Press, Woodstock, 2000. Noonan, Thomas $.: The Islamic World, Russia and the Vikings, 750-900: The Numismatic Evidence, Ashgate/Variorum, Aldershot, 1998. Nurbakhsh, Javad: Traditions ofthe Prophet: Aladith, Kkaniqahi Nimatullahi Publication, New York, 1981. Owtram, Francis: A Modern History of Oman: Formation of the tate since 1920, 1.8. Tauris, London, 2003. Patricia, Crone: Themes in Islamic History, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 2000. Peacock, James L.: Purifying the Faith: The Muhammadiyah Movement in Indonesian Islam, The Benjamin /Cummings Publication Co., Menlo Park, 1978. Peirce, Lelie P: The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997. Peters, Francis E.: Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, State University of New York Press, ‘Albany, 1994. Peters, Rudolph: Islam and Colonialism: The Docirie of Jihad in Modern History, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 1984. Petruccioli, Attilio: Gardens inthe Time oft! Brill, Leiden, 1997- Philip, Bagby: Culture am ____ a ; he Great Muslim Empires: Theory and Design, EJ. id History, University ‘of Calffornia Press, California, 1991.62 Persian and Pathan Empires Price, Daniel E.: Islamic Political Culture, Democracy and Human Rights: A Comparative Study, Praeger, Westport, 1999. Quataert, Donald: The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922, Cambridge University Press, Cambrid, ge, 2000. Qureshi, LH.: The Administration of the Mught! Empire, Feroz Pub., Karachi, 1966, Qureshi, Nacem M.: Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918- 1924, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 1999. Radtke, B. and O'Kane, J.: The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism, Curzon Press, Surrey, 1996. Richards, John F.: The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, Ricklefs, M.C.: The Seen and Unseen Worlds in Java, 1726-1749: History, Literature and Islam in the Court of Pakubuwana Il, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1998. Rippin, Andrew: Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Quran, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988. Rizvi, S.A.A.: Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar’s Reign, Deep & Deep Pub., Delhi, 1975. Robinson, Chase F.: Empires and Elites after the Muslim Conquest: The Transformation of Northern Mesopotamia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000. Rosenthal, Franz: Muslim Intellectual and Social History: A Collection of Essays, Ashgate/ Variorum, Aldershot, 1990. Saad, Eddin Ibrahim and Hopkins Nicholas S.: Arab Society: Class, Gender, Power and Development, American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, 1998. Sadiq, M.: A History of Urdu Poetry, MacMillan & Co., London, 1964. Saksena, R.B.: A History of Urdu Literature, Vora Pub., Allahabad, 1927. Salibi, Kamal.: A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1988. Salman and Din ife of Muhammad (PBUH), Feroz Pub., Lahore, 2003. Samuel, Hayes L.: Islamic Law and Finance: Religion, Risk and Return, Kluwer Law Int'l, The Hague, 1998. Saran, P.: Studies in Medieval Indian History, Deep & Deep Pub., Delhi, 1952. Sardar, Ziauddin: The Future of Muslim Civilization, Mansell, London, 1987. Schimmel, Annemarie: And Muhammad is his Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet it Islamic Piety, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1985. Schulze, Reinhard: A Modern History of the Islamic World, New York University Press, Washington, 2000.- ibliograrhy 293 gnaban, M.A. Islamic History: A New Interpret Press, Cambridge, 1978. pretation, (A.H. 132-448), Cambridge Universi iB! ty shadid, Anthony: Legacy of the Prophet: Despots, De Weatview Press, Colorado, atl. spots, Democrats and the New Politics of Islam, charif, MM. A History of Muslim Philosophy, Feroz Pub., Lahore, 1993 saw, Stanford J.: History ofthe Ottoman Empire , my 1 Td y ft € Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 1: Empire of the Jecline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280-1808, Cambridge Universi Press, Cambridge, 1977. i Cambridge University siddiqui, M.A.: History of Muslims, Atlantic Publisher, New Delhi, 1996 smith, Rex G.: The History of al-Tabari, Vol. XIV: The Conquest o n, State Uni Ly 5 Me Tran, St it New York Press, Albany, 1994. sof Sie ea ol sonbol, Amira El Azhary: Women, the Family and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996. starr, June: Law as Metaphor: From Islamic Courts to the Palace of Justice, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1992. starrett, Gregory: Putting Islam to Work: Education, Politics and Religious Transformation in Egupt, University of California Press, California, 1998. syed, M. H: History of Muslims in India, ‘Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 2003. Tamarci, Som: A Brief History of Islam, Blackwell, New York, 1992. Temple, RC: The Administration of the Mughal Empire, Feroz Pub., Karachi, 1966. Tibi, Bassam: Islam and the Cultural ‘Accommodation of Social Change, Westview Press, Colorado, 1990. Tibi, Bassam: The Crisis of Modern Islam, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 1988. Tolan, John V.: Saracens: Islam in the Medicoa! European Imagination, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002. Tolu-e-Islam, Movement: Man and Lahore, 2000. / Tripp, Charles: A History of Iraq, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002. Tritton, Arthur Stanley: The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the to pat Liar, Evank Cass, Londen, 1970. Turner, Howard R. Science 1 ‘aedieunl Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, University of ‘urner, a stin, 1997. xas Press, Austin, : , ; , ce te Islam in the African-American Experience Indiana University Press, His Environment: In Islam: A Challenge, Tolu-e-Islam, Turner, ca Bloomington, 1997" F ; enrawardi: Atari al Moar bin ‘Muhammad, Sheikh Ghulam Shahabuddin Ali & Umar, Sons, Lahore, 1964.294 Persian and Pathan Empires Uwaysi, Abd al-Fattah Muhammad: The Muslin Brothers and the Palestine Question, 1928- 1947, Tauris Academic Studies, London, 1998. ‘he History of Saudi Arabia, New York University Press, New York, 2000. Vasiliev, Alexei: Vincent, Smith: The Oxford History of India, Oxford, New York, 1987. Viorst, Milton: In the Shadow of the Prophet: The Struggle for the Soul of Islamt, Anchor Books, New York, 1998. Vogel, Frank Ea: Islamic Law and Legal Systems: Studies of Satuli Arabia, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 2000 Voll, John O.: Islam: Continuity and Change 1982. Walker, Paul E.: Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, 1.B. Tauris, London, 2002. Wang, Gungwu: Self and Biography, Allen & Co., Sydney, 1974. Warmington, EH. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and Arabs, Faber & Faber Co., New York, 1939. Watt, Montgomery: Muitammad (PBUH) at Medina, Oxford, New York, 1973. Wensick, A.E: A Handbook of Early Muhammadan Traditions, Luzac & Co., Leiden, 1960. Wescoat, James L.: Muslim Contributions to Geography and Environmental Ethics: The Challenges of Comparison and Pluralism, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, 1997. White, Jenny B.: Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2003. Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky: Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002. Wiktorowicz, Quintan: The Management of Islamic Activism: Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood ‘and State Power in Jordan, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2001. Williams, Michael: Outlines of World Military History, Oxford, New York, 1996. Winer, L: Contributions towards a History of Arabico-Gothic Culture, Oxford, New York, 1917. Wolpert, Stanley A.: A New History of India, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000. Zaydan, Jurji: History of Islamic Civilization, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 1994. in the Modern World, Westview Press, Colorado,fa S z r