0:01

welcome to norse mythology the

0:02
unofficial guide it's unofficial because
0:04
i'm neither a credentialed academic nor
0:06
a time-traveling medieval norse pagan
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but i deal with this material directly
0:09
from the sources interpreted through the
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lens of the experts and their opinions
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if you're looking for depth and detail
0:14
in a simple and accessible way then
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you're in the right place
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[Music]
0:24
oscar textanda hater
0:28
horbadmer
0:39
i know an ash tree stands named igtrazal
0:42
a tall tree made wet with white mud from
0:45
there come the dews that fall in the
0:47
valleys it stands forever green over
0:49
earth as well
0:51
typically i like to use caroline
0:53
larrington's second edition translation
0:55
of the poetic edda whenever i provide
0:57
english versions of old norse poetry but
1:00
in this case i thought it might be fun
1:02
to throw in a translation that i did on
1:04
my own
1:05
going forward i will try to remember to
1:07
call out all of my own translations
1:09
which i will be more likely to provide
1:11
in cases where i feel like other
1:13
translations have sacrificed an
1:15
important nuance and meaning for the
1:17
purpose of poetic effect
1:19
this however is not one of those cases
1:22
newcomers to norse mythology are often
1:24
looking for
1:25
symbols partly because modern popular
1:28
media have conditioned a lot of people
1:30
to think that quote vikings must have
1:32
had cryptic pictographic symbols for
1:34
literally everything and oftentimes they
1:37
will mistakenly refer to these imagined
1:39
symbols as runes
1:42
runes are real of course and to be fair
1:44
there are also a few repeated graphic
1:46
symbols that we do find carved into
1:49
stones and other things from the norse
1:50
period but for the most part runes are
1:53
just an alphabet and the few repeated
1:55
geometric symbols we know of that show
1:58
up in online searches either have
2:00
unclear meanings if they were actually
2:02
used in ancient times or they are early
2:05
modern inventions that were never used
2:07
in medieval norse society
2:09
but whereas ancient norse tradition may
2:11
not have been so focused on cryptic
2:13
geometric patterns as your local tattoo
2:16
shop might want you to believe
2:18
norse and the broader umbrella of
2:21
germanic paganism
2:23
was a highly symbolic religion
2:25
and if i had to pick what i thought was
2:27
the most prominent and pervasive symbol
2:29
of ancient germanic religion it would be
2:32
a tree
2:34
in the last episode we touched on the
2:35
relationship between humans and trees
2:38
poetically it turns out humans are
2:40
equivalent to trees and even originate
2:43
from trees in the myths
2:44
but the influence of trees doesn't stop
2:46
at their relationship to humanity
2:48
we've talked before about how norse
2:50
mythology preserves a memory of one
2:52
particular flavor of northwestern
2:54
germanic paganism
2:55
it gets a lot of focus because it
2:57
provides the most extensive corpus we
2:59
have of pre-christian germanic
3:01
literature
3:02
but gods with similar names and some
3:04
similar stories
3:05
essentially a larger umbrella of the
3:07
same religious tradition was once held
3:09
throughout all of germanic speaking
3:11
northern europe including places like
3:13
england where a lot of the medieval
3:15
christian literature actually preserves
3:17
a few glimpses into the pre-christian
3:18
mindset as well
3:20
the monster grendel in beowulf for
3:22
example is described as an aeotin which
3:25
is the native old english version of the
3:27
old norse jotun which we often see
3:29
translated as giant beowulf also takes
3:32
place in 6th century scandinavia and was
3:35
potentially composed as early as 725 a.d
3:38
which is earlier than the viking age
3:40
although the dating of the poem itself
3:42
is a pretty controversial topic and
3:44
there are reasons to think it might be
3:45
younger
3:46
but somewhere around that same time in
3:48
england an anonymous poet also composed
3:51
some early version of a poem that would
3:53
eventually come to be known as dream of
3:55
the rude where rude spelled r-o-o-d
3:58
is an old-fashioned word for cross
4:01
dream of the rude is a fascinating
4:03
example of the pagan cultural mindset
4:05
reconciling itself to christianity
4:08
in this poem the author claims to have
4:10
had a vision of a towering glorious tree
4:12
all sprinkled with gold and wrapped in
4:14
jewels
4:15
he makes sure to mention that this tree
4:17
was no ordinary gallows for the wicked
4:19
no old hanging tree
4:21
and in fact it turns out that the tree
4:23
is sentient it begins speaking to the
4:25
author and tells him the story of the
4:27
crucifixion of christ
4:28
from the point of view of the cross
4:31
who experienced crucifixion alongside
4:33
jesus
4:34
the tree explains that it was once cut
4:37
down from the edge of a forest and
4:39
fashioned into a cross for executing
4:41
criminals but found itself just by
4:43
chance serving as the instrument of
4:45
death for the savior of the world
4:47
jesus is portrayed like a classic norse
4:49
or germanic young hero in this poem who
4:52
quickly and eagerly climbs the cross
4:53
himself to bravely meet his fate
4:56
though the tree claims to have had the
4:58
power to have killed all of jesus
5:00
enemies then and there
5:02
he chooses instead to perform the task
5:04
required of him by his lord
5:06
the tree relates that both he and jesus
5:08
have to bear the nails that are hammered
5:10
into jesus hands to secure him to the
5:12
cross
5:13
and whereas the soldiers pierce jesus's
5:15
side with a spear
5:16
so the tree and the vision bleeds from
5:18
one side as well
5:20
when jesus dies and is laid in a tomb
5:22
the cross is hewn down and buried in a
5:24
pit but just as jesus is resurrected so
5:27
is the cross discovered pulled from the
5:29
ground and bedecked with golden jewels
5:32
having served jesus essentially as a
5:34
loyal thing the cross seems to have
5:37
become a tree again at this point
5:38
honored and glorified by all the world
5:41
and in the same way that jesus preserves
5:43
his wounds after resurrection showing
5:45
them to his apostles for proof of who he
5:47
is so this glorious tree retains the
5:49
scars from the nails and the blood from
5:51
the crucifixion which are seen amongst
5:53
its ornamentation when the author looks
5:55
carefully
5:56
near the end of the poem the author says
5:58
quote
5:59
i prayed then to the cross with joyous
6:02
heart and eagerness where i was all
6:04
alone companionless my spirit was
6:06
inspired with keenness for departure and
6:08
i spent much time in longing now my hope
6:11
of life is that i may approach the tree
6:12
of triumph alone more often than all
6:15
other men honor it well my wish for that
6:17
is great within my heart and my hope for
6:19
support is turned towards the cross
6:22
i wait each day for when the cross of
6:24
god which here on earth i formerly
6:26
beheld may fetch me from this transitory
6:28
life and carry me to where there is
6:30
great bliss and joy in heaven end quote
6:34
this unifying of experience and purpose
6:37
between the christian lord and the
6:39
animistic tree who is rewarded for
6:42
supporting and submitting to its
6:44
religious superior
6:46
creates a fascinating justification
6:48
for continued veneration of trees within
6:51
a christian context
6:53
no longer as symbols of the pagan
6:55
worldview but as participants in the
6:57
christian doctrine of salvation
7:00
the stanza i recited at the beginning of
7:02
this episode is from voluspa the first
7:04
poem in the poetic edda which is our
7:06
foremost source for norse mythology and
7:09
it describes another towering glorious
7:11
tree called igdrasil
7:13
although trees are commonly stand-ins
7:15
for people in norse poetry the context
7:18
here tells us very clearly that we are
7:20
dealing with an actual tree in this case
7:22
specifically an ash tree and in the
7:24
norse world view the entire cosmos is
7:27
oriented around this tree
7:29
the sources don't ever describe the
7:31
actual creation of utracil
7:33
whether it's one of odinn's creations or
7:35
whether it existed before the rest of
7:37
the world we don't know for sure
7:39
although we do know that it serves an
7:41
important purpose for the norse gods the
7:43
poem grimness mall details how the gods
7:46
ride to igdrassel daily except thor who
7:48
goes on foot where they meet to pass
7:50
their various judgments
7:52
grimness small also provides us two
7:54
different names for the tree one of
7:56
which is yggdrasil's ash and the other
7:59
is la rother la rather is one of those
8:02
obscure hard to decipher words but the
8:05
most common guess about what it means in
8:06
the academic community is something like
8:09
causer of harm or arranger of betrayal
8:13
that may seem like an odd name for a
8:14
tree that serves as the linchpin for the
8:16
entire cosmos until you realize that the
8:19
other name igdrazel more clearly means
8:22
terrifier horse
8:24
currently we only have a theoretical
8:26
understanding of these names and that
8:28
theory rests on a very short anecdote
8:31
given to us by odinn in a poem called
8:33
havamal in stanzas 138 and 139 he tells
8:37
us quote
8:38
i know that i hung on a windswept tree
8:40
nine long nights wounded with a spear
8:43
dedicated to odin myself to myself on
8:46
that tree of which no man knows from
8:47
where its roots run
8:49
with no bread did they refresh me nor
8:51
drink from a horn downwards i appeared i
8:53
took up the runes screaming i took them
8:56
then i fell back from there end quote
9:00
this story is one of many in which odinn
9:02
goes to extreme lengths to gain
9:04
knowledge in this case human sacrificing
9:07
himself to himself for the purpose of
9:10
obtaining whatever it is he gets out of
9:12
the ruins
9:13
whether that is the knowledge to read
9:15
them or the knowledge to perform magic
9:18
spells with them
9:19
it's never explicitly stated what it is
9:21
that he obtains from getting the runes
9:24
but assuming this windswept tree with
9:26
roots of an ambiguous source is indeed a
9:28
reference to igdrassel
9:30
and if that is indeed a place where
9:32
odinn once hung himself then suddenly we
9:34
can interpret this through the lens of a
9:36
relatively common poetic kenning or in
9:38
other words a poetic reference to
9:40
something simple
9:41
by means of a more complicated and
9:43
artistic turn of phrase
9:45
specifically there are a few poems
9:47
wherein a gallows is referred to as the
9:50
horse of the hanged man and it just so
9:52
happens that igor which means terrifier
9:55
is one of over 200 names for odinn given
9:57
in various places throughout the sources
10:00
so the idea is that the egg drasil or
10:03
the terrifier horse is a poetic allusion
10:06
to the idea that odinn once hung himself
10:08
on this tree in his relentless quest for
10:10
wisdom
10:11
taking this one step farther stands a
10:13
three of a skaldic poem called harald's
10:15
droppa by haldor
10:18
refers to a gallows as quote the grim
10:20
harm tree of king cigar's enemy end
10:23
quote
10:24
if a gallows can be referred to with
10:25
descriptions such as harm tree then the
10:28
negative implications of the name la
10:30
rather can potentially make sense
10:32
through this lens as well
10:34
at the risk of allowing myself to muse a
10:36
little bit
10:37
this notion of the tree at the cosmic
10:38
center being used as a gallows for the
10:41
chief of the gods is interesting in
10:43
light of how the author of dream of the
10:45
rood took special care to mention that
10:47
the towering tree from his vision was
10:49
better than a common gallows for the
10:51
wicked
10:52
the association there seems to have
10:54
remained
10:55
and in fact the tree still becomes the
10:57
instrument of death for the more newly
11:00
adopted lord of all the earth
11:02
to be clear there are no stories about
11:05
woden hanging from a tree that have
11:06
survived from pre-christian england
11:09
however the idea of trees being central
11:12
to worship is a broadly germanic concept
11:15
and sacrifice by hanging is described
11:18
amongst germanic people as far back as
11:20
the roman iron age although i should
11:23
mention that there is some controversy
11:24
around the idea of just how accurate
11:26
those descriptions really are
11:28
another name for uggdrassel is mima
11:31
meder which is used only in the poem
11:33
fiosvinsmall and means mimi's tree
11:37
both rudolph zemeck and john lindau
11:39
assume that mimi is probably a variation
11:41
on the name of the god mimir who we are
11:44
told by snorri owns a well situated
11:46
under yukt russell
11:48
one other name used in the poem of
11:50
through the small is hodmimus holt which
11:53
is interpreted as a name for igdrassel
11:54
using the same information about meemir
11:56
as well
11:57
hodmimus holt is probably my personal
12:00
favorite reference to the tree because
12:02
in my opinion it helps ground our
12:04
notions of how this tree was probably
12:06
conceptualized by ancient norse pagans
12:09
often times modern artistic renderings
12:12
of uggdrassel show it floating in space
12:15
or standing alone on a wide open field
12:18
but the word holt here denotes something
12:21
more like a forest or a patch of
12:23
woodland or at the very least a grove of
12:25
trees
12:27
potentially tying into this idea are the
12:30
merseburg charms which are the only
12:32
known surviving pre-christian literature
12:34
written in german or more specifically
12:36
old high german they were discovered in
12:39
1841 having been mysteriously written
12:42
into a blank page of a christian
12:43
liturgical manuscript in the 9th or 10th
12:45
century by some unknown cleric for some
12:48
unknown reason in fulda germany the
12:52
first one is a charm for being freed
12:54
from chains
12:55
the second one is a healing charm and it
12:58
tells a story about the gods wodan and
13:01
balder writing to the halt the phrase is
13:04
warren siholza where balder's horse is
13:07
suddenly
13:08
injured in that it dislocates a joint or
13:11
something along those lines
13:13
some of the goddesses are present as
13:14
well and they along with wodon
13:16
enchant the horse such that it becomes
13:18
healed wodon and balder in this german
13:22
story obviously correspond with odinn
13:24
and balder from the norse corpus and
13:26
variations on the formula found in the
13:28
charm are also found in various places
13:30
in scandinavia as well
13:32
one interpretation of the story is that
13:35
the reason these characters were riding
13:36
to the halt is because as vothruthnismal
13:39
seems to suggest this is the place where
13:42
uggdrussell stands and igdrossel is
13:44
where the gods ride to render judgments
13:46
every day
13:47
michael j swisher would have us keep in
13:49
mind that this interpretation is only a
13:51
supposition
13:52
he prefers another interpretation
13:54
wherein the gods are writing to the
13:55
forest on a hunt because of the way
13:58
similar phrases are most commonly used
14:00
in old high german literature
14:02
however
14:03
as joseph s hopkins points out
14:06
references to groves of trees serving as
14:08
sacred spaces or areas of worship are a
14:11
constantly recurring staple of the
14:12
ancient germanic record the earliest of
14:15
which stretch all the way back to
14:17
descriptions given by roman authors and
14:19
the latest of which extend over a
14:21
millennia beyond the christianization of
14:23
the north germanic people
14:25
so it seems to me that a germanic story
14:28
placing deities in a grove or holt in
14:30
this case is very unlikely to intend no
14:33
religious significance for the holt
14:35
itself
14:36
this is some of my own musing again but
14:38
given what we know about the religious
14:40
and poetic relationship between trees
14:42
and
14:43
both humans and gods it occurs to me
14:46
that a grove of trees is even visually
14:49
reminiscent of a council of gods meeting
14:51
together to pass judgments
14:54
igdrassel is often called the world tree
14:56
by modern scholars because it falls in
14:58
line with a common motif found in
15:00
religious traditions from all over the
15:02
world wherein the various realms of the
15:04
universe are in some way connected or
15:06
anchored to a tree
15:08
in the norse context igbrussel connects
15:10
the world by means of its roots most
15:12
explicitly stanza 31 of grimnesmal
15:15
explains quote three roots there grow in
15:18
three directions under yggdrasil's ash
15:20
hell lives under one under the second
15:22
the frost giants under the third
15:24
humankind end quote
15:27
the word larrington renders as frost
15:29
giants here is krimthursar which we
15:31
mentioned in episode one that were not
15:33
actually considered to be gigantic
15:34
beings even though giant is the common
15:37
translation for the word thorse
15:39
and hell in this case is spelled with
15:41
one l and references the norse world of
15:43
the dead not the christian hell with two
15:45
l's
15:46
so grimness small has the roots of the
15:48
world tree demarcating the world of the
15:50
dead the world of the so-called giants
15:53
and the world of humanity interestingly
15:55
dividing the cosmos up into what
15:57
essentially amounts to the afterlife the
15:59
unseen world and the perceptible world
16:02
in terms of their physical locations
16:04
this is where things start to get a
16:05
little hairy
16:07
the original text of this stanza from
16:09
grimness mall uses derivations of the
16:10
word under twice
16:12
which is partly why i've gone to great
16:14
lengths in previous episodes and
16:16
provided examples to lay a foundation
16:18
for the idea that we don't have to take
16:20
this as literally as we are inclined to
16:22
in modern english
16:24
greco-roman depictions of the quote
16:26
underworld as a location beneath the
16:28
earth have preconditioned us to think
16:30
that when hell is specified as existing
16:32
underneath one of yggdrasil's roots
16:35
we immediately imagine some dark
16:37
cavernous place underground and then
16:39
with that imagery already in place we
16:41
read the line about hrimthursar living
16:43
under a second root and it may not be
16:46
exactly what we expect but we think
16:48
hey i can accept a description of
16:50
supernatural antagonists living
16:52
underground there's still a lot of
16:54
modern scandinavian folklore about
16:55
subterranean mischief makers for example
16:58
but then we read that third line stating
17:00
that humankind lives under one of these
17:03
roots and we start struggling for an
17:04
explanation
17:06
i certainly don't live underground so
17:08
what does that mean is igrazil in the
17:10
sky somewhere is there something in the
17:12
sky the norse people might have looked
17:14
up at and interpreted it as a tree root
17:17
above them
17:18
and now because of this focus on the
17:20
word under everything else that is said
17:22
to be under igrazil in the myths is
17:24
suddenly being imagined as underground
17:27
somewhere and we forget that the
17:29
simplest interpretation of something
17:31
being described as under a tree has
17:33
always just been that the tree towers
17:35
over it such as when you rest underneath
17:37
the tree on a sunny day
17:40
once again usage of the word under in
17:42
the stanza is admittedly weird but i
17:45
personally choose to interpret this as
17:47
meaning these worlds are under the
17:49
purview of or in other words demarcated
17:51
by yggdrasil's roots as opposed to being
17:54
literally underneath them
17:56
this isn't to say that the world of the
17:58
dead in particular never carried any
18:00
notion of being underground in fact
18:02
there are a lot of clues that point in
18:04
exactly that direction
18:05
but i find that this interpretation
18:07
helps me avoid a lot of mental
18:09
gymnastics that are otherwise required
18:11
for wrapping my head around how the
18:12
locations of the universe are physically
18:15
put together
18:16
and notice that so far we are still very
18:19
easily dealing with the realms of the
18:21
world as existing on a relatively flat
18:23
plane
18:25
snorri seems to have struggled with this
18:26
concept in the prose edda as well
18:28
and ended up coming to his own
18:29
interpretations that don't involve a
18:32
flat plane in his description one root
18:35
is among the assyr the gods one is among
18:37
the krimthursar and the area that used
18:39
to be the yawning void called ginungagap
18:42
before the world was created and the
18:44
third extends across niflheim which
18:46
snorri associates with hell
18:48
so his account possibly trades out the
18:50
route demarcating the lands of humankind
18:52
with one for the home of the gods
18:54
although snorri does also sort of imply
18:57
that osgarther is within midgardr at one
19:01
point and even here he goes on to say
19:04
that the third route the one that mark
19:05
snifflehame also extends to heaven and
19:08
that every day when the asia ride to
19:10
igdrassel they have to ride up there by
19:12
way of a bridge called by a couple of
19:14
different names as most things are in
19:16
norse mythology either bivrost billrost
19:20
or osbreu
19:21
and this bridge is literally just the
19:23
common rainbow
19:25
most commonly we see bivrost
19:27
mispronounced as bifrost but it's
19:30
actually a compound made from the word
19:32
biv meaning tremble or shake and rost
19:35
which means rest in a sense that denotes
19:38
something akin to a mile
19:40
a rest is essentially the distance one
19:42
would travel before taking a rest so
19:45
bivrost seems to mean tremble mile which
19:48
i suppose could be a reference to the
19:50
way a rainbow sometimes shimmers in the
19:52
light
19:53
similarly billrost which rudolph zmac
19:56
speculates maybe the older term means
19:58
momentary rest
20:00
probably referencing the way rainbows
20:02
appear for only a moment and then
20:03
disappear
20:04
and then the third name snory gives us
20:06
alsbru just means god bridge
20:09
medieval norse society conceptualized
20:11
the rainbow as being composed of three
20:14
colors and snory explains that the red
20:16
we see in the rainbow is actually fire
20:19
that prevents the jotnar and other
20:21
beings from crossing it although he also
20:23
claims that at the end of the world the
20:25
yotnad will cross it anyway
20:27
so in snorri's view whereas humans are
20:29
limited to traversing the world on just
20:31
a horizontal axis the gods are able to
20:34
traverse both a horizontal and vertical
20:36
axis earlier in the story he asserts
20:39
that osgarther where the gods made their
20:41
home is another name for the ancient
20:43
city of troy and that it was a place
20:45
where many events took place quote both
20:47
on earth and aloft end quote
20:51
so how accurate is snorri's conception
20:53
of norse cosmology
20:55
unfortunately it's kind of impossible to
20:58
say
20:58
at the end of the day snorri is a
21:00
christian scholar yes he lived closer to
21:03
the time of norse paganism than we do
21:06
although he was still hundreds of years
21:08
removed from it and yes he appears to
21:10
have had access to some sources that no
21:12
longer survive
21:13
although he frequently contradicts
21:15
himself and clearly embellishes the
21:17
material and interprets mythology
21:19
through a learned
21:21
christianity-influenced factually
21:23
incorrect model of medieval style
21:25
history
21:26
snorri is an academic with opinions just
21:29
like rudolph zemeck whose book i
21:31
frequently cite or john lindau or
21:33
caroline larrington
21:35
scholars are often wrong and are allowed
21:38
to be wrong
21:39
oftentimes they revise their opinions
21:41
over time and oftentimes that's in
21:44
response to other scholars disagreeing
21:46
with them
21:47
an incorrect idea can frequently be the
21:49
catalyst for a better idea
21:51
so whatever amount you put your trust in
21:54
snorri will ultimately have to be up to
21:57
you but the key takeaway is that it is
22:00
fundamentally okay to disagree with
22:02
snorri if you feel like there is
22:04
something he may be missing he's only
22:06
human
22:07
in my case although god's traversing the
22:09
sky is hardly a novel concept
22:12
i lean a little more toward the idea
22:14
that the original pagan model of the
22:15
cosmos may have been a lot flatter than
22:17
snorri sometimes makes it out to be
22:20
for a little bit of archaeological
22:22
evidence regarding the shape of the
22:23
universe in the norse pagan mind we can
22:25
turn to the way farms and villages were
22:27
designed in ancient north scandinavia
22:29
christopher abram notes that farms in
22:31
pagan sweden and norway were centered
22:33
around a special protective tree in the
22:36
middle of an enclosure that immediately
22:38
surrounded a farmhouse
22:40
this seems to mirror descriptions we get
22:42
from snorri that there is a beautiful
22:44
hall that stands under uggdrazel and
22:46
that myth garder is protected by an
22:48
enormous enclosure made from the
22:50
eyelashes of the primordial yotun emir
22:54
abram like many others suggests this as
22:56
evidence for the idea that the myth of
22:58
the world tree originated outside of
23:00
iceland
23:01
matthias nordvig agrees in his chapter
23:04
on cosmology in volume three of
23:05
pre-christian religions of the north he
23:07
notes that the design of myth garther
23:09
described by snorri is also reminiscent
23:11
of hill forts and ring forts dated
23:13
between 200 and 650 a.d
23:16
that feature circular enclosures with a
23:18
building next to a large tree or next to
23:21
a large post which probably represents a
23:22
tree in the center
23:24
and in fact even adam of bremen who
23:26
provided a secondhand account of a pagan
23:28
temple at uppsala sweden in the 11th
23:30
century described the temple next to a
23:33
prominent tree all surrounded by an
23:35
enclosure
23:36
and there's also one other feature of
23:38
the area surrounding the sacred tree in
23:40
all of these places the mythology the
23:42
farms the forts and the temples namely a
23:44
well and perhaps in the mythology more
23:47
than one well always lying beneath the
23:49
world tree which again doesn't have to
23:51
mean underground
23:53
these wells are the source of wisdom and
23:55
fate and seem to be a popular place for
23:58
gods to deposit body parts
24:00
but we'll save wells and fate for next
24:02
time on norse mythology the unofficial
24:04
guide
24:05
[Music]
24:08
sources for this episode include
24:10
cosmology by matthias nordvig in
24:12
pre-christian religions of the north
24:14
volume 3 2020 dictionary of northern
24:16
mythology by rudolph zmac 2010 dream of
24:19
the rood translated by richard hamer
24:21
1970 evergreen ash ecology and
24:23
catastrophe and old norse myth in
24:25
literature by christopher abram 2019
24:28
norse mythology a guide to the gods
24:30
heroes rituals and beliefs by john
24:32
lindau 2001 sacred tree in holy grove by
24:35
joseph s hopkins at mimisbrunner.info
24:37
2020. the forest in old high german
24:39
literature by michael j swisher in
24:41
amsterdam by trigger to elton
24:43
germanistic 1988 the poetic edda
24:46
translated by caroline larrington 2014
24:48
and the prose edda translated by anthony
24:50
falks 1995.
24:52
[Music]